270:
58:(WHO) decided to spread vaccines worldwide. This urges researchers to design storage for vaccines without losing its potency. Since then, the production of vaccines has spiked, and various kinds of vaccines have their handling practices. WHO has set standards to ensure cold chain and has different types of storage, including refrigerators, freezers, cold boxes, and vaccine carriers. Different types of thermometers are also used because a slight temperature change could result in loss of potency. The storage are necessary to improve vaccine shelf life and transport vaccine worldwide.
446:(DDL) as their temperature monitoring device. This continuous temperature monitoring device uses a buffered temperature probe, the most accurate way to measure actual vaccine temperature. The DDL also includes details on how long a unit has been operating outside the temperature range and record all temperatures at present intervals. Temperature probes are also designed to prevent false readings by protecting the thermometer from sudden temperature changes when opening a refrigerator door.
238:
17:
246:
countries, electric refrigerators (compression units) are wildly used as there is an electricity supply for at least 8 hours per day. If the country doesn't have sufficient electricity, the solar energy refrigerator (photovoltaic units) or bottled gas/kerosene (absorption units) is also reliable. It is important to keep the desired temperature in any of the models in any circumstances and should not be changed.
113:. Dr. Rafe Henderson, the first director of EPI, designed a plan to deliver temperature-sensitive vaccines across dozens of countries safely. It was an important step to ensure that the vaccines were maintained in their determined conditions and guides towards the development of the cold chain. The WHO supported countries worldwide to ensure the
295:
Water packs are flat and leak-proof plastic containers used in the interiors of cold boxes and vaccine carriers. These containers are set to the appropriate temperature depending on the type of vaccine being transported. The temperature could range from -10° to +24 °C and does not last that long
286:
Vaccine carriers are similar to cold boxes, but they are smaller and easier to carry around. This small carrier is also packed with ice packs to keep the vaccine at a low temperature. However, they do not stay cold for as long as cold boxes, at most 36–48 hours. It is generally used for transporting
168:
The cold chain has been one of the most reliable supply chains for transporting vaccines around the globe. Since vaccines are sensitive biological products, proper storage and handling of vaccines are important to ensure the potency of vaccines is not lost. Vaccines must be continuously monitored as
155:
to be taken out of the cold chain for a limited period of time, but CTC is still in the development process and will not be available for all vaccines for many years. Nowadays, engineers is still thinking of a way to eliminate refrigeration at +2 to +8C from the entire supply chain for all vaccines.
277:
Cold boxes are typically used to carry vaccines around the area. It is a self-supporting container with insulation and ice-packs surrounding the interior to keep vaccines at low temperatures. Unlike the refrigerator, the cold box has limited time to maintain temperatures below +10 °C, normally
254:
Freezers act the same way as refrigerators but for extreme temperatures. Its minimum temperature depends on the manufacture. Typically this storage is to store frozen vaccines and maintained temperature between -80 and -15C. Health facilities use purpose-built or pharmaceutical-grade units and vary
172:
The majority of vaccines required storage temperature of +35° to +46 °F (+2° to +8 °C) and must not be exposed to freezing temperature. Temperature too cold can result in an irreversible reaction that reduces vaccines potency and loss in adjuvant effect. Certain vaccines contain adjuvants
316:
plays a crucial part in maintaining the potency of vaccines. Although the risk of storage cooler malfunction is low, it is better to check than the need to replace vaccines wasted due to the loss of potency. Temperature monitoring needs to take place in both storage units and transport units. The
214:
compartment of this type is not recommended to store vaccines, and vaccines should be stored centrally inside the refrigerator. Many combination units cool the refrigerator using air from the freezer, resulting in different temperature zones inside the fridge. Placing vaccines near the cold air
215:
output from the freezer could cause too low temperature, and placing it at the very bottom could cause too high temperature. It is important not to place vaccines near the storage unit doors because it affects the temperature and exposes vaccines to light, reducing potency for some vaccines.
245:
Refrigerators are the most common type of storage in health facilities as they can hold many vaccines in one single unit. This storage will help temperature-sensitive vaccines to withstand their components, and the surrounding area will always remain between +2° and +8 °C. In developed
194:
Health facilities use storage called purpose-built units (also referred to pharmaceutical-grade units). These refrigerators or freezers are specifically designed for the storage of biologics, including vaccines. These units differ from standard household-grade units since it has
304:
Foam pads are used to cover the lid of cold boxes and vaccine carriers, protecting the vaccine vials from damage during transportation and external heat. It is just a soft sponge that ensures the vials stay in place and prolong the desired temperature inside the containers.
324:
Every vaccine storage unit must have a temperature monitoring device. There are many different thermometers, including standard fluid-filled, min-max, and continuous temperature monitoring devices. Each type of thermometer has its advantages and disadvantage.
181:
when exposed to freezing temperatures. Temperature too hot could also result in wanted viruses permanently degrading and losing potency. However, the effects are usually smaller, gradual, and predictable than from freezing temperatures. Visible signs of
207:, or resistance temperature detector), and fan-forced air circulation to promote uniform temperature around the unit. These storage are usually a stand-alone refrigerator or freezers because they perform better at keeping the temperature constant.
852:
Due to the abundant number of vaccines, pharmaceutics combines two or more vaccines to save more time. These types of vaccines might change in storage temperature recommendation due to the additional stability of each vaccine.
151:'. The current system of vaccine cold chain still continues for delivering particular vaccines. WHO has made improvements by introducing the "controlled temperature chain" (CTC), which is an innovative approach allowing the
261:, a manufacturer of frozen desserts, had previously created equipment to preserve its products. This equipment was subsequently utilized by developers of the COVID-19 vaccine for transportation and storage of the vaccine.
454:
The breakthrough of vaccines has changed the health industry, and numerous vaccines are still being developed nowadays. Each type of vaccine has its standard to keep wanted components intact.
1280:
Gazmararian JA, Oster NV, Green DC, Schuessler L, Howell K, Davis J, et al. (November 2002). "Vaccine storage practices in primary care physician offices: assessment and intervention".
81:
has been one of the deadliest diseases known, the World Health
Organization (WHO) prepared to launch a campaign to spread the vaccines and end smallpox in 1966. It was not until 1974 where
156:
With the initiatives of reducing temperature sensitivity of vaccines and regulation permits, it could eliminate the need for refrigeration in the supply chain. It will be suitable for an
1936:
1647:
317:
refrigerator should maintain a temperature between 2° and 8 °C (36° and 46 °F). Freezers should maintain a temperature between -50° and -15 °C (-58° and +5 °F).
2243:
3337:
1580:
47:, chickenpox, shingles and one of the measles, mumps, and rubella II vaccines, which are transported between −25 °C and −15 °C. Some vaccines, such as the
1315:
2485:
2374:
278:
48–96 hours. It comes in many different types and shapes, and this storage is very useful for the transportation of vaccines in or out of the health facility.
2525:
2520:
2009:
2287:
1604:
2917:
2535:
3388:
3316:
1259:
1119:
2922:
127:
deaths were prevented, and millions of the target diseases have been prevented. There has been a huge milestone in the vaccine industry as
2954:
2637:
2490:
1073:
3364:
2706:
2676:
2309:
3437:
2776:
571:
one of the most heat-stable vaccines (resistance for months at 20° -25 °C and weeks at 37 °C), but also freeze sensitive.
1433:
3343:
2318:
1937:"Engerix B 20 micrograms/1 ml Suspension for injection in pre-filled syringe - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) - (emc)"
2927:
143:
storage either at +2° to +8 °C or +20° to +25 °C. This urge EPI to create a strategy to encompasses both vaccines and
2964:
2932:
2761:
2711:
40:
31:
storage and handling practices from their manufacture to the administration in people. The general standard is the 2–8 °C
3022:
2632:
576:
269:
2820:
2530:
1765:
1741:
1690:
1629:
1839:
36:
223:
WHO has set standards to ensure the cold chain types of equipment can sustain different vaccines in health facilities.
3447:
3405:
1251:
Immunisation keep it cool: the vaccine cold chain: guidelines for immunisation providers on maintaining the cold chain
147:
to be able to sustain their components without the need of storage. The term 'cold chain' has now been replaced with '
1375:
2087:
Sokhey J, Gupta CK, Sharma B, Singh H (February 1988). "Stability of oral polio vaccine at different temperatures".
2942:
2384:
2367:
1254:. Australia, Immunise Australia Program (2nd ed.). Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care.
321:
are useful to monitor the temperature by placing at the storage unit's central location, adjacent to the vaccines.
2992:
930:
178:
157:
82:
55:
680:
Not freeze sensitive as most of the vaccines need to be stored frozen. Have good stability at room temperature.
594:
Very stable. They are heat resistant and do not affect overall shelf life, but are freeze and light sensitive.
2947:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2122:
3393:
3326:
3307:
3103:
3075:
3037:
3032:
3012:
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443:
89:
available to every child worldwide by 1990. Immunization of six illnesses was being transported, including
3442:
3374:
3303:
2302:
2146:
1887:
210:
A Household-grade refrigerator can also be an acceptable alternative to purpose-built units. However, the
658:
Moderately stable. Potency is retained at high temperature and also can be stored frozen at -20 °C.
3369:
3203:
3198:
2654:
2600:
2510:
663:
186:
after exposure to undesirable temperature are not necessary to result in a decrease of vaccine potency.
1504:
1109:
3252:
3193:
2984:
2627:
2505:
2456:
2423:
2357:
1691:"OLCreate: HEAT_IM_ET_1.0 Immunization Module: The Cold Chain: 6.2.2 Cold boxes and vaccine carriers"
548:
relatively heat stable (resistance to 25° - 37 °C for several months), but are freeze sensitive
232:
2062:
3175:
3141:
3027:
2793:
2788:
2739:
2570:
2438:
2410:
2362:
3208:
3042:
2783:
2749:
2734:
2610:
2580:
2500:
2418:
1984:
2267:
1960:
3432:
3331:
3298:
3277:
3131:
2972:
2862:
2756:
2617:
2442:
2405:
2295:
2104:
1357:
1297:
1255:
1225:
1171:
1115:
829:
599:
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3257:
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3098:
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2096:
1475:
1289:
1215:
1161:
1153:
1081:
508:
74:
48:
44:
1350:
World Health
Statistics Quarterly. Rapport Trimestriel de Statistiques Sanitaires Mondiales
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2649:
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2434:
2430:
2219:
1559:
785:
763:
641:
483:
183:
1789:
1534:
258:
85:
first introduced the
Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI). The main goal was to make
16:
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3126:
3017:
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2857:
2683:
2622:
1166:
1141:
1047:
1026:
741:
353:
Thermometers encased in biosafe liquids can reflect vaccine temperature more accurately
237:
196:
98:
77:. During this time, vaccine technology was available and offered for protection. Since
2038:
1864:"Cholera Vaccine (Cholera Vaccine): Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Interactions, Warning"
1666:
1293:
802:
Very heat stable and resistant to temperature up to 55 °C, but freeze sensitive.
3426:
3282:
3267:
3237:
3232:
3087:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2744:
2590:
2389:
2100:
702:
625:
123:
The cold chain has been implemented for years. After EPI was initiated, over 700,000
2039:"Storage and Handling for M-M-R®II (Measles, Mumps, and Rubella Virus Vaccine Live)"
3359:
3002:
2897:
2830:
2771:
2595:
2451:
2342:
2322:
1815:"Digital Data Loggers (DDL): Recommended by CDC for Vaccine Storage & Handling"
1535:"Notice to Readers: Guidelines for Maintaining and Managing the Vaccine Cold Chain"
1011:
1006:
1001:
807:
204:
148:
140:
90:
86:
1863:
1814:
1220:
1203:
697:
Some of the vaccines are not freeze sensitive and appear to be relatively stable.
1912:
3146:
3136:
2997:
2803:
2798:
2716:
2691:
2659:
2585:
2447:
2338:
2330:
1469:
1157:
1021:
1016:
954:
885:
553:
530:
318:
313:
51:, require a cooler temperature between −80 °C and −60 °C for storage.
1766:"OLCreate: HEAT_IM_ET_1.0 Immunization Module: The Cold Chain: 6.2.4 Foam pads"
1742:"OLCreate: HEAT_IM_ET_1.0 Immunization Module: The Cold Chain: 6.2.3 Ice-packs"
1630:"Why Dippin' Dots might have a place in the COVID-19 vaccine distribution plan"
169:
each has different reactivity to low temperature, high temperature, and light.
3272:
3247:
2937:
2887:
1405:
1249:
996:
616:
Can be stable for several weeks at room temperature. But are freeze sensitive
200:
144:
117:
94:
32:
273:
Cold chain being maintained using ice box while transporting COVID-19 vaccine
3321:
2892:
2765:
2334:
2147:"Storage and Handling for Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis Vaccines | CDC"
174:
136:
128:
1345:
1301:
1229:
1175:
2108:
1361:
3163:
3156:
3151:
3121:
2877:
2813:
2808:
991:
78:
70:
2268:"Storage for RECOMBIVAX HB® [Hepatitis B Vaccine (Recombinant)]"
1479:
329:
Table 1. Comparison of thermometers used to monitor vaccine temperature
35:
for vaccine storage and transportation. This is used for all current US
2882:
2644:
2326:
986:
846:
Not freeze sensitive. but relatively unstable at elevated. temperature
211:
152:
132:
124:
114:
106:
102:
66:
28:
1913:"VAQTA Paediatric - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) - (emc)"
974:
Not freeze sensitive and relatively stable in the lyophilized state.
3185:
3170:
2461:
491:
2244:"Vaccine Accidentally Left Out of the Refrigerator? 5 Steps to Take"
1888:"Administration Overview for Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine | CDC"
719:
Can be frozen and stable at -20 °C. Relatively heat sensitive.
69:
storage was first developed in the early 1960s, when the infectious
1204:"The origins of the vaccine cold chain and a glimpse of the future"
780:
Can be stored at -20 °C and more stable than measles vaccines
3180:
3065:
2671:
2605:
2220:"Storage and Handling for VARIVAX® (Varicella Virus Vaccine Live)"
2171:
268:
236:
110:
857:
Table 3. Combination vaccines storage temperature recommendation
2480:
296:
before coming back to the same temperature as the surroundings.
2291:
1790:"Digital Data Loggers – California Vaccines for Children (VFC)"
1648:"Company Distributed COVD Vaccines with Temperature Monitoring"
199:-based temperature control with a digital temperature sensor (
1961:"Fendrix - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) - (emc)"
1840:"Temperature Probes: The Benefits of a Solid Thermal Ballast"
1505:"ACIP Storage and Handling Guidelines for Immunization | CDC"
418:
Continuous 24-hour readings of temperature range and duration
2195:
1471:
Immunization in practice: a practical guide for health staff
1434:"Current projects - norms and Standards for Pharmaceuticals"
1111:
Immunization in
Practice: A Practical Guide for Health Staff
363:
No information on the duration of out specification exposure
1581:"What You Need to Know to Store Vaccines in Refrigerators"
758:
very stable in lyophilized form and not freeze sensitive
2123:"Rabies vaccine found effective even after warm storage"
525:
Not freeze sensitive but unstable when exposure to heat
397:
No information on duration of out specification exposure
241:
Stand alone refrigerator is being used to store vaccines
1210:. Building Next Generation Immunization Supply Chains.
636:
Can be damaged by freezing and have short shelf life.
458:
Table 2. Vaccine storage temperature recommendations
2033:
2031:
2029:
1049:
Distribuição de vacinas para o interior de São Paulo
424:
alert capability to notify of temperature excursions
3352:
3291:
3223:
3114:
3086:
3053:
2727:
2558:
2551:
2470:
2398:
2350:
2063:"Meningococcal Vaccines Storage and Handling | CDC"
135:. Therefore, it has a direct impact on the cost of
3338:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
1344:Keja K, Chan C, Hayden G, Henderson RH (1988).
160:as less handling of vaccines needs to be done.
1074:"Vaccine Storage and Handling Resources | CDC"
2303:
1046:Governo do Estado de São Paulo (2021-01-18),
736:Freeze sensitive but relatively heat stable.
8:
949:Freeze sensitive but relatively heat stable
925:Freeze sensitive but relatively heat stable
2555:
2310:
2296:
2288:
2010:"Flu Vaccine Storage - SD Dept. of Health"
327:
287:from a health facility to outreach sites.
1219:
1165:
190:Vaccine storage and handling requirements
1985:"HPV Vaccine Storage and Handling | CDC"
1135:
1133:
1131:
1068:
1066:
1064:
855:
456:
421:Can be recalibrated at regular intervals
15:
1282:American Journal of Preventive Medicine
1103:
1101:
1099:
1038:
937:Recombinant protein, inactivated virus
913:Purified protein, Inactivated bacteria
372:Inexpensive models might perform poorly
43:. Exceptions include some vaccines for
1529:
1527:
1525:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1428:
1426:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1243:
1241:
1239:
434:Requires most training and maintenance
366:No information on min/max temperatures
131:create more vaccines for new types of
1712:
1710:
1685:
1683:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1316:"Essential Programme on Immunization"
1275:
1273:
1271:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1185:
39:(FDA)-licensed human vaccines and in
7:
1668:USAID carriers for COVID-19 vaccines
1346:"Expanded programme on immunization"
1248:Nayda C, Miller NC, Kempe A (2001).
1114:. World Health Organization. 2015.
3365:Eradication of infectious diseases
3122:Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
1468:World Health Organization (2015).
14:
2955:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
1628:Breen, Kerry (18 December 2020).
3344:Alternative vaccination schedule
2319:Artificial induction of immunity
2172:"Minnesota Department of Health"
1605:"Vaccine Storage Solutions - US"
1202:Lloyd J, Cheyne J (April 2017).
824:Not freeze and light sensitive
1080:. 29 March 2021. Archived from
164:Recommended storage temperature
41:low and middle-income countries
3176:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
1718:"Cold chain technical support"
1665:Ukraine, UNICEF (2021-10-25),
1142:"Disrupting vaccine logistics"
886:Diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis
1:
2712:Group B streptococcal disease
2531:Vaccines for Children Program
1474:. World Health Organization.
1294:10.1016/s0749-3797(02)00512-3
1221:10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.11.097
588:Al hydroxylphosphate sulfate
350:Inexpensive and simple to use
2101:10.1016/0264-410x(88)90006-0
1558:Navy Medicine (2021-01-08),
1376:"Dr. Ralph "Rafe" Henderson"
394:Less accurate (+/-1 °C)
360:Less accurate (+/-1 °C)
37:Food and Drug Administration
955:Measles, mumps, and rubella
812:Live attenuated baacterium
3464:
1410:Global Cold Chain Alliance
843:-50 °C - -15 °C
746:Inactivated virus (whole)
724:Inactivated virus (whole)
604:Inactivated (split/whole)
582:Recombinant protein (VLP)
442:Health facilities use the
387:Monitors temperature range
230:
3383:
2196:"SOM - State of Michigan"
1158:10.1093/inthealth/ihab010
884:
701:
662:
598:
56:World Health Organization
3438:Computer storage systems
2707:Clostridioides difficile
877:Recommended temperature
475:Recommended temperature
219:Types of vaccine storage
2965:Tick-borne encephalitis
1140:James ER (April 2021).
407:Continuous temperature
139:and different kinds of
20:Vaccine in cold storage
3375:List of vaccine topics
2375:Mathematical modelling
2176:www.health.state.mn.us
1406:"About the Cold Chain"
962:Live attenuated virus
834:Live attenuated virus
768:Live attenuated virus
707:Live attenuated virus
688:Liquid or Lyophilized
646:Live attenuated virus
621:Live attenuated virus
400:Cannot be recalibrated
369:Cannot be recalibrated
345:Standard fluid-filled
309:Temperature monitoring
274:
242:
27:relates to the proper
21:
3370:Vaccinate Your Family
2821:Japanese encephalitis
488:Inactivated bacteria
272:
240:
19:
3253:John Franklin Enders
1965:www.medicines.org.uk
1941:www.medicines.org.uk
1917:www.medicines.org.uk
1609:www.thermofisher.com
1146:International Health
749:Usually lyophilized
577:Human papillomavirus
559:Recombinant protein
494:+/- buffer granules
233:Vaccine refrigerator
2439:Virus-like particle
2363:Vaccine ingredients
1561:210108-N-DO281-1223
858:
522:-90° - -60 °C
459:
444:digital data logger
330:
158:undeveloped country
3448:Cooling technology
3410:Never to phase III
3209:Hexavalent vaccine
3023:Epstein–Barr virus
2918:Oxford–AstraZeneca
2611:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
1844:blog.helmerinc.com
1819:blog.smartsense.co
1108:"The cold chain".
856:
536:Inactivated virus
457:
409:monitoring device
328:
275:
243:
22:
3420:
3419:
3332:Vaccines and SIDS
3219:
3218:
2993:Hepatitis A and B
2969:Varicella zoster
2431:Subunit/component
2272:MerckVaccines.com
2224:MerckVaccines.com
2043:MerckVaccines.com
1261:978-0-642-73524-9
1214:(17): 2115–2120.
1121:978-92-4-154909-7
978:
977:
971:-50° - 8 °C
931:Hepatitis A and B
905:Freeze sensitive
893:Purified protein
850:
849:
790:Purified protein
777:-50° - 8 °C
716:-20° - 8 °C
655:-50° - 8 °C
503:Freeze sensitive
440:
439:
334:Thermometer Type
3455:
3311:MMR autism fraud
3258:Maurice Hilleman
3243:Hilary Koprowski
2556:
2312:
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2240:
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2200:www.michigan.gov
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1654:. 15 April 2024.
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1391:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1341:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1277:
1266:
1265:
1245:
1234:
1233:
1223:
1199:
1180:
1179:
1169:
1137:
1126:
1125:
1105:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1084:on 19 March 2021
1070:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1043:
859:
460:
331:
282:Vaccine carriers
184:physical changes
49:COVID-19 vaccine
3463:
3462:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3416:
3415:
3400:Clinical trials
3379:
3348:
3287:
3263:Stanley Plotkin
3225:
3215:
3127:Cancer vaccines
3110:
3104:Schistosomiasis
3082:
3076:Trypanosomiasis
3049:
3013:Cytomegalovirus
2923:Pfizer–BioNTech
2723:
2547:
2496:Vaccine wastage
2466:
2394:
2346:
2316:
2286:
2285:
2276:
2274:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2252:
2250:
2242:
2241:
2237:
2228:
2226:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2204:
2202:
2194:
2193:
2189:
2180:
2178:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2156:
2154:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2131:
2129:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2072:
2070:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2045:
2037:
2036:
2027:
2018:
2016:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1994:
1992:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1969:
1967:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1945:
1943:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1921:
1919:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1897:
1895:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1872:
1870:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1848:
1846:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1823:
1821:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1798:
1796:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1774:
1772:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1750:
1748:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1726:
1724:
1716:
1715:
1708:
1699:
1697:
1689:
1688:
1681:
1673:
1671:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1613:
1611:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1589:
1587:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1566:
1564:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1543:
1541:
1533:
1532:
1523:
1514:
1512:
1503:
1502:
1487:
1467:
1466:
1451:
1442:
1440:
1432:
1431:
1424:
1415:
1413:
1404:
1403:
1394:
1385:
1383:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1343:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1322:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1279:
1278:
1269:
1262:
1247:
1246:
1237:
1201:
1200:
1183:
1139:
1138:
1129:
1122:
1107:
1106:
1097:
1087:
1085:
1072:
1071:
1062:
1054:
1052:
1045:
1044:
1040:
1035:
983:
946:2° - 8 °C
943:Aluminum based
922:2° - 8 °C
919:Aluminum based
902:2° - 8 °C
899:Aluminum based
821:2° - 8 °C
799:2° - 8 °C
796:Aluminum based
755:2° - 8 °C
733:2° - 8 °C
694:2° - 8 °C
677:2° - 8 °C
633:2° - 8 °C
613:2° - 8 °C
591:2° - 8 °C
568:2° - 8 °C
545:2° - 8 °C
500:2° - 8 °C
452:
311:
302:
293:
284:
267:
252:
235:
229:
221:
192:
166:
120:is maintained.
64:
25:Vaccine storage
12:
11:
5:
3461:
3459:
3451:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3425:
3424:
3418:
3417:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3408:
3397:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3301:
3295:
3293:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3278:Katalin Karikó
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3229:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3154:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3124:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3092:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3033:Herpes simplex
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2987:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2933:Sinopharm BIBP
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2883:Bharat Biotech
2880:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2848:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2742:
2737:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2686:
2681:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2562:
2560:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2511:Vaccine injury
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2474:
2472:
2471:Administration
2468:
2467:
2465:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2445:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2421:
2413:
2408:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2360:
2354:
2352:
2348:
2347:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2307:
2300:
2292:
2284:
2283:
2259:
2235:
2211:
2187:
2163:
2138:
2114:
2079:
2054:
2025:
2001:
1976:
1952:
1928:
1904:
1879:
1855:
1830:
1805:
1781:
1757:
1733:
1722:www.unicef.org
1706:
1679:
1657:
1652:Global Sensors
1639:
1620:
1596:
1572:
1550:
1521:
1485:
1449:
1422:
1392:
1367:
1331:
1307:
1288:(4): 246–253.
1267:
1260:
1235:
1181:
1152:(3): 211–214.
1127:
1120:
1095:
1060:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1027:Vaccine cooler
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
982:
979:
976:
975:
972:
969:
966:
963:
960:
957:
951:
950:
947:
944:
941:
938:
935:
933:
927:
926:
923:
920:
917:
914:
911:
907:
906:
903:
900:
897:
894:
891:
888:
882:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
848:
847:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
826:
825:
822:
819:
816:
813:
810:
804:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
788:
786:Tetanus toxoid
782:
781:
778:
775:
772:
769:
766:
760:
759:
756:
753:
750:
747:
744:
738:
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
721:
720:
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
699:
698:
695:
692:
689:
686:
682:
681:
678:
675:
672:
669:
666:
660:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
644:
638:
637:
634:
631:
628:
622:
618:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
596:
595:
592:
589:
586:
583:
580:
573:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
550:
549:
546:
543:
542:Usually AlOH3
540:
537:
534:
527:
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
511:
505:
504:
501:
498:
495:
489:
486:
480:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
451:
448:
438:
437:
436:
435:
432:
431:Most expensive
427:
426:
425:
422:
419:
416:
411:
404:
403:
402:
401:
398:
395:
390:
389:
388:
385:
380:
376:
375:
374:
373:
370:
367:
364:
361:
356:
355:
354:
351:
346:
342:
341:
340:Disadvantages
338:
335:
310:
307:
301:
298:
292:
289:
283:
280:
266:
263:
251:
248:
231:Main article:
228:
225:
220:
217:
197:microprocessor
191:
188:
165:
162:
137:transportation
63:
60:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3460:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3443:Public health
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3382:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3290:
3284:
3283:Drew Weissman
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3268:H. Fred Clark
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3238:Louis Pasteur
3236:
3234:
3233:Edward Jenner
3231:
3230:
3228:
3222:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3204:DTwP-HepB-Hib
3202:
3200:
3199:DTaP-IPV-HepB
3197:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3190:combination:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3089:
3088:Helminthiasis
3085:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3052:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2989:combination:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2692:DPT/DTwP/DTaP
2690:
2689:
2688:combination:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2601:Meningococcus
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2591:Leptospirosis
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2550:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2526:Vaccine court
2524:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2481:GAVI Alliance
2479:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2308:
2306:
2301:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2290:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2260:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2236:
2225:
2221:
2215:
2212:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2164:
2152:
2148:
2142:
2139:
2128:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2080:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2055:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2015:
2011:
2005:
2002:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1977:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1905:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1845:
1841:
1838:Schroeder M.
1834:
1831:
1820:
1816:
1809:
1806:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1782:
1771:
1767:
1761:
1758:
1747:
1743:
1737:
1734:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1684:
1680:
1670:
1669:
1661:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1621:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1563:
1562:
1554:
1551:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1381:
1377:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1321:
1317:
1311:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1051:
1050:
1042:
1039:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1012:Refrigerators
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
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868:Vaccine type
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865:General name
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664:Meningococcal
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227:Refrigerators
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54:In 1996, the
52:
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38:
34:
30:
26:
18:
3360:Epidemiology
3336:
3308:
3194:DTaP-IPV/Hib
2985:Yellow fever
2898:EpiVacCorona
2655:Tuberculosis
2628:Pneumococcal
2596:Lyme disease
2424:Heterologous
2379:
2323:Immunization
2275:. Retrieved
2271:
2262:
2251:. Retrieved
2247:
2238:
2227:. Retrieved
2223:
2214:
2203:. Retrieved
2199:
2190:
2179:. Retrieved
2175:
2166:
2155:. Retrieved
2153:. 2020-01-23
2150:
2141:
2130:. Retrieved
2126:
2117:
2095:(1): 12–13.
2092:
2088:
2082:
2071:. Retrieved
2069:. 2021-10-21
2066:
2057:
2046:. Retrieved
2042:
2017:. Retrieved
2013:
2004:
1993:. Retrieved
1991:. 2021-04-06
1988:
1979:
1968:. Retrieved
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1955:
1944:. Retrieved
1940:
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1920:. Retrieved
1916:
1907:
1896:. Retrieved
1894:. 2021-11-17
1891:
1882:
1871:. Retrieved
1867:
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1847:. Retrieved
1843:
1833:
1822:. Retrieved
1818:
1813:SmartSense.
1808:
1797:. Retrieved
1793:
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1773:. Retrieved
1770:www.open.edu
1769:
1760:
1749:. Retrieved
1746:www.open.edu
1745:
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1725:. Retrieved
1721:
1698:. Retrieved
1695:www.open.edu
1694:
1672:, retrieved
1667:
1660:
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1633:
1623:
1612:. Retrieved
1608:
1599:
1588:. Retrieved
1584:
1575:
1565:, retrieved
1560:
1553:
1542:. Retrieved
1538:
1513:. Retrieved
1511:. 2021-04-21
1508:
1480:10665/193412
1470:
1441:. Retrieved
1437:
1414:. Retrieved
1412:. 2018-02-14
1409:
1384:. Retrieved
1382:. 2019-01-17
1379:
1370:
1356:(2): 59–63.
1353:
1349:
1323:. Retrieved
1319:
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1281:
1250:
1211:
1207:
1149:
1145:
1110:
1086:. Retrieved
1082:the original
1077:
1053:, retrieved
1048:
1041:
1007:Immunization
1002:Supply chain
965:Lyophilized
880:Description
871:Formulation
851:
837:Lyophilized
815:Lyophilized
808:Tuberculosis
771:Lyophilized
671:Lyophilized
649:Lyophilized
478:Description
469:Formulation
453:
450:Applications
441:
408:
323:
319:Thermometers
312:
303:
294:
285:
276:
259:Dippin' Dots
257:
253:
244:
222:
209:
205:thermocouple
193:
177:) that will
171:
167:
149:supply chain
141:refrigerator
122:
91:tuberculosis
87:immunization
65:
53:
24:
23:
3396:from market
3292:Controversy
3226:researchers
3142:Hepatitis B
3028:Hepatitis C
2973:Chicken pox
2799:Hepatitis E
2794:Hepatitis B
2789:Hepatitis A
2740:Chikungunya
2717:Shigellosis
2571:Brucellosis
2457:Therapeutic
2411:Inactivated
2351:Development
2339:Inoculation
2331:Vaccination
2151:www.cdc.gov
2127:WSU Insider
2067:www.cdc.gov
1989:www.cdc.gov
1892:www.cdc.gov
1539:www.cdc.gov
1509:www.cdc.gov
1438:www.who.int
1380:www.cdc.gov
1320:www.who.int
1078:www.cdc.gov
1022:Thermometer
1017:Temperature
691:AlOH3/None
626:lyophilized
554:Hepatitis B
531:Hepatitis A
384:Inexpensive
337:Advantages
314:Temperature
291:Water packs
179:precipitate
3427:Categories
3327:Thiomersal
3273:Paul Offit
3248:Jonas Salk
3224:Inventors/
3095:research:
3072:research:
3009:research:
2938:Skycovione
2928:Sanofi–GSK
2873:SARS-CoV-2
2784:Hantavirus
2750:rVSV-ZEBOV
2735:Adenovirus
2703:research:
2581:Diphtheria
2419:Attenuated
2277:2021-11-19
2253:2021-11-19
2229:2021-11-19
2205:2021-11-19
2181:2021-11-19
2157:2021-11-19
2132:2021-11-19
2073:2021-11-19
2048:2021-11-19
2019:2021-11-19
2014:doh.sd.gov
1995:2021-11-19
1970:2021-11-19
1946:2021-11-19
1922:2021-11-19
1898:2021-11-19
1873:2021-11-19
1849:2021-11-18
1824:2021-11-18
1799:2021-11-18
1775:2021-11-10
1751:2021-11-10
1727:2021-11-10
1700:2021-11-10
1674:2021-11-19
1614:2021-11-19
1590:2021-11-10
1567:2021-11-19
1544:2021-11-18
1515:2021-11-18
1443:2021-11-10
1416:2021-11-10
1386:2021-11-10
1325:2021-11-10
1055:2021-11-19
1033:References
997:Cold chain
624:Liquid or
265:Cold boxes
201:thermistor
129:scientists
118:cold chain
95:diphtheria
33:cold chain
3406:Phase III
3394:Withdrawn
3322:Pox party
3132:ALVAC-CEA
3054:Protozoan
2943:Sputnik V
2893:CoronaVac
2863:Rotavirus
2766:Pandemrix
2618:Pertussis
2559:Bacterial
2443:Synthetic
2406:Conjugate
2358:Adjuvants
2335:Infection
1634:TODAY.com
874:Adjuvant
830:Varicella
600:Influenza
472:Adjuvent
463:Vaccines
300:Foam pads
255:in size.
145:medicines
99:pertussis
75:outbreaks
3433:Vaccines
3164:Prostvac
3157:Gardasil
3152:Cervarix
3099:Hookworm
2978:Shingles
2960:Smallpox
2878:Corbevax
2814:Gardasil
2809:Cervarix
2552:Vaccines
2506:Schedule
2477:Global:
2385:Timeline
2327:Vaccines
1794:eziz.org
1302:12406478
1230:28364918
1176:33709112
992:Medicine
981:See also
862:Vaccine
509:COVID-19
379:Min-max
250:Freezers
175:aluminum
133:diseases
79:smallpox
73:disease
71:smallpox
45:smallpox
3353:Related
3299:General
3061:Malaria
2948:Valneva
2913:Novavax
2908:Moderna
2903:Janssen
2888:CanSino
2868:Rubella
2826:Measles
2697:Td/Tdap
2667:Typhoid
2650:Tetanus
2645:Q fever
2576:Cholera
2566:Anthrax
2435:Peptide
2399:Classes
2380:Storage
2248:Default
2109:3354252
2089:Vaccine
1585:Default
1362:3176515
1208:Vaccine
1167:8079314
1088:2 April
987:Vaccine
940:Liquid
916:Liquid
896:Liquid
793:Liquid
764:Rubella
727:Liquid
710:Liquid
685:PS-PVC
642:Measles
607:Liquid
585:Liquid
562:Liquid
556:(HepB)
539:Liquid
516:Liquid
484:Cholera
212:freezer
153:vaccine
125:measles
115:vaccine
107:measles
103:tetanus
67:Vaccine
62:History
29:vaccine
3389:WHO-EM
3309:Lancet
3186:TA-NIC
3171:NicVAX
3018:Dengue
2858:Rabies
2684:Typhus
2623:Plague
2501:Policy
2462:Toxoid
2390:Trials
2107:
1868:RxList
1360:
1300:
1258:
1228:
1174:
1164:
1118:
742:Rabies
579:(HPV)
565:AlOH3
533:(HAV)
492:Liquid
109:, and
3317:NCVIA
3181:TA-CD
3115:Other
3066:RTS,S
2846:Sabin
2841:Polio
2836:Mumps
2745:Ebola
2728:Viral
2677:ViCPS
2672:Ty21a
2606:MeNZB
2536:VAERS
2486:NITAG
2415:Live
968:None
910:DTwP
890:DTaP
840:None
818:None
774:None
730:None
713:None
703:Polio
674:None
652:None
630:None
610:None
519:None
513:mRNA
497:None
111:polio
3043:Zika
3003:MMRV
2851:Salk
2831:Mpox
2777:LAIV
2772:H5N1
2762:H1N1
2638:PPSV
2521:ACIP
2517:US:
2491:SAGE
2452:mRNA
2368:list
2105:PMID
1358:PMID
1298:PMID
1256:ISBN
1226:PMID
1172:PMID
1116:ISBN
1090:2021
959:MMR
3304:MMR
3147:HPV
3137:BCG
3038:HIV
2998:MMR
2804:HPV
2757:Flu
2660:BCG
2633:PCV
2586:Hib
2541:VSD
2448:DNA
2343:J07
2097:doi
1476:hdl
1290:doi
1216:doi
1162:PMC
1154:doi
668:PS
83:WHO
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