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comparable to the spinal cord, the ENS is often described as a "brain of its own." This description is rooted in the ENS's ability to communicate independently with the central nervous system through parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons. At the core of this intricate structure are the myenteric plexus (Auerbach's) and the submucous plexus (Meissner's), two main plexuses formed by the grouping of nerve-cell bodies into tiny ganglia connected by bundles of nerve processes. The myenteric plexus extends the full length of the gut, situated between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers. Beyond its primary motor and secretomotor functions, the myenteric plexus exhibits projections to submucosal ganglia and enteric ganglia in the pancreas and gallbladder, showcasing the interconnectivity within the ENS. Additionally, the myenteric plexus plays a unique role in innervating motor end plates with the inhibitory neurotransmitter nitric oxide in the striated-muscle segment of the esophagus, a feature exclusive to this organ. Meanwhile, the submucous plexus, most developed in the small intestine, occupies a crucial position in secretory regulation. Positioned in the submucosa between the circular muscle layer and the muscularis mucosa, the submucous plexus's neurons innervate intestinal endocrine cells, submucosal blood arteries, and the muscularis mucosa, emphasizing its multifaceted role in gastrointestinal function. Furthermore, ganglionated plexuses in the pancreatic, cystic duct, common bile duct, and gallbladder, resembling submucous plexuses, contribute to the overall complexity of the ENS structure. In this intricate landscape, glial cells emerge as key players, outnumbering enteric neurons and covering the majority of the surface of enteric neuronal-cell bodies with laminar extensions. Resembling the astrocytes of the central nervous system, enteric glial cells respond to cytokines by expressing MHC class II antigens and generating interleukins. This underlines their pivotal role in modulating inflammatory responses in the intestine, adding another layer of sophistication to the functional dynamics of the ENS. The varied morphological shapes of enteric neurons further contribute to the structural diversity of the ENS, with neurons capable of exhibiting up to eight different morphologies. These neurons are primarily categorized into type I and type II, where type II neurons are multipolar with numerous long, smooth processes, and type I neurons feature numerous club-shaped processes along with a single long, slender process. The rich structural diversity of enteric neurons highlights the complexity and adaptability of the ENS in orchestrating a wide array of gastrointestinal functions, reflecting its status as a dynamic and sophisticated component of the nervous system.
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provides an additional layer of complexity by contributing input to the hindgut ganglia. Throughout this developmental journey, numerous receptors exhibiting tyrosine kinase activity, such as Ret and Kit, play indispensable roles. Ret, for instance, plays a critical role in the formation of enteric ganglia derived from cells known as vagal neural crest. In mice, targeted disruption of the RET gene results in renal agenesis and the absence of enteric ganglia, while in humans, mutations in the RET gene are associated with megacolon. Similarly, Kit, another receptor with tyrosine kinase activity, is implicated in Cajal interstitial cell formation, influencing the spontaneous, rhythmic, electrical excitatory activity known as slow waves in the gastrointestinal tract. Understanding the molecular intricacies of these receptors provides crucial insights into the delicate orchestration of ENS development.
40:
284:" system, while the parasympathetic nervous system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system. In many cases, both of these systems have "opposite" actions where one system activates a physiological response and the other inhibits it. An older simplification of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems as "excitatory" and "inhibitory" was overturned due to the many exceptions found. A more modern characterization is that the sympathetic nervous system is a "quick response mobilizing system" and the parasympathetic is a "more slowly activated
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the supine position. This finding may explain why some habitual caffeine consumers (75 mg or less) do not experience short-term effects of caffeine if their routine requires many hours in a seated position. It is important to note that the data supporting increased parasympathetic activity in the supine position was derived from an experiment involving participants between the ages of 25 and 30 who were considered healthy and sedentary. Caffeine may influence autonomic activity differently for individuals who are more active or elderly.
671:(nTS), that integrates all visceral information. The nTS also receives input from a nearby chemosensory center, the area postrema, that detects toxins in the blood and the cerebrospinal fluid and is essential for chemically induced vomiting or conditional taste aversion (the memory that ensures that an animal that has been poisoned by a food never touches it again). All this visceral sensory information constantly and unconsciously modulates the activity of the motor neurons of the ANS.
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1751:. This tendency is likely due to caffeine's ability to increase sympathetic nerve outflow. Furthermore, this study found that recovery after intense exercise was slower when caffeine was consumed prior to exercise. This finding is indicative of caffeine's tendency to inhibit parasympathetic activity in non-habitual consumers. The caffeine-stimulated increase in nerve activity is likely to evoke other physiological effects as the body attempts to maintain
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tonus. Another example is the constant, second-to-second, modulation of heart rate by sympathetic and parasympathetic influences, as a function of the respiratory cycles. In general, these two systems should be seen as permanently modulating vital functions, in a usually antagonistic fashion, to achieve
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The effects of caffeine on parasympathetic activity may vary depending on the position of the individual when autonomic responses are measured. One study found that the seated position inhibited autonomic activity after caffeine consumption (75 mg); however, parasympathetic activity increased in
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Recent studies indicate that ANS activation is critical for regulating the local and systemic immune-inflammatory responses and may influence acute stroke outcomes. Therapeutic approaches modulating the activation of the ANS or the immune-inflammatory response could promote neurologic recovery after
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Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake.
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and sugar in the blood, arterial pressure and the chemical composition of the stomach and gut content. They also convey the sense of taste and smell, which, unlike most functions of the ANS, is a conscious perception. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide are in fact directly sensed by the carotid body, a
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The structural complexity of the enteric nervous system (ENS) is a fascinating aspect of its functional significance. Originally perceived as postganglionic parasympathetic neurons, the ENS earned recognition for its autonomy in the early 1900s. Boasting approximately 100 million neurons, a quantity
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The intricate process of enteric nervous system (ENS) development begins with the migration of cells from the vagal section of the neural crest. These cells embark on a journey from the cranial region to populate the entire gastrointestinal tract. Concurrently, the sacral section of the neural crest
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and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short-term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine
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The sympathetic ganglia here, are found in two chains: the pre-vertebral and pre-aortic chains. The activity of autonomic ganglionic neurons is modulated by "preganglionic neurons" located in the central nervous system. Preganglionic sympathetic neurons are located in the spinal cord, at the thorax
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is the preganglionic neurotransmitter for both divisions of the ANS, as well as the postganglionic neurotransmitter of parasympathetic neurons. Nerves that release acetylcholine are said to be cholinergic. In the parasympathetic system, ganglionic neurons use acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter to
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The autonomic nervous system is unique in that it requires a sequential two-neuron efferent pathway; the preganglionic neuron must first synapse onto a postganglionic neuron before innervating the target organ. The preganglionic, or first, neuron will begin at the "outflow" and will synapse at the
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However, many instances of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity cannot be ascribed to "fight" or "rest" situations. For example, standing up from a reclining or sitting position would entail an unsustainable drop in blood pressure if not for a compensatory increase in the arterial sympathetic
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Zimmerman-Viehoff, Frank; Thayer, Julian; Koenig, Julian; Herrmann, Christian; Weber, Cora S.; Deter, Hans-Christian (May 1, 2016). "Short-term effects of espresso coffee on heart rate variability and blood pressure in habitual and non-habitual coffee consumers- a randomized crossover study".
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Although the ANS is also known as the visceral nervous system and although most of its fibers carry non-somatic information to the CNS, many authors still consider it only connected with the motor side. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the
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small collection of chemosensors at the bifurcation of the carotid artery, innervated by the petrosal (IXth) ganglion. Primary sensory neurons project (synapse) onto "second order" visceral sensory neurons located in the medulla oblongata, forming the
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The parasympathetic nervous system has been said to promote a "rest and digest" response, promotes calming of the nerves return to regular function, and enhancing digestion. Functions of nerves within the parasympathetic nervous system include:
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Motor neurons of the autonomic nervous system are found in "autonomic ganglia". Those of the parasympathetic branch are located close to the target organ whilst the ganglia of the sympathetic branch are located close to the spinal cord.
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The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. The sympathetic system is often considered the "
1205:. Higher organisms maintain their integrity via homeostasis which relies on negative feedback regulation which, in turn, typically depends on the autonomic nervous system. Some typical actions of the sympathetic and
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and upper lumbar levels. Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are found in the medulla oblongata where they form visceral motor nuclei; the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve; the nucleus ambiguus, the
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Although conflicting reports about its subdivisions exist in the literature, the autonomic nervous system has historically been considered a purely motor system, and has been divided into three branches: the
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A flow diagram showing the process of stimulation of adrenal medulla that makes it release adrenaline, that further acts on adrenoreceptors, indirectly mediating or mimicking sympathetic activity.
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Monda, M.; Viggiano, An.; Vicidomini, C.; Viggiano, Al.; Iannaccone, T.; Tafuri, D.; De Luca, B. (2009). "Espresso coffee increases parasympathetic activity in young, healthy people".
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consumers. It is possible that other bioactive ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers.
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Zhu L, Huang L, Le A, Wang TJ, Zhang J, Chen X, Wang J, Wang J, Jiang C (June 2022). "Interactions between the
Autonomic Nervous System and the Immune System after Stroke".
537:(cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X) or the sacral spinal cord (S2, S3, S4). These are the preganglionic neurons, which synapse with postganglionic neurons in these locations:
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1997:
Belvisi, Maria G.; David
Stretton, C.; Yacoub, Magdi; Barnes, Peter J. (1992). "Nitric oxide is the endogenous neurotransmitter of bronchodilator nerves in humans".
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The visceral sensory system - technically not a part of the autonomic nervous system - is composed of primary neurons located in cranial sensory ganglia: the
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161:, smooth muscle and glands. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions, such as the
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and are the preganglionic neurons. There are several locations upon which preganglionic neurons can synapse for their postganglionic neurons:
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Caffeine is capable of increasing work capacity while individuals perform strenuous tasks. In one study, caffeine provoked a greater maximum
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2231:(free online version ed.). Bethesda, Maryland: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health.
280:. Some textbooks do not include the enteric nervous system as part of this system. The sympathetic nervous system is often considered the "
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found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short-term physiological effects of caffeine include increased
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1680:(epinephrine) into the bloodstream, which acts on adrenoceptors, thereby indirectly mediating or mimicking sympathetic activity.
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areas, terminating around L2-3. The parasympathetic division has craniosacral "outflow", meaning that the neurons begin at the
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in middle, and the vagus nerve as "X" in blue. The heart and organs below in list to right are regarded as viscera.
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these ganglia provide the postganglionic neurons from which innervations of target organs follows. Examples are:
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postganglionic, or second, neuron's cell body. The postganglionic neuron will then synapse at the target organ.
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Willis, William D. (2004). "The
Autonomic Nervous System and its central control". In Berne, Robert M. (ed.).
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These ganglia provide the postganglionic neurons from which innervation of target organs follows. Examples of
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Autonomic nerves travel to organs throughout the body. Most organs receive parasympathetic supply by the
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Sexual. Nerves of the peripheral nervous system are involved in the erection of genital tissues via the
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658:, appended respectively to cranial nerves VII, IX and X. These sensory neurons monitor the levels of
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used the term, defining the two divisions as the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
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244:. Those are then subdivided into other areas and are also linked to autonomic subsystems and the
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The parasympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in one of two locations: the
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cervical cardiac nerves and thoracic visceral nerves, which synapse in the sympathetic chain
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1885:(Digitally printed version. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 13.
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Essential
Clinical Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 199
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1589:. It has been described as "the Second Brain of the Human Body". Its functions include:
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trigeminal ganglion specially sensory (only mastication motor) is common with other ones
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Integrative action of the autonomic nervous system : neurobiology of homeostasis
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Division of the nervous system supplying internal organs, smooth muscle and glands
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function testing to assess dysfunction of the autonomic nervous systems, through
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Bunsawat, Kanokwan; White, Daniel W; Kappus, Rebecca M; Baynard, Tracy (2015).
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439:(3) of the sympathetic chain (these run on either side of the vertebral bodies)
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Constricting the bronchiolar diameter when the need for oxygen has diminished
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Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). "Autonomic
Nervous System". In Janig, W (ed.).
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1436:), thereby providing a mechanism for enhanced blood flow to skeletal muscles
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2301:"Think Twice: How the Gut's "Second Brain" Influences Mood and Well-Being"
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2018:
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Dilating blood vessels leading to the GI tract, increasing the blood flow.
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only (i.e., exclusively motor). The sympathetic division emerges from the
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The specialised system of the autonomic nervous system was recognised by
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to the lens, allowing more light to enter the eye and enhances far vision
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1380:, corresponds with arousal and energy generation, and inhibits digestion
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256:, acts as an integrator for autonomic functions, receiving autonomic
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The sympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in the
499:(greater, lesser, least), which synapse in the prevertebral ganglia
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The autonomic nervous system has been classically divided into the
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The enteric nervous system is the intrinsic nervous system of the
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Stimulate medulla cells to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
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is enhanced (by as much as 1200% in the case of skeletal muscles)
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Increase peristalsis and amount of secretion by digestive glands
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Johnson, Joel O. (2013), "Autonomic
Nervous System Physiology",
2178:(2nd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 199.
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Inhibits; decrease bulging of lens; prepares for distant vision
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At the effector organs, sympathetic ganglionic neurons release
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the postganglionic parasympathetic splanchnic (visceral) nerves
326:) and are integral in autonomic function, in particular in the
1828:(2 ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370.
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2–4. They are also responsible for stimulating sexual arousal.
515:
These all contain afferent (sensory) nerves as well, known as
2445:"Caffeine delays autonomic recovery following acute exercise"
2270:. Mina, Usha. (3rd ed.). New Delhi: Pathfinder Academy.
2040:. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p.
1976:(3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 63–64.
1747:
while a strenuous task was being performed compared to a
710:
Autonomic nervous system's jurisdiction to organs in the
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in or near the wall of an organ innervated by the vagus (
185:. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the
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Unless specified otherwise in the boxes, the source is:
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Stimulates to increase bulging of lens for close vision
192:
The autonomic nervous system is regulated by integrated
715:
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tympanic nerve of VII with C9, C10, C5 (cranial nerves
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Stimulates; increases production of saliva and tears
2205:: Biologie. Spektrum-Verlag Heidelberg-Berlin 2003,
573:, XI, X, V) in promontory plexus in middle ear space
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1842:Allostatic load notebook: Parasympathetic Function
1593:Sensing chemical and mechanical changes in the gut
511:, which synapse in the inferior hypogastric plexus
288:system", but even this has exceptions, such as in
2166:
2164:
1544:Constriction of the pupil and contraction of the
1319:Stimulates constrictor muscles; constrict pupils
1300:Constricts blood vessels in viscera; increase BP
314:. A third subsystem of neurons has been named as
1779:International Society for Autonomic Neuroscience
1492:fibers—allows clinicians and researchers to use
1176:, and in the sacral region of the spinal cord.
316:non-noradrenergic, non-cholinergic transmitters
2268:Life Sciences : Fundamentals and practice
1692:Autonomic nervous system and the immune system
1676:. Stimulation of the adrenal medulla releases
1618:Non-noradrenergic, non-cholinergic transmitter
744:
2780:
2575:
1533:nerves impart parasympathetic control of the
695:. Pain in any internal organ is perceived as
687:. The sensory part of the latter reaches the
8:
1686:Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS
1614:Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS
1837:
1835:
1311:Inhibits; result in dry mouth and dry eyes
505:, which synapse in the prevertebral ganglia
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2369:Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia
2112:Goyal, Raj K.; Hirano, Ikuo (1996-04-25).
2065:Goyal, Raj K.; Hirano, Ikuo (1996-04-25).
757:
714:
618:Development of the Enteric Nervous System:
38:
2460:
2449:European Journal of Preventive Cardiology
1931:
1322:Stimulate dilator muscle; dilates pupils
1188:Function of the autonomic nervous system
430:"GVE" (general visceral efferent) neurons
2913:medial superior posterior nasal branches
2172:Moore, Keith L.; Agur, A. M. R. (2002).
1211:
708:
627:Structure of the Enteric Nervous System:
349:
2311:from the original on December 31, 2017.
1799:
1245:Causes glucose to be released to blood
517:GVA (general visceral afferent) neurons
428:from T1 to L2/3. These cell bodies are
1951:(5. ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby.
1234:Decrease activity of digestive system
124:
29:
703:corresponding to the spinal segment.
699:, more specifically as pain from the
7:
3447:
1851:– 1999, MacArthur research network,
44:Autonomic nervous system innervation
2299:Hadhazy, Adam (February 12, 2010).
1867:The Autonomic Nervous System Part 1
1716:used the terminology, and in 1900,
1641:(norepinephrine), along with other
2544:, by Ian Gibbins and Bill Blessing
2377:10.1016/b978-1-4377-1679-5.00012-0
1525:Dedicated cardiac branches of the
1484:The pattern of innervation of the
990:lesser and least splanchnic nerves
548:), geniculate (cranial nerve VII),
354:Autonomic nervous system, showing
342:which provides voluntary control.
25:
2896:inferior posterior nasal branches
1384:Diverts blood flow away from the
1359:function to produce perspiration
3446:
3437:
3436:
2225:Principles of Autonomic Medicine
1999:European Journal of Pharmacology
1906:Furness, John (9 October 2007).
1596:Regulating secretions in the gut
1498:electrochemical skin conductance
1413:of the lung through circulating
1297:No effect on most blood vessels
1099:PS: pelvic splanchnic nerves to
2118:New England Journal of Medicine
2071:New England Journal of Medicine
1665:stimulate muscarinic receptors.
1207:parasympathetic nervous systems
2414:10.1179/1476830515Y.0000000018
2371:, Elsevier, pp. 208–217,
1552:and allowing for closer vision
1510:Parasympathetic nervous system
1504:Parasympathetic nervous system
1464:Constricts all the intestinal
1105:S: inferior hypogastric nerves
529:Parasympathetic nervous system
368:parasympathetic nervous system
274:parasympathetic nervous system
216:(the cardiac control center),
208:. Autonomic functions include
1:
1305:Salivary and Lacrimal glands
669:nucleus of the solitary tract
3177:Inferior mesenteric ganglion
3172:Superior mesenteric ganglion
2114:"The Enteric Nervous System"
2067:"The Enteric Nervous System"
2011:10.1016/0014-2999(92)90676-U
1812:Dorland's Medical Dictionary
1653:, with the exception of the
1488:—namely, the postganglionic
555:and IX), and submandibular (
487:splanchnic (visceral) nerves
296:, wherein both play a role.
165:, its force of contraction,
66:autonomicum systema nervosum
2130:10.1056/nejm199604253341707
2083:10.1056/nejm199604253341707
2032:Costanzo, Linda S. (2007).
1559:secretion, and accelerates
1417:, which allows for greater
3489:
2548:Division of Nervous System
2175:Essential Clinical Anatomy
1807:"autonomic nervous system"
1611:
1578:
1507:
1372:Sympathetic nervous system
1369:
1366:Sympathetic nervous system
1160:
1079:superior mesenteric plexus
1053:thoracic splanchnic nerves
683:and sympathetic supply by
639:
610:
562:ottic in inner ear space (
526:
497:thoracic splanchnic nerves
460:caudal lumbar ganglia and
420:Sympathetic nervous system
417:
364:sympathetic nervous system
270:sympathetic nervous system
3432:
3297:Cavernous nerves of penis
2888:branches of distribution:
2690:Peripheral nervous system
2222:Goldstein, David (2016).
1933:10.4249/scholarpedia.4064
1789:Medullary ischemic reflex
1684:A full table is found at
1657:and the adrenal medulla:
1468:and the urinary sphincter
1261:Urinary bladder/ Urethra
900:greater splanchnic nerves
862:greater splanchnic nerves
810:greater splanchnic nerves
762:greater splanchnic nerves
246:peripheral nervous system
151:vegetative nervous system
119:
37:
3473:Autonomic nervous system
3420:Pelvic splanchnic nerves
3398:Sacral splanchnic nerves
3322:Lumbar splanchnic nerves
2879:nerve of pterygoid canal
2869:Pterygopalatine ganglion
2797:autonomic nervous system
2538:Autonomic nervous system
2506:10.1179/147683009X388841
2494:Nutritional Neuroscience
2462:10.1177/2047487314554867
2402:Nutritional Neuroscience
1972:Pocock, Gillian (2006).
1908:"Enteric nervous system"
1603:and some other movements
1568:pelvic splanchnic nerves
1378:fight-or-flight response
1138:lumbar splanchnic nerves
984:pelvic splanchnic nerves
523:Parasympathetic division
509:sacral splanchnic nerves
503:lumbar splanchnic nerves
187:fight-or-flight response
145:), sometimes called the
139:autonomic nervous system
33:Autonomic nervous system
3221:Abdominal aortic plexus
1881:Jänig, Wilfrid (2008).
1870:. Cambridge: W. Heffer.
1587:gastrointestinal system
1253:Constricts bronchioles
542:parasympathetic ganglia
153:, is a division of the
147:visceral nervous system
18:Visceral nervous system
3072:Thoracic aortic plexus
2927:Submandibular ganglion
2599:Central nervous system
2266:Pranav Kumar. (2013).
1864:Langley, J.N. (1921).
1634:
1627:
1581:Enteric nervous system
1575:Enteric nervous system
1327:Eye (ciliary muscles)
1278:Decrease urine output
1189:
856:posterior vagal trunks
753:posterior vagal trunks
613:Enteric nervous system
607:Enteric Nervous System
544:of the head: ciliary (
396:glossopharyngeal nerve
359:
340:somatic nervous system
278:enteric nervous system
210:control of respiration
121:Anatomical terminology
3375:paravertebral ganglia
3140:paravertebral ganglia
3039:paravertebral ganglia
2964:paravertebral ganglia
1633:
1625:
1267:Constricts sphincter
1187:
437:paravertebral ganglia
406:(S2-S4) spinal cord.
353:
3283:Inferior hypogastric
3266:Superior hypogastric
3153:prevertebral ganglia
2336:10.1002/cphy.c210047
1733:bioactive ingredient
1718:John Newport Langley
1651:adrenergic receptors
1349:Sweat gland of skin
1256:Dilates bronchioles
1217:Target organ/system
469:prevertebral ganglia
414:Sympathetic division
3249:Inferior mesenteric
3237:Superior mesenteric
3185:prevertebral plexus
3052:prevertebral plexus
2999:prevertebral plexus
2305:Scientific American
1924:2007SchpJ...2.4064F
1674:nicotinic receptors
1213:
719:
587:plexus (S2, S3, S4)
426:lateral grey column
2553:2021-03-05 at the
1847:2012-08-19 at the
1635:
1628:
1432:of cardiac cells (
1264:Relaxes sphincter
1212:
1209:are listed below.
1190:
709:
386:(specifically the
360:
318:(because they use
214:cardiac regulation
175:pupillary response
3460:
3459:
3428:
3427:
3415:splanchnic nerves
3393:splanchnic nerves
3353:
3352:
3317:splanchnic nerves
3271:hypogastric nerve
3118:
3117:
3080:splanchnic nerves
3062:Esophageal plexus
3017:
3016:
2991:Stellate ganglion
2942:
2941:
2762:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2455:(11): 1473–1479.
2386:978-1-4377-1679-5
2185:978-0-7817-5940-3
2124:(17): 1106–1115.
2077:(17): 1106–1115.
2051:978-0-7817-7311-9
1983:978-0-19-856878-0
1608:Neurotransmitters
1490:sympathetic nerve
1386:gastro-intestinal
1363:
1362:
1228:Digestive system
1174:salivatory nuclei
1154:
1153:
718:
685:splanchnic nerves
557:cranial nerve VII
553:cranial nerve VII
551:pterygopalatine (
546:cranial nerve III
453:(12) and rostral
356:splanchnic nerves
252:, just above the
149:and formerly the
135:
134:
130:
16:(Redirected from
3480:
3450:
3449:
3440:
3439:
3364:
3345:Myenteric plexus
3340:Submucous plexus
3129:
3067:Pulmonary plexus
3044:Thoracic ganglia
3028:
3009:Internal carotid
3004:Cavernous plexus
2969:Cervical ganglia
2953:
2891:greater palatine
2850:Ciliary ganglion
2820:Cervical ganglia
2810:
2789:
2782:
2775:
2766:
2695:
2584:
2577:
2570:
2561:
2526:
2525:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2464:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2330:(3): 3665–3704.
2319:
2313:
2312:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2247:
2241:. Archived from
2230:
2219:
2213:
2199:Neil A. Campbell
2196:
2190:
2189:
2168:
2159:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2039:
2029:
2023:
2022:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1974:Human Physiology
1969:
1963:
1962:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1861:
1855:
1839:
1830:
1829:
1826:Human Physiology
1821:
1815:
1804:
1784:Polyvagal Theory
1724:Caffeine effects
1531:spinal accessory
1456:coronary vessels
1443:and relaxes the
1400:skeletal muscles
1394:vasoconstriction
1338:Adrenal Medulla
1220:Parasympathetic
1214:
1101:detrusor muscles
759:
746:
720:
564:cranial nerve IX
475:chromaffin cells
451:thoracic ganglia
445:cervical ganglia
388:oculomotor nerve
324:neurotransmitter
222:vasomotor center
171:respiratory rate
127:edit on Wikidata
42:
30:
21:
3488:
3487:
3483:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3463:
3462:
3461:
3456:
3424:
3407:Parasympathetic
3402:
3349:
3326:
3276:Superior rectal
3114:
3097:cardiac nerves:
3085:cardiopulmonary
3013:
2938:
2903:lesser palatine
2843:Parasympathetic
2838:
2799:
2795:Anatomy of the
2793:
2763:
2754:
2745:Parasympathetic
2726:
2684:
2593:
2588:
2555:Wayback Machine
2534:
2529:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2387:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2346:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2298:
2297:
2293:
2278:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2251:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2228:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2171:
2169:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2031:
2030:
2026:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1849:Wayback Machine
1840:
1833:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1765:
1726:
1703:
1694:
1670:adrenal medulla
1620:
1612:Main articles:
1610:
1583:
1577:
1548:, facilitating
1546:ciliary muscles
1512:
1506:
1421:oxygen exchange
1388:(GI) tract and
1374:
1368:
1286:Decreases rate
1195:fight or flight
1182:
1165:
1159:
1039:pancreatic head
706:
693:spinal segments
677:
644:
638:
636:Sensory neurons
615:
609:
581:cranial nerve X
531:
525:
479:adrenal medulla
422:
416:
348:
282:fight or flight
260:input from the
224:), and certain
159:internal organs
131:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3486:
3484:
3476:
3475:
3465:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3444:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3410:
3408:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3388:
3387:
3385:Ganglion impar
3382:
3380:Sacral ganglia
3370:
3368:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3347:
3342:
3336:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3290:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3234:
3233:
3232:
3223:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3189:
3180:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3162:
3160:Celiac ganglia
3148:
3147:
3145:Lumbar ganglia
3135:
3133:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3075:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3057:Cardiac plexus
3047:
3046:
3034:
3032:
3025:
3019:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3006:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2987:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2959:
2957:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2905:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2876:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2846:
2844:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2816:
2814:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2784:
2777:
2769:
2760:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2736:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2717:Cranial nerves
2714:
2709:
2703:
2701:
2692:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2646:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2591:Nervous system
2589:
2587:
2586:
2579:
2572:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2545:
2533:
2532:External links
2530:
2528:
2527:
2484:
2435:
2408:(4): 169–175.
2391:
2385:
2359:
2344:
2314:
2291:
2276:
2258:
2237:
2214:
2191:
2184:
2160:
2151:
2104:
2057:
2050:
2024:
1989:
1982:
1964:
1957:
1939:
1898:
1892:978052106754-6
1891:
1873:
1856:
1831:
1816:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1764:
1761:
1737:blood pressure
1725:
1722:
1702:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1682:
1681:
1666:
1643:cotransmitters
1609:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1597:
1594:
1579:Main article:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1564:
1557:salivary gland
1553:
1542:
1523:
1520:
1508:Main article:
1505:
1502:
1482:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1462:
1448:
1445:ciliary muscle
1437:
1422:
1407:
1398:Blood flow to
1396:
1370:Main article:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1353:
1350:
1346:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1294:Blood vessels
1291:
1290:
1289:Increase rate
1287:
1284:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1181:
1178:
1161:Main article:
1158:
1155:
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1111:
1108:
1107:
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1103:
1095:
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1073:
1067:
1066:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1049:
1041:
1035:
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1032:
1014:
1011:proximal colon
994:
993:
992:
986:
974:
968:
967:
950:
949:
948:
942:
936:
928:
918:
917:
904:
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902:
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888:
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865:
864:
858:
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840:
839:
814:
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806:
798:
792:
791:
766:
765:
764:
755:
740:
734:
733:
727:
724:
676:
673:
660:carbon dioxide
656:nodose ganglia
642:Sensory neuron
640:Main article:
637:
634:
611:Main article:
608:
605:
604:
603:
596:
589:
588:
577:
574:
567:
560:
549:
527:Main article:
524:
521:
513:
512:
506:
500:
494:
483:
482:
472:
465:
464:
462:sacral ganglia
458:
455:lumbar ganglia
448:
441:
440:
418:Main article:
415:
412:
384:cranial nerves
347:
344:
290:sexual arousal
226:reflex actions
220:activity (the
183:sexual arousal
157:that operates
155:nervous system
133:
132:
123:
117:
116:
111:
105:
104:
99:
93:
92:
87:
81:
80:
75:
69:
68:
63:
57:
56:
52:
51:
47:
46:
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3485:
3474:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3453:
3445:
3443:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3390:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3356:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3333:
3329:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3307:Middle rectal
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3192:Celiac plexus
3190:
3188:
3186:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3149:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2935:
2934:Otic ganglion
2932:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2874:deep petrosal
2872:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2863:
2862:Short ciliary
2860:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2834:Deep petrosal
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2790:
2785:
2783:
2778:
2776:
2771:
2770:
2767:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2707:Sensory nerve
2705:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2679:
2678:Limbic system
2676:
2672:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2585:
2580:
2578:
2573:
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2345:9780470650714
2341:
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2329:
2325:
2324:Compr Physiol
2318:
2315:
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2295:
2292:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2277:9788190642774
2273:
2269:
2262:
2259:
2248:on 2018-12-06
2244:
2240:
2238:9780824704087
2234:
2227:
2226:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2211:3-8274-1352-4
2208:
2204:
2203:Jane B. Reece
2200:
2195:
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1715:
1714:Thomas Willis
1710:
1708:
1700:
1698:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1662:Acetylcholine
1660:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1639:noradrenaline
1632:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1607:
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1598:
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1569:
1565:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1550:accommodation
1547:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1529:and thoracic
1528:
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1430:contractility
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1210:
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1186:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1169:
1164:
1157:Motor neurons
1156:
1150:
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1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
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966:
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947:
946:phrenic nerve
943:
941:
940:celiac plexus
937:
935:
931:
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929:
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756:
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743:
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736:
735:
731:
730:Spinal column
728:
725:
722:
721:
717:
713:
707:
704:
702:
698:
697:referred pain
694:
690:
689:spinal column
686:
682:
674:
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635:
633:
629:
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586:
585:sacral nerves
582:
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262:limbic system
259:
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64:
62:
58:
53:
48:
41:
36:
31:
19:
3413:
3391:
3373:
3315:
3302:Uterovaginal
3216:aorticorenal
3215:
3183:
3165:Aorticorenal
3151:
3138:
3096:
3078:
3050:
3037:
2997:
2962:
2908:nasopalatine
2887:
2829:long ciliary
2823:
2796:
2731:
2722:Spinal nerve
2654:Diencephalon
2542:Scholarpedia
2500:(1): 43–48.
2497:
2493:
2487:
2452:
2448:
2438:
2405:
2401:
2394:
2368:
2362:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2304:
2294:
2267:
2261:
2250:. Retrieved
2243:the original
2224:
2217:
2194:
2174:
2154:
2121:
2117:
2107:
2074:
2070:
2060:
2035:
2027:
2005:(2): 221–2.
2002:
1998:
1992:
1973:
1967:
1948:
1942:
1918:(10): 4064.
1915:
1912:Scholarpedia
1911:
1901:
1882:
1876:
1866:
1859:
1825:
1819:
1810:
1802:
1769:Dysautonomia
1757:
1742:
1727:
1711:
1704:
1695:
1683:
1655:sweat glands
1649:, to act on
1636:
1599:Controlling
1584:
1555:Stimulating
1513:
1483:
1452:vasodilation
1375:
1223:Sympathetic
1199:
1191:
1170:
1166:
1163:Motor neuron
1047:vagus nerves
1029:distal colon
980:vagus nerves
835:, sometimes
804:vagus nerves
787:, sometimes
705:
678:
645:
630:
626:
625:
621:
617:
616:
590:
532:
514:
484:
423:
408:
392:facial nerve
361:
336:
320:nitric oxide
298:
266:
250:hypothalamus
196:through the
191:
150:
146:
142:
138:
136:
90:A14.3.00.001
65:
3367:Sympathetic
3132:Sympathetic
3031:Sympathetic
2956:Sympathetic
2813:Sympathetic
2740:Sympathetic
2712:Motor nerve
2664:Optic nerve
2612:Spinal cord
2540:article in
1753:homeostasis
1601:peristalsis
1561:peristalsis
1486:sweat gland
1477:Stimulates
1473:peristalsis
1415:epinephrine
1411:bronchioles
1376:Promotes a
1316:Eye (iris)
1275:No effects
1203:homeostasis
1128:vagus nerve
934:vagus nerve
922:gallbladder
691:at certain
681:vagus nerve
675:Innervation
600:vagus nerve
400:vagus nerve
372:spinal cord
202:spinal cord
55:Identifiers
3230:Suprarenal
3207:Pancreatic
2920:pharyngeal
2637:Cerebellum
2252:2018-12-05
2036:Physiology
1958:0323022251
1949:Physiology
1795:References
1745:heart rate
1678:adrenaline
1539:myocardium
1466:sphincters
1426:heart rate
1424:Increases
1355:Stimulate
1352:No effect
1341:No effect
1242:No effect
1077:nerves to
712:human body
648:geniculate
305:excitatory
301:inhibitory
299:There are
276:, and the
258:regulatory
254:brain stem
238:swallowing
163:heart rate
3293:Prostatic
3254:Spermatic
2732:Autonomic
2649:Forebrain
2622:Hindbrain
2286:857764171
2138:0028-4793
2091:0028-4793
1712:In 1665,
1494:sudomotor
1471:Inhibits
1450:Provides
1357:sudomotor
701:dermatome
535:brainstem
346:Structure
286:dampening
218:vasomotor
198:brainstem
179:urination
167:digestion
3467:Category
3442:Category
3110:Inferior
3100:Superior
3090:thoracic
2984:Inferior
2974:Superior
2671:Cerebrum
2644:Midbrain
2607:Meninges
2551:Archived
2522:37022826
2514:19178791
2479:30678381
2471:25297344
2430:23539284
2422:25850440
2354:35766834
2309:Archived
1845:Archived
1763:See also
1729:Caffeine
1697:stroke.
1645:such as
1454:for the
1439:Dilates
1434:myocytes
1428:and the
1419:alveolar
1409:Dilates
1402:and the
1272:Kidneys
1180:Function
1134:thoracic
1071:appendix
796:duodenum
749:anterior
652:petrosal
559:and IX),
457:(2 or 3)
376:thoracic
330:and the
310:between
308:synapses
242:vomiting
234:sneezing
230:coughing
228:such as
194:reflexes
3452:Commons
3332:Enteric
3288:Vesical
3259:Ovarian
3242:Gastric
3202:Splenic
3197:Hepatic
3124:Abdomen
2750:Enteric
2699:Somatic
2627:Medulla
2146:8598871
2099:8598871
2019:1350993
1920:Bibcode
1774:Feeling
1749:placebo
1701:History
1668:At the
1458:of the
1120:ureters
1116:kidneys
1093:bladder
844:jejunum
738:stomach
732:origin
477:of the
374:in the
312:neurons
200:to the
78:D001341
50:Details
3359:Pelvis
3105:Middle
3023:Thorax
2979:Middle
2659:Retina
2520:
2512:
2477:
2469:
2428:
2420:
2383:
2352:
2342:
2284:
2274:
2235:
2209:
2182:
2144:
2136:
2097:
2089:
2048:
2017:
1980:
1955:
1889:
1479:orgasm
1441:pupils
1283:Heart
1250:Lungs
1239:Liver
1110:S2-S4
944:right
892:spleen
726:Nerves
664:oxygen
404:sacral
402:) and
380:lumbar
294:orgasm
272:, the
248:. The
206:organs
181:, and
3226:Renal
2855:Roots
2824:roots
2617:Brain
2518:S2CID
2475:S2CID
2426:S2CID
2246:(PDF)
2229:(PDF)
1731:is a
1707:Galen
1535:heart
1527:vagus
1460:heart
1404:lungs
972:colon
926:liver
848:ileum
723:Organ
583:) or
489:are:
332:lungs
322:as a
125:[
61:Latin
2948:Neck
2805:Head
2632:Pons
2510:PMID
2467:PMID
2418:PMID
2381:ISBN
2350:PMID
2340:ISBN
2328:2022
2282:OCLC
2272:ISBN
2233:ISBN
2207:ISBN
2180:ISBN
2142:PMID
2134:ISSN
2095:PMID
2087:ISSN
2046:ISBN
2015:PMID
1978:ISBN
1953:ISBN
1887:ISBN
1853:UCSF
1616:and
1392:via
1390:skin
1136:and
1126:PS:
1118:and
1045:PS:
1027:, (
982:and
978:PS:
932:PS:
924:and
854:PS:
846:and
802:PS:
751:and
716:edit
654:and
598:the
398:and
378:and
366:and
303:and
292:and
240:and
204:and
137:The
114:9905
102:6600
85:TA98
73:MeSH
2502:doi
2457:doi
2410:doi
2373:doi
2332:doi
2126:doi
2122:334
2079:doi
2075:334
2007:doi
2003:210
1928:doi
1809:at
1647:ATP
1149:T12
1145:T11
1132:S:
1086:T10
1051:S:
1007:T12
1003:T11
999:T10
988:S:
938:S:
898:S:
860:S:
837:T10
808:S:
789:T10
571:VII
447:(3)
328:gut
143:ANS
109:FMA
97:TA2
3469::
3295:/
2822::
2516:.
2508:.
2498:12
2496:.
2473:.
2465:.
2453:22
2451:.
2447:.
2424:.
2416:.
2406:19
2404:.
2379:,
2348:.
2338:.
2326:.
2307:.
2303:.
2280:.
2201:,
2163:^
2140:.
2132:.
2120:.
2116:.
2093:.
2085:.
2073:.
2069:.
2044:.
2042:37
2013:.
2001:.
1926:.
1914:.
1910:.
1834:^
1755:.
1709:.
1688:.
1500:.
1147:,
1064:T9
1062:,
1060:T8
1025:L3
1023:,
1021:L2
1019:,
1017:L1
1005:,
1001:,
965:T9
963:,
961:T8
959:,
957:T7
955:,
953:T6
915:T8
913:,
911:T7
909:,
907:T6
885:T9
883:,
881:T8
879:,
877:T7
875:,
873:T6
871:,
869:T5
833:T9
831:,
829:T8
827:,
825:T7
823:,
821:T6
819:,
817:T5
785:T9
783:,
781:T8
779:,
777:T7
775:,
773:T6
771:,
769:T5
760::
747::
745:PS
662:,
650:,
519:.
394:,
390:,
334:.
264:.
236:,
232:,
212:,
189:.
177:,
173:,
169:,
3417::
3395::
3377::
3319::
3228:/
3187::
3155::
3142::
3082::
3054::
3041::
3001::
2966::
2788:e
2781:t
2774:v
2583:e
2576:t
2569:v
2524:.
2504::
2481:.
2459::
2432:.
2412::
2375::
2356:.
2334::
2288:.
2255:.
2188:.
2148:.
2128::
2101:.
2081::
2054:.
2021:.
2009::
1986:.
1961:.
1936:.
1930::
1922::
1916:2
1895:.
1541:)
1537:(
1031:)
1013:)
1009:(
758:S
566:)
141:(
129:]
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
