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educational process is disrupted." Drug use by student-athletes, moreover, increases the risk of injury during sporting events themselves. The
Vernonia student-athletes were the leaders of the drug culture at the school; it was "self-evident" to the Court that "a drug problem largely fueled by the 'role model' effect of athletes' drug use, and particular danger to athletes, is effectively addressed by making sure that athletes do not use drugs." The students argued that a less intrusive policy would require some individualized suspicion before testing a student for drugs, but the Court observed that the Fourth Amendment's reasonableness requirement did not demand the use of the least intrusive means to achieve the government's aims. Thus, the Vernonia policy was a reasonable search under the Fourth Amendment.
488:
search was more than minimally intrusive. More recently, the Court had limited its willingness to dispense with the individualized suspicion requirement only in particularly dangerous contexts, such as prisons. Furthermore, the school district itself already had in place a discipline system based on individualized suspicion for a variety of infractions, such that adding drug testing to the mix would not be particularly onerous. All the evidence justifying the drug testing program "consisted of first- or second-hand stories of particular, identifiable students acting in ways that gave rise to reasonable suspicion of in-school drug use." If the school district had acted against these particular students, it could have avoided intruding on Acton's Fourth
Amendment rights at all.
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Court considered this a "negligible" intrusion on the subject's privacy interest. Second, the test discloses personal information concerning "the state of the subject's body and the materials he has ingested." But the school was testing only for the use of drugs, not whether the student was diabetic or pregnant. The results of the test were disclosed only to a small group of school officials and not to law enforcement. And although the
Vernonia policy required students to disclose prescription drugs the student was taking in advance, the Court was unwilling to assume that the school district would misuse the medical information disclosed to it by student-athletes. The Court thus concluded that the invasion of privacy was "not significant."
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randomly every week to provide a urine sample. The samples were collected in a manner that preserved the students' modesty. If a student's sample tested positive, the student was given the option of either undergoing counseling and submitting to six weekly drug tests or sitting out the remainder of that season as well as the following season.
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dissented because the Court's decision did not rest on the requirement of individualized suspicion and did not adequately explain why individualized suspicion was not required in this context. Historically, the Court had disapproved of blanket searches, particularly in the criminal context, where the
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Among public school students, athletes have even less of an expectation of privacy. They suit up in locker rooms before practice. They take communal showers afterward. They subject themselves to additional regulations and medical screenings to participate in school sports. "Somewhat like adults who
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Urinalysis may intrude upon a person's privacy in two ways. First, the subject is monitored while providing the actual sample. In the case of the
Vernonia policy, boys were visually monitored from behind while providing the sample, while girls were monitored aurally from outside a closed stall. The
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According to the
Supreme Court, the Fourth Amendment only protects against unreasonable searches and seizures. Although a search is presumptively reasonable if carried out under a warrant issued upon a showing of probable cause, the court has a long history of allowing leniency when "special needs"
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In response, the school district offered special classes, speakers, and presentations to the students intended to deter drug use. It brought in a specially trained dog to detect drugs, but the drug problem continued unabated. After inviting comments from the parents of the district's students, the
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The protocol of the random drug testing program the district initiated was straightforward. All student athletes would be required to submit to the program as a condition of participating in athletics. All athletes were tested at the beginning of the season, and 10% of the athletes were selected
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The Fourth
Amendment only protects against intrusions upon legitimate expectations of privacy. Central to the Court's analysis, in this case, was the fact that the "subjects of the policy are (1) children, who (2) have been committed to the temporary custody of the State as a schoolmaster." The
475:
By contrast, the schools' interest in deterring drug use among students was truly important. Drug use has a more deleterious effect on adolescents than on adults. The "effects of a drug-infested school are visited not just upon the users, but upon the entire student body and faculty, as the
463:
to the children, and have "such a portion of the power of the parent committed to his charge... as may be necessary to answer the purposes for which he was employed." Therefore, in the public school context, the reasonableness inquiry "cannot disregard the schools' custodial and tutelary
405:. Under that regimen, student-athletes were required to submit to random drug testing before being allowed to participate in sports. During the season, 10% of all athletes were selected at random for testing. The Supreme Court held that although the tests were searches under the
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outside of ordinary law enforcement needs make obtaining a warrant impractical. Such "special needs" adhere in the public school context, because administrators need to be able to maintain order within the school. The final vote was 6-3 in favor of the school.
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responsibility for children." Public schools require students to undergo vaccinations, vision, hearing, dermatological screenings, and other examinations. Thus, public school students have a lesser expectation of privacy than members of the general public.
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choose to participate in a 'closely regulated industry,' students who voluntarily participate in school athletics have reason to expect intrusions upon normal rights and privileges, including privacy."
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Skinner v. Railway Labor
Executives' Assn., 489 U.S. 602, 109 S. Ct. 1402, 103 L. Ed. 2d 639 (1989), 623, Citing Camara and T.L.O
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In the mid-1980s, officials in the school district in
Vernonia noticed a precipitous rise in drug use among the students in the
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Arnold, T. L. (1996). "Constitutionality of Random Drug
Testing of Student Athletes Makes the Cut…but Will the Athletes?".
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The Fourth
Amendment allows random drug testing of high school students involved in athletic programs.
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football and wrestling coaches noted they had witnessed injuries attributable to student drug use.
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of random drug testing regimen implemented by the local public schools in
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Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton et ux., Guardians ad Litem for Acton
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Students challenged the drug testing plan in court as a violation of
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Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System v. Southworth
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Scalia, joined by Rehnquist, Kennedy, Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer
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541:"Random, Suspicionless Drug Testing of High School Athletes"
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Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District
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United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
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United States District Court for the District of Oregon
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United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
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59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
781:West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette
1639:Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada
829:Westside Community Board of Education v. Mergens
440:rights, with the case eventually reaching the
2477:National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab
947:
655:
8:
3320:Student rights case law in the United States
3305:United States controlled substances case law
2418:Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz
749:Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow
741:Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe
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2517:Safford Unified School District v. Redding
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919:Safford Unified School District v. Redding
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2469:Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Ass'n
1074:Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Ass'n
119:Learn how and when to remove this message
3325:United States children's rights case law
2924:Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States
3300:United States Fourth Amendment case law
2614:Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders
545:Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
497:
68:"Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton"
821:Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier
773:Minersville School District v. Gobitis
429:district adopted a drug testing plan.
2536:Property of probationers and parolees
2485:Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton
2389:United States v. Montoya De Hernandez
903:Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton
837:Rosenberger v. University of Virginia
580:Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton
379:Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton
137:Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton
131:1995 United States Supreme Court case
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3330:Education in Columbia County, Oregon
2742:Seizure of premises awaiting warrant
869:Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L.
805:Island Trees School District v. Pico
57:adding citations to reliable sources
709:Abington School District v. Schempp
355:O'Connor, joined by Stevens, Souter
3130:Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents
1812:Warrants directed at third parties
149:Supreme Court of the United States
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18:Vernonia School Dist. 47J v. Acton
3290:United States Supreme Court cases
2657:County of Riverside v. McLaughlin
2445:Students, employees, and patients
2242:Breathalyzers, blood samples, DNA
1866:Exceptions to warrant requirement
1202:Dow Chemical Co. v. United States
1082:United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez
590:646 (1995) is available from:
2707:Distinguishing stops and arrests
2373:United States v. Martinez-Fuerte
2357:Almeida-Sanchez v. United States
813:Bethel School District v. Fraser
237:(9th Cir. 1994); cert. granted,
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33:
3200:Unreasonable search and seizure
2397:United States v. Flores-Montano
1793:Neutral and detached magistrate
1551:United States v. Brignoni-Ponce
44:needs additional citations for
3310:1995 in United States case law
2501:Ferguson v. City of Charleston
2426:City of Indianapolis v. Edmond
1745:Los Angeles County v. Rettelle
963:United States Fourth Amendment
520:Journal of Law & Education
1:
2796:Detention during vehicle stop
2665:Atwater v. City of Lago Vista
2590:Searches in jails and prisons
1502:District of Columbia v. Wesby
976:Scope of the Fourth Amendment
670:Rights of students under the
539:Shutler, Samantha E. (1996).
215:Verdict for defendant in the
3190:Incorporation against States
2761:Detention incident to search
2579:City of Los Angeles v. Patel
2509:Board of Education v. Earls
2167:United States v. Rabinowitz
2150:Searches incident to arrest
1302:United States v. Mendenhall
911:Board of Education v. Earls
485:Justice Sandra Day O'Connor
226:(D. Or. 1992); reversed by
3351:
2812:Rodriguez v. United States
2555:Administrative inspections
2282:Birchfield v. North Dakota
1255:Carpenter v. United States
1026:Silverman v. United States
886:to the warrant requirement
672:United States Constitution
622:Oyez (oral argument audio)
397:decision which upheld the
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3041:Wong Sun v. United States
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2571:Camara v. Municipal Court
2215:Thornton v. United States
2191:United States v. Chadwick
2183:United States v. Robinson
2159:Trupiano v. United States
2021:Coolidge v. New Hampshire
1968:Schneckloth v. Bustamonte
1893:United States v. Chadwick
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1820:Zurcher v. Stanford Daily
1801:Coolidge v. New Hampshire
1699:
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1537:
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1446:Spinelli v. United States
1430:Brinegar v. United States
1424:
1411:
1377:Fourth Amendment standing
1010:Olmstead v. United States
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364:
264:
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141:
2974:Herring v. United States
2336:South Dakota v. Opperman
2066:Carroll v. United States
1976:United States v. Matlock
1705:Johnson v. United States
1527:Investigative detentions
1462:Ornelas v. United States
1350:United States v. Drayton
861:Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski
547:(Submitted manuscript).
419:Vernonia School District
3224:Elkins v. United States
3001:Murray v. United States
2785:Bailey v. United States
2633:United States v. Watson
2525:City of Ontario v. Quon
2381:United States v. Ramsey
2250:Schmerber v. California
2000:Fernandez v. California
1737:United States v. Grubbs
1663:Heien v. North Carolina
1655:Navarette v. California
1631:United States v. Arvizu
1583:United States v. Cortez
1326:California v. Hodari D.
1278:Counselman v. Hitchcock
1239:United States v. Miller
1167:Oliver v. United States
1159:Hester v. United States
1066:California v. Greenwood
1042:United States v. Knotts
2982:Davis v. United States
2916:Weeks v. United States
2731:United States v. Place
2453:New Jersey v. T. L. O.
2365:United States v. Ortiz
2045:Minnesota v. Dickerson
1917:Brigham City v. Stuart
1607:Minnesota v. Dickerson
1591:United States v. Place
1470:Whren v. United States
1358:Brendlin v. California
1231:United States v. White
1114:United States v. Jones
1098:Kyllo v. United States
1050:United States v. Place
895:New Jersey v. T. L. O.
366:U.S. Const. amends. IV
3100:Kimmelman v. Morrison
2966:United States v. Leon
2936:Impeachment exception
2804:Pennsylvania v. Mimms
2290:Mitchell v. Wisconsin
2114:California v. Acevedo
2090:United States v. Ross
1984:Illinois v. Rodriguez
1877:Exigent circumstances
1766:Boyd v. United States
1393:Byrd v. United States
1342:Soldal v. Cook County
1270:Definition of seizure
1194:California v. Ciraolo
1175:United States v. Dunn
1090:Bond v. United States
1058:United States v. Karo
1034:Katz v. United States
1018:Abel v. United States
994:Boyd v. United States
158:Decided June 21, 1995
156:Argued March 28, 1995
3243:Warrant requirements
3216:Rochin v. California
3013:Inevitable discovery
2957:Good-faith exception
2750:Illinois v. McArthur
2544:Samson v. California
2175:Chimel v. California
2098:California v. Carney
2037:Horton v. California
1960:Stoner v. California
1729:Maryland v. Garrison
1523:Reasonable suspicion
1222:Third-party doctrine
1150:Open-fields doctrine
1106:Illinois v. Caballes
1002:United States v. Lee
986:Definition of search
448:Opinion of the court
423:Vernonia High School
53:improve this article
2857:Plumhoff v. Rickard
2833:Tennessee v. Garner
2769:Michigan v. Summers
2715:Dunaway v. New York
2625:Warrantless arrests
2434:Illinois v. Lidster
2266:Missouri v. McNeely
2231:Riley v. California
2138:Collins v. Virginia
2122:Wyoming v. Houghton
2082:Arkansas v. Sanders
2074:Chambers v. Maroney
1992:Georgia v. Randolph
1941:Lange v. California
1615:Illinois v. Wardlow
1486:Devenpeck v. Alford
1478:Maryland v. Pringle
1186:Aerial surveillance
1122:Florida v. Jardines
630:ACLU of Oregon site
613:Library of Congress
393: (1995), was a
315:Ruth Bader Ginsburg
287:Sandra Day O'Connor
3068:Hudson v. Michigan
2993:Independent source
2649:Welsh v. Wisconsin
2641:Payton v. New York
2493:Chandler v. Miller
2461:O'Connor v. Ortega
2328:Cady v. Dombrowski
2320:Inventory searches
2199:New York v. Belton
1909:Welsh v. Wisconsin
1901:Payton v. New York
1841:Wilson v. Arkansas
1832:Knock-and-announce
1757:Mere evidence rule
1721:Ybarra v. Illinois
1713:Franks v. Delaware
1647:Arizona v. Johnson
1575:Ybarra v. Illinois
1559:Delaware v. Prouse
1334:Florida v. Bostick
853:Morse v. Frederick
725:Wallace v. Jaffree
480:Dissenting opinion
442:U.S. Supreme Court
395:U.S. Supreme Court
275:Associate Justices
3315:1995 in education
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3251:Ker v. California
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3060:No-knock searches
2945:James v. Illinois
2900:Exclusionary rule
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2673:Virginia v. Moore
2563:Frank v. Maryland
2301:Protective sweeps
2106:Florida v. Jimeno
1933:Caniglia v. Strom
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1454:Illinois v. Gates
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1247:Smith v. Maryland
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693:Zorach v. Clauson
399:constitutionality
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271:William Rehnquist
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16:(Redirected from
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3208:Wolf v. Colorado
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3156:42 U.S.C. § 1983
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2841:Graham v. Connor
2723:Florida v. Royer
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2606:Hudson v. Palmer
2309:Maryland v. Buie
2274:Maryland v. King
2130:Florida v. White
2057:Vehicle searches
2029:Arizona v. Hicks
1952:Consent searches
1925:Kentucky v. King
1885:Warden v. Hayden
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1782:Warden v. Hayden
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1671:Kansas v. Glover
1623:Florida v. J. L.
1599:Michigan v. Long
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1438:Aguilar v. Texas
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1366:Torres v. Madrid
1310:Florida v. Royer
1210:Florida v. Riley
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407:Fourth Amendment
403:Vernonia, Oregon
260:Court membership
245:1013 (1994).
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2824:Excessive force
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2207:Knowles v. Iowa
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557:10.2307/1144059
538:
517:
514:
512:Further reading
509:
508:
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499:
494:
482:
450:
415:
313:
311:Clarence Thomas
301:
299:Anthony Kennedy
289:
279:John P. Stevens
192:
191:115 S. Ct. 2386
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132:
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114:
108:
105:
62:
60:
50:
38:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3348:
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3162:Monroe v. Pape
3158:
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3150:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3142:
3134:
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3116:
3112:
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2258:Cupp v. Murphy
2254:
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2203:
2195:
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2025:
2016:
2014:
2008:
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2005:
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1996:
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1980:
1972:
1964:
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1774:Hale v. Henkel
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1567:Brown v. Texas
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1418:Probable cause
1416:
1409:
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1398:
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1389:
1380:
1378:
1374:
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1354:
1346:
1338:
1330:
1322:
1318:INS v. Delgado
1314:
1306:
1298:
1290:
1286:Hale v. Henkel
1282:
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797:Healy v. James
793:
785:
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768:
766:
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756:
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745:
737:
733:Lee v. Weisman
729:
721:
713:
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573:External links
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291:Antonin Scalia
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3081:Habeas corpus
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2240:
2233:
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2228:
2225:
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2217:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2193:
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2188:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2168:
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2160:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2127:
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2119:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2108:
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2100:
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2023:
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2018:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2009:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1956:
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1950:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1927:
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1898:
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1569:
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1553:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1543:Terry v. Ohio
1540:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1515:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1495:
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1471:
1467:
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1320:
1319:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1294:Terry v. Ohio
1291:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1257:
1256:
1252:
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1236:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1212:
1211:
1207:
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1203:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1190:
1188:
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1177:
1176:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1141:(D.D.C. 2013)
1140:
1139:
1135:
1133:(D.D.C. 2013)
1132:
1131:
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1123:
1119:
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1036:
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1031:
1028:
1027:
1023:
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1019:
1015:
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1007:
1004:
1003:
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996:
995:
991:
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988:
984:
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973:
969:
964:
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952:
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945:
943:
938:
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934:
921:
920:
916:
913:
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905:
904:
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862:
858:
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839:
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834:
831:
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826:
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815:
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798:
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790:
786:
783:
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778:
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769:
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765:
764:school speech
762:
758:
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750:
746:
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738:
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734:
730:
727:
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722:
719:
718:
714:
711:
710:
706:
703:
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698:
695:
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690:
689:
687:
685:
684:school prayer
682:
678:
673:
665:
660:
658:
653:
651:
646:
645:
642:
636:
635:Acton's brief
633:
631:
628:
623:
614:
605:
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589:
585:
581:
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576:
572:
566:
562:
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389:
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342:
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331:Case opinions
329:
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267:Chief Justice
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258:
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248:
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109:January 2014
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51:Please help
46:verification
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3033:Attenuation
2409:Checkpoints
1694:requirement
344:Concurrence
3284:Categories
3115:Civil suit
2012:Plain view
884:exceptions
526:(1): 190.
492:References
79:newspapers
532:0275-6072
444:in 1995.
173:Citations
2889:Remedies
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965:case law
674:case law
578:Text of
347:Ginsburg
336:Majority
221:F. Supp.
197:Argument
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595:Cornell
565:1144059
352:Dissent
250:Holding
93:scholar
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3149:State
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413:Facts
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230:, 23
212:Prior
100:JSTOR
86:books
1529:and
588:U.S.
528:ISSN
388:U.S.
243:U.S.
235:1514
232:F.3d
224:1354
186:more
178:U.S.
176:515
72:news
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553:doi
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384:515
370:XIV
239:513
181:646
55:by
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