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resolution in the stimulation signals (more electrodes per unit area). In addition, a wireless telemetry system is being developed to eliminate the need for transcranial wires. Arrays of activated iridium oxide film (AIROF)-coated electrodes will be implanted in the visual cortex, located on the occipital lobe of the brain. External hardware will capture images, process them, and generate instructions which will then be transmitted to implanted circuitry via a telemetry link. The circuitry will decode the instructions and stimulate the electrodes, in turn stimulating the visual cortex. The group is developing a wearable external image capture and processing system to accompany the implanted circuitry. Studies on animals and psychophysical studies on humans are being conducted to test the feasibility of a human volunteer implant.
214:, and is enlarged to reduce the effect the blind spot has on central vision. 2.2x or 2.7x magnification strengths make it possible to see or discern the central vision object of interest while the other eye is used for peripheral vision because the eye that has the implant will have limited peripheral vision as a side effect. Unlike a telescope which would be hand-held, the implant moves with the eye which is the main advantage. Patients using the device may however still need glasses for optimal vision and for close work. Before surgery, patients should first try out a hand-held telescope to see if they would benefit from image enlargement. One of the main drawbacks is that it cannot be used for patients who have had
258:, visible light is not powerful enough to stimulate the MPDA. Therefore, an external power supply is used to enhance the stimulation current. The German team commenced in vivo experiments in 2000, when evoked cortical potentials were measured from Yucatán micropigs and rabbits. At 14 months post implantation, the implant and retina surrounding it were examined and there were no noticeable changes to anatomical integrity. The implants were successful in producing evoked cortical potentials in half of the animals tested. The thresholds identified in this study were similar to those required in epiretinal stimulation. Later reports from this group concern the results of a clinical pilot study on 11 participants with
422:
incorporated a microchip with 98 stimulating electrodes and aimed to provide increased mobility for patients to help them move safely in their environment. This implant would be placed in the suprachoroidal space. Researchers expected the first patient tests to begin with this device in 2013, it is currently unknown whether full trials were conducted, but at least one woman named Dianne
Ashworth was implanted with the device, and was able to read letters and numbers using it., she later went on to write a book titled "I Spy with My Bionic Eye", about her life, vision loss, and being the first person to be implanted with the BVA, Bionic Eye device.
303:
stimulator, an array of electrodes, that is placed beneath the retina in the subretinal space and receives image signals beamed from a camera mounted on a pair of glasses. The stimulator chip decodes the picture information beamed from the camera and stimulates retinal ganglion cells accordingly. Their second generation prosthesis collects data and sends it to the implant through radio frequency fields from transmitter coils that are mounted on the glasses. A secondary receiver coil is sutured around the iris.
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are projected onto the retina via natural eye optics, and photodiodes in the subretinal implant convert light into pulsed bi-phasic electric current in each pixel. Electric current flowing through the tissue between the active and return electrode in each pixel stimulates the nearby inner retinal neurons, primarily the bipolar cells, which transmit excitatory responses to the retinal ganglion cells. This technology is being commercialized by Pixium Vision (
166:
study which were published in 2012, Argus II was approved for commercial use in Europe, and Second Sight launched the product later that same year. The Argus II was approved by the United States FDA on 14 February 2013. Three US government funding agencies (National Eye
Institute, Department of Energy, and National Science Foundation) have supported the work at Second Sight, USC, UCSC, Caltech, and other research labs.
2545:
459:, rather than on the retina. Many subjects have been implanted with a high success rate and limited negative effects. The project first began in 2002 and was still in the developmental phase, upon the death of Dobelle, selling the eye for profit was ruled against in favor of donating it to a publicly funded research team.
437:
On 2 January 2019, BVT released positive results from a set of trials on four
Australians using a new version of the device. Older versions of the device were only designed to be used temporarily, but the new design allowed the technology to be used constantly, and for the first time outside the lab,
76:
The ability to give sight to a blind person via a bionic eye depends on the circumstances surrounding the loss of sight. For retinal prostheses, which are the most prevalent visual prosthetic under development (due to ease of access to the retina among other considerations), patients with vision loss
425:
BVA was also concurrently developing the High-Acuity device, which incorporated a number of new technologies to bring together a microchip and an implant with 1024 electrodes. The device aimed to provide functional central vision to assist with tasks such as face recognition and reading large print.
325:
The original
Optobionics Corp. stopped operations, but Chow acquired the Optobionics name, the ASR implants and plans to reorganize a new company under the same name. The ASR microchip is a 2mm in diameter silicon chip (same concept as computer chips) containing ~5,000 microscopic solar cells called
302:
Joseph Rizzo and John Wyatt at the
Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and MIT began researching the feasibility of a retinal prosthesis in 1989, and performed a number of proof-of-concept epiretinal stimulation trials on blind volunteers between 1998 and 2000. They have since developed a subretinal
401:
Bionic Vision
Technologies (BVT) is a company, that has taken over the research and commercialisation rights of Bionic Vision Australia (BVA). BVA was a consortium of some of Australia's leading universities and research institutes, and funded by the Australian Research Council from 2010, it ceased
178:
in 2002, this is a spiral cuff electrode around the optic nerve at the back of the eye. It is connected to a stimulator implanted in a small depression in the skull. The stimulator receives signals from an externally worn camera, which are translated into electrical signals that stimulate the optic
979:
Humayun, Mark S.; Dorn, Jessy D.; da Cruz, Lyndon; Dagnelie, Gislin; Sahel, José-Alain; Stanga, Paulo E.; Cideciyan, Artur V.; Duncan, Jacque L.; Eliott, Dean; Filley, Eugene; Ho, Allen C.; Santos, Arturo; Safran, Avinoam B.; Arditi, Aries; Del Priore, Lucian V.; Greenberg, Robert J. (April 2012).
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were to be the first to participate in the studies, followed by age-related macular degeneration. Each prototype consisted of a camera, attached to a pair of glasses which sent the signal to the implanted microchip, where it was converted into electrical impulses to stimulate the remaining healthy
341:
retinal prosthesis in 2012, that includes a subretinal photodiode array and an infrared image projection system mounted on video goggles. Images captured by video camera are processed in a pocket PC and displayed on video goggles using pulsed near-infrared (IR, 880–915 nm) light. These images
421:
While the BVA consortium was still together, the team was led by
Professor Anthony Burkitt, and they were developing two retinal prostheses. One known as The Wide-View device, that combined novel technologies with materials that had been successfully used in other clinical implants. This approach
165:
between 2002 and 2004. In 2007, the company began a trial of its second-generation, 60-electrode implant, dubbed the Argus II, in the US and in Europe. In total 30 subjects participated in the studies spanning 10 sites in four countries. In the spring of 2011, based on the results of the clinical
503:
The
Laboratory of Neural Prosthetics at Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), Chicago, started developing a visual prosthetic using intracortical electrode arrays in 2009. While similar in principle to the Dobelle system, the use of intracortical electrodes allow for greatly increased spatial
266:
similar to those of healthy control participants, and the properties of the eye movements depended on the stimuli that the patients were viewing—suggesting that eye movements might be useful measures for evaluating vision restored by implants. Multicenter study started in 2010, using a fully
117:
Inc., was the first device to have received marketing approval (CE Mark in Europe in 2011). Most other efforts remain investigational; the Retina
Implant AG's Alpha IMS won a CE Mark July 2013 and is a significant improvement in resolution. It is not, however, FDA-approved in the US.
233:
seeking to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of the implantable miniature telescope for patients with late or advanced age-related macular degeneration found only one ongoing study evaluating the OriLens intraocular telescope, with results expected in 2020.
267:
implantable device with 1500 Electrodes Alpha IMS (produced by Retina
Implant AG, Reutlingen, Germany), with 10 patients included; preliminary results were presented at ARVO 2011. The first UK implantations took place in March 2012 and were led by
93:) are the best candidate for treatment. Candidates for visual prosthetic implants find the procedure most successful if the optic nerve was developed prior to the onset of blindness. Persons born with blindness may lack a fully developed
426:
This high-acuity implant would be inserted epiretinally. Patient tests were planned for this device in 2014 once preclinical testing had been completed, it is unknown whether these trials ever took place.
1125:
Lane SS; Kuppermann BD; Fine IH; Hamill MB; et al. (2004). "A prospective multicenter clinical trial to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of the implantable miniature telescope".
113:. Only three visual prosthetic devices have received marketing approval in the EU. Argus II, co-developed at the University of Southern California (USC) Eye Institute and manufactured by
2205:
681:
Provis, Jan M.; Van Driel, Diana; Billson, Frank A.; Russell, Peter (1 August 1985). "Human fetal optic nerve: Overproduction and elimination of retinal axons during development".
294:
On 19 March 2019 Retina Implant AG discontinued business activities quoting innovation-hostile climate of Europe's rigid regulatory systems and unsatisfactory results in patients.
318:
The brothers Alan and Vincent Chow developed a microchip in 2002 containing 3500 photodiodes, which detect light and convert it into electrical impulses, which stimulate healthy
206:
Created by VisionCare Ophthalmic Technologies in conjunction with the CentraSight Treatment Program in 2011, the telescope is about the size of a pea and is implanted behind the
242:
A Southern German team led by the University Eye Hospital in TĂĽbingen, was formed in 1995 by Eberhart Zrenner to develop a subretinal prosthesis. The chip is located behind the
418:. There were many more partners as well. The Australian Federal Government awarded a $ 42 million ARC grant to Bionic Vision Australia to develop bionic vision technology.
752:
1278:
187:
Although not truly an active prosthesis, an implantable miniature telescope is one type of visual implant that has met with some success in the treatment of end-stage
1992:
Macknik; Alexander; Caballero; Chanovas; Nielsen; Nishimura; Schaffer; Slovin; Babayoff; Barak; Tang; Ju; Yazdan-Shahmorad; Alonso; Malinskiy; Martinez Conde (2019).
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724:
382:. The reason given is: Preclinical testing and patient tests should now have completed or have been cancelled (existing text says they were scheduled for 2014).
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is focusing now on developing pixels smaller than 50ÎĽm using 3-D electrodes and utilizing the effect of retinal migration into voids in the subretinal implant.
901:
346:
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262:. Some blind patients were able to read letters, recognize unknown objects, localize a plate, a cup and cutlery. Two of the patients were found to make
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are also developing an intracortical visual prosthetic, called OBServe. The planned system will use an LED array, a video camera, optogenetics,
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142:
933:"Press Release: Ending the Journey through Darkness: Innovative Technology Offers New Hope for Treating Blindness due to Retinitis Pigmentosa"
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and works by increasing (by about three times) the size of the image projected onto the retina in order to overcome a centrally located
175:
609:
162:
1632:
K. Mathieson; J. Loudin; G. Goetz; P. Huie; L. Wang; T. Kamins; L. Galambos; R. Smith; J.S. Harris; A. Sher; D. Palanker (2012).
597:
246:
and utilizes microphotodiode arrays (MPDA) which collect incident light and transform it into electrical current stimulating the
188:
762:
441:
According to fact sheets dated March, 2019, on BVT's website, they expect the device to obtain market approval in 3 to 5 years.
2213:
1843:"Detection, eye-hand coordination and virtual mobility performance in simulated vision for a cortical visual prosthesis device"
338:
157:
in the early 1990s. In the late 1990s the company Second Sight was formed by Greenberg along with medical device entrepreneur,
149:; and Robert Greenberg, now of Second Sight, were the original inventors of the active epi-retinal prosthesis and demonstrated
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neurons in the retina. This information was then passed on to the optic nerve and the vision processing centres of the brain.
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2253:
2064:
138:
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2515:
561:
Dobelle, Wm. H. (January 2000). "Artificial Vision for the Blind by Connecting a Television Camera to the Visual Cortex".
515:
407:
114:
2352:
2315:
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1798:
Rush, Alexander; PR Troyk (November 2012). "A Power and Data Link for a Wireless-Implanted Neural Recording System".
888:
753:"USC Eye Institute ophthalmologists implant first FDA-approved Argus II retinal prosthesis in western United States"
2571:
2520:
2456:
784:
Chuang, Alice T; Margo, Curtis E; Greenberg, Paul B (July 2014). "Retinal implants: a systematic review: Table 1".
280:
1900:"Electrical stimulation of the brain and the development of cortical visual prostheses: An historical perspective"
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2503:
2463:
909:
2601:
2198:
1511:
1486:"HKU performed the first subretinal microchip implantation in Asia Patient regained eyesight after the surgery"
1079:
Chun DW; Heier JS; Raizman MB (2005). "Visual prosthetic device for bilateral end-stage macular degeneration".
343:
154:
132:
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939:
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230:
24:
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2473:
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519:
1231:"Implantable miniature telescope (IMT) for vision loss due to end-stage age-related macular degeneration"
2404:
2087:
2044:
1272:
511:
456:
319:
247:
40:, is an experimental visual device intended to restore functional vision in those with partial or total
729:
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82:
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in use since the mid-1980s. The idea of using electrical current (e.g., electrically stimulating the
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2483:
2243:
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2136:
536:
263:
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of one eye. Images are projected onto healthy areas of the central retina, outside the degenerated
161:, Their first-generation implant had 16 electrodes and was implanted in six subjects by Humayun at
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2161:
2146:
2119:
1823:
1188:
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809:
706:
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150:
109:
Visual prosthetics are being developed as a potentially valuable aid for individuals with visual
90:
78:
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transfection, and eye tracking. Components are currently being developed and tested in animals.
1163:
Lane SS; Kuppermann BD (2006). "The Implantable Miniature Telescope for macular degeneration".
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20:
1573:. Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
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2183:
2178:
2013:
2005:
1911:
1870:
1862:
1807:
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1653:
1405:
1364:
1354:
1313:
1305:
1294:"Subretinal electronic chips allow blind patients to read letters and combine them to words"
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1242:
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1001:
993:
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653:
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219:
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65:
49:
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507:
350:
334:
268:
98:
1618:
1858:
1649:
634:"High-resolution electrical stimulation of primate retina for epiretinal implant design"
486:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
384:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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2325:
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2018:
1993:
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1369:
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1006:
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633:
353:), and is being evaluated in a clinical trial (2018). Following this proof of concept,
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207:
158:
110:
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Similar in function to the Harvard/MIT device, except the stimulator chip sits in the
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797:
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94:
86:
57:
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would obstruct insertion of the telescope. It also requires a large incision in the
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2434:
2302:
2188:
2156:
2009:
1916:
1899:
1827:
1246:
649:
982:"Interim Results from the International Trial of Second Sight's Visual Prosthesis"
965:
1410:
1393:
997:
849:
2429:
2424:
2168:
1485:
1061:
1968:"Sidestepping failing retinas by linking cameras straight to the visual cortex"
1394:"Oculomotor behavior of blind patients seeing with a subretinal visual implant"
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1811:
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1940:
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even to be taken home. More implants are to be administered throughout 2019.
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484:. The reason given is: Is this still in development? This work was in 2012..
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operations on 31 December 2016. The members of the consortium consisted of
145:; engineer Howard D. Phillips; bio-electronics engineer Wentai Liu, now at
101:
makes it possible for the nerve, and sight, to develop after implantation.
702:
694:
2263:
2238:
1595:
2056:
1512:"Retina Implant - Your Expert for retinitis pigmentosa - Retina Implant"
757:
200:
1392:
Hafed, Z; Stingl, K; Bartz-Schmidt, K; Gekeler, F; Zrenner, E (2016).
600:. In Sakas, Damianos E.; Krames, Elliot S.; Simpson, Brian A. (eds.).
1343:"Microsaccade Characteristics in Neurological and Ophthalmic Disease"
243:
223:
211:
53:
1994:"Advanced Circuit and Cellular Imaging Methods in Nonhuman Primates"
1758:
1519:
1341:
Alexander, Robert; Macknik, Stephen; Martinez-Conde, Susana (2018).
902:"Clinical Update: Retina. Retinal Prostheses: Progress and Problems"
326:"microphotodiodes" that each have their own stimulating electrode.
2258:
411:
632:
Sekirnjak C; Hottowy P; Sher A; Dabrowski W; et al. (2008).
889:
Second Sight Amendment No. 3 to Form S-1: Registration Statement
60:) to provide sight dates back to the 18th century, discussed by
2060:
1689:
141:
Department of Ophthalmology in 2001; Eugene Dejuan, now at the
466:
364:
1229:
Gupta A, Lam J, Custis P, Munz S, Fong D, Koster M (2018).
44:. Many devices have been developed, usually modeled on the
1634:"Photovoltaic retinal prosthesis with high pixel density"
863:
1898:
Lewis, Philip M.; Rosenfeld, Jeffrey V. (January 2016).
1783:
Simon Ings (2007). "Chapter 10(3): Making eyes to see".
1492:(Press release). The University of Hong Kong. 3 May 2012
725:"IRIS®II becomes third bionic retina approved in Europe"
598:"Electricity in the treatment of nervous system disease"
1841:
Srivastava, Nishant; PR Troyk; G Dagnelie (June 2009).
1461:"Two blind British men have electronic retinas fitted"
1542:"Retina Implant AG discontinues business activities"
2382:
2301:
2101:
2094:
287:also implanted the TĂĽbingen device in a patient in
97:, which typically develops prior to birth, though
19:For non-functional prostheses or glass eyes, see
16:Device intended to restore vision to blind people
414:, Center for Eye Research Australia (CERA), and
322:. The ASR requires no externally worn devices.
1987:
1985:
1941:"The Amazing Brain: Making Up for Lost Vision"
1590:
1588:
2072:
848:U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science.
8:
1277:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
137:Mark Humayun, who joined the faculty of the
1800:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
850:"Overview of the Artificial Retina Project"
2544:
2098:
2079:
2065:
2057:
1759:"Fact Sheets | Bionic Vision Technologies"
191:. This type of device is implanted in the
170:Microsystem-based visual prosthesis (MIVP)
2017:
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1409:
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1210:. VisionCare Ophthalmic Technologies, Inc
1158:
1156:
1120:
1118:
1029:Sifferlin, Alexandra (19 February 2013).
1005:
657:
2045:Research Fact Sheet ~ Retinal Prostheses
1546:BioRegio STERN | Wirtschaft weiterdenken
1056:
1054:
1052:
2174:Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor
2132:Applications of artificial intelligence
1434:"Blind man 'excited' at retina implant"
553:
330:Photovoltaic retinal prosthesis (PRIMA)
91:geographic atrophy macular degeneration
2400:Differential technological development
1787:. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 276–83.
1292:Eberhart Zrenner; et al. (2010).
1270:
143:University of California San Francisco
883:
881:
7:
2293:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
964:Jonathan Fildes (16 February 2007).
683:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
147:University of California Los Angeles
2489:Future-oriented technology analysis
2152:Progress in artificial intelligence
1939:Collins, Francis (27 August 2019).
337:at Stanford University developed a
153:in acute patient investigations at
1716:Dianne Ashworth 12 months on, 2013
1298:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
1208:"Implantable Telescope Technology"
1177:10.1097/01.icu.0000193067.86627.a1
828:"Humayun faculty page at USC Keck"
174:Designed by Claude Veraart at the
14:
1619:"Photovoltaic Retinal Prosthesis"
163:University of Southern California
48:or bionic ear devices, a type of
2543:
1165:Current Opinion in Ophthalmology
966:"Trials for bionic eye implants"
798:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2013-303708
786:British Journal of Ophthalmology
761:. 27 August 2014. Archived from
575:10.1097/00002480-200001000-00002
471:
369:
361:Bionic Vision Technologies (BVT)
189:age-related macular degeneration
2189:Fourth-generation optical discs
1947:. National Institutes of Health
1031:"FDA approves first bionic eye"
931:Second Sight (9 January 2007).
887:Second Sight. 14 November 2014
864:"Second Sight official website"
596:Fodstad, H.; Hariz, M. (2007).
463:Intracortical visual prosthesis
307:Artificial silicon retina (ASR)
238:TĂĽbingen MPDA Project Alpha IMS
183:Implantable miniature telescope
2010:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1168-19.2019
1917:10.1016/j.brainres.2015.08.038
1247:10.1002/14651858.CD011140.pub2
650:10.1523/jneurosci.5138-07.2008
139:Keck School of Medicine of USC
1:
2516:Technology in science fiction
1847:Journal of Neural Engineering
1568:"The Retinal Implant Project"
516:SUNY Downstate Medical Center
335:Daniel Palanker and his group
115:Second Sight Medical Products
1867:10.1088/1741-2560/6/3/035008
1411:10.1016/j.visres.2015.04.006
998:10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.09.028
900:Miriam Karmel (March 2012).
254:are far more efficient than
105:Technological considerations
1459:Fergus Walsh (3 May 2012).
416:The University of Melbourne
298:Harvard/MIT Retinal Implant
2618:
2521:Technology readiness level
2457:Technological unemployment
1785:The Eye: a natural history
1235:Cochrane Database Syst Rev
866:. 2-sight.com. 21 May 2015
448:
310:
231:Cochrane systematic review
130:
18:
2539:
2504:Technological singularity
2464:Technological convergence
1812:10.1109/tbme.2012.2214385
1139:10.1016/j.ajo.2004.01.030
602:Operative Neuromodulation
480:This section needs to be
378:This section needs to be
72:Biological considerations
36:, often referred to as a
2316:Brain–computer interface
2199:Holographic data storage
2050:19 February 2013 at the
1658:10.1038/nphoton.2012.104
1360:10.3389/fneur.2018.00144
1093:10.1586/17434440.2.6.657
604:. Springer. p. 11.
155:Johns Hopkins University
133:Argus retinal prosthesis
127:Argus retinal prosthesis
2469:Technological evolution
2442:Exploratory engineering
2194:3D optical data storage
2127:Artificial intelligence
1998:Journal of Neuroscience
349:23 October 2018 at the
311:For vision sensor, see
281:King's College Hospital
77:due to degeneration of
25:Craniofacial prosthesis
2479:Technology forecasting
2474:Technological paradigm
2447:Proactionary principle
2321:Electroencephalography
2288:Software-defined radio
1347:Frontiers in Neurology
1310:10.1098/rspb.2010.1747
1081:Expert Rev Med Devices
520:adeno-associated virus
320:retinal ganglion cells
248:retinal ganglion cells
2405:Disruptive innovation
2088:Emerging technologies
1516:www.retina-implant.de
695:10.1002/cne.902380108
512:Susana Martinez-Conde
457:primary visual cortex
176:University of Louvain
68:, and Charles LeRoy.
2452:Technological change
2395:Collingridge dilemma
2115:Ambient intelligence
431:retinitis pigmentosa
273:University of Oxford
260:retinitis pigmentosa
83:retinitis pigmentosa
2587:Implants (medicine)
2577:Blindness equipment
2509:Technology scouting
2484:Accelerating change
2137:Machine translation
1945:NIH Director's Blog
1859:2009JNEng...6c5008S
1650:2012NaPho...6..391M
912:on 15 February 2015
537:Bionic contact lens
2526:Technology roadmap
2162:Speech recognition
2147:Mobile translation
2120:Internet of things
542:Human echolocation
451:William H. Dobelle
151:proof of principle
2572:Artificial organs
2559:
2558:
2378:
2377:
2363:Visual prosthesis
2271:Optical computing
2004:(42): 8267–8274.
1304:(1711): 1489–97.
1206:Lipshitz, Isaac.
1066:The Body Electric
765:on 5 January 2015
730:fightingblindness
501:
500:
404:Bionics Institute
399:
398:
197:posterior chamber
62:Benjamin Franklin
50:neural prosthesis
34:visual prosthesis
21:Ocular prosthesis
2609:
2592:Neuroprosthetics
2547:
2546:
2494:Horizon scanning
2410:Ephemeralization
2343:Neuroprosthetics
2336:Neuroinformatics
2311:Artificial brain
2249:Racetrack memory
2184:Extended reality
2179:Cybermethodology
2099:
2081:
2074:
2067:
2058:
2032:
2031:
2021:
1989:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1936:
1930:
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1919:
1895:
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1727:
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1725:
1723:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1669:
1638:Nature Photonics
1629:
1623:
1622:
1617:Palanker Group.
1614:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1592:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1572:
1566:Wyatt, J.L. Jr.
1563:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1522:on 5 August 2020
1518:. Archived from
1508:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1482:
1476:
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1473:
1471:
1456:
1450:
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1076:
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1026:
1020:
1019:
1009:
976:
970:
969:
961:
955:
954:
952:
950:
944:
938:. Archived from
937:
928:
922:
921:
919:
917:
908:. Archived from
897:
891:
885:
876:
875:
873:
871:
860:
854:
853:
845:
839:
838:
836:
834:
824:
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781:
775:
774:
772:
770:
749:
743:
742:
740:
738:
721:
715:
714:
678:
672:
671:
661:
629:
623:
622:
620:
618:
593:
587:
586:
558:
496:
493:
487:
475:
474:
467:
394:
391:
385:
373:
372:
365:
220:intraocular lens
216:cataract surgery
179:nerve directly.
122:Ongoing projects
66:Tiberius Cavallo
46:cochlear implant
2617:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2606:
2602:Medical devices
2562:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2535:
2374:
2370:Neurotechnology
2358:Retinal implant
2297:
2108:
2105:
2104:Information and
2090:
2085:
2052:Wayback Machine
2041:
2036:
2035:
1991:
1990:
1983:
1973:
1971:
1970:. FierceBiotech
1965:
1964:
1960:
1950:
1948:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1806:(11): 3255–62.
1797:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1767:
1765:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1743:
1741:
1735:
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1721:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1698:
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1626:
1616:
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1601:
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1594:
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1565:
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1540:
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1510:
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1505:
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1483:
1479:
1469:
1467:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1443:
1441:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1398:Vision Research
1391:
1390:
1386:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1269:
1241:(5): CD011140.
1228:
1227:
1223:
1213:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1162:
1161:
1154:
1133:(6): 993–1001.
1127:Am J Ophthalmol
1124:
1123:
1116:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1060:
1059:
1050:
1040:
1038:
1028:
1027:
1023:
978:
977:
973:
963:
962:
958:
948:
946:
945:on 5 March 2023
942:
935:
930:
929:
925:
915:
913:
906:Eyenet Magazine
899:
898:
894:
886:
879:
869:
867:
862:
861:
857:
847:
846:
842:
832:
830:
826:
825:
821:
783:
782:
778:
768:
766:
751:
750:
746:
736:
734:
723:
722:
718:
680:
679:
675:
644:(17): 4446–56.
631:
630:
626:
616:
614:
612:
595:
594:
590:
560:
559:
555:
550:
528:
508:Stephen Macknik
497:
491:
488:
485:
476:
472:
465:
453:
447:
395:
389:
386:
383:
374:
370:
363:
351:Wayback Machine
332:
316:
309:
300:
269:Robert MacLaren
240:
203:or blind spot.
185:
172:
135:
129:
124:
107:
99:neuroplasticity
74:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2615:
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2605:
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2355:
2350:
2340:
2339:
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2333:
2326:Mind uploading
2323:
2318:
2313:
2307:
2305:
2299:
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2296:
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2290:
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2284:
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2208:
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2196:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2142:Machine vision
2139:
2134:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2111:
2109:
2106:communications
2102:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2069:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2040:
2039:External links
2037:
2034:
2033:
1981:
1958:
1931:
1904:Brain Research
1890:
1833:
1790:
1775:
1750:
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1425:
1384:
1333:
1284:
1221:
1198:
1152:
1114:
1071:
1048:
1021:
992:(4): 779–788.
971:
956:
923:
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877:
855:
840:
819:
792:(7): 852–856.
776:
744:
716:
673:
624:
610:
588:
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549:
546:
545:
544:
539:
534:
527:
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449:Main article:
446:
443:
429:Patients with
397:
396:
377:
375:
368:
362:
359:
355:Palanker group
331:
328:
313:Silicon retina
308:
305:
299:
296:
252:photoreceptors
239:
236:
184:
181:
171:
168:
159:Alfred E. Mann
131:Main article:
128:
125:
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120:
106:
103:
79:photoreceptors
73:
70:
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10:
9:
6:
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2531:Transhumanism
2529:
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2349:
2348:Brain implant
2346:
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2334:
2332:
2331:Brain-reading
2329:
2328:
2327:
2324:
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2309:
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2300:
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2281:Chipless RFID
2279:
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2158:
2155:
2153:
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2148:
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2143:
2140:
2138:
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2130:
2129:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2110:
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2100:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2077:
2075:
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2062:
2059:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1969:
1966:Hale, Conor.
1962:
1959:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1853:(3): 035008.
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1834:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1779:
1776:
1764:
1763:bionicvis.com
1760:
1754:
1751:
1740:
1739:
1738:Channel 9 BVT
1732:
1729:
1718:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1644:(6): 391–97.
1643:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1625:
1620:
1613:
1610:
1598:. Optobionics
1597:
1596:"ASR® Device"
1591:
1589:
1585:
1569:
1562:
1559:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1521:
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1491:
1487:
1481:
1478:
1466:
1462:
1455:
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1429:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
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1385:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
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1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
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1186:
1182:
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1174:
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1157:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1087:(6): 657–65.
1086:
1082:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1049:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
986:Ophthalmology
983:
975:
972:
967:
960:
957:
941:
934:
927:
924:
911:
907:
903:
896:
893:
890:
884:
882:
878:
865:
859:
856:
851:
844:
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820:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
780:
777:
764:
760:
759:
754:
748:
745:
733:. August 2016
732:
731:
726:
720:
717:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
689:(1): 92–100.
688:
684:
677:
674:
669:
665:
660:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
628:
625:
613:
611:9783211330791
607:
603:
599:
592:
589:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
563:ASAIO Journal
557:
554:
547:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
529:
525:
523:
521:
517:
513:
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505:
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469:
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452:
444:
442:
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435:
432:
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423:
419:
417:
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409:
405:
393:
381:
376:
367:
366:
360:
358:
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352:
348:
345:
340:
336:
329:
327:
323:
321:
314:
306:
304:
297:
295:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
265:
264:microsaccades
261:
257:
253:
250:. As natural
249:
245:
237:
235:
232:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
204:
202:
198:
194:
190:
182:
180:
177:
169:
167:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
134:
126:
121:
119:
116:
112:
104:
102:
100:
96:
95:optical nerve
92:
88:
87:choroideremia
84:
80:
71:
69:
67:
63:
59:
58:visual cortex
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
30:
26:
22:
2548:
2435:Robot ethics
2362:
2303:Neuroscience
2157:Semantic Web
2001:
1997:
1972:. Retrieved
1961:
1949:. Retrieved
1944:
1934:
1907:
1903:
1893:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1784:
1778:
1766:. Retrieved
1762:
1753:
1742:, retrieved
1737:
1731:
1720:, retrieved
1715:
1709:
1697:. Retrieved
1694:Bionicvision
1693:
1684:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1612:
1600:. Retrieved
1575:. Retrieved
1561:
1549:. Retrieved
1545:
1536:
1524:. Retrieved
1520:the original
1515:
1506:
1494:. Retrieved
1489:
1480:
1468:. Retrieved
1464:
1454:
1442:. Retrieved
1440:. 3 May 2012
1437:
1428:
1401:
1397:
1387:
1353:(144): 144.
1350:
1346:
1336:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1273:cite journal
1238:
1234:
1224:
1212:. Retrieved
1201:
1171:(1): 94–98.
1168:
1164:
1130:
1126:
1084:
1080:
1074:
1065:
1039:. Retrieved
1034:
1024:
989:
985:
974:
959:
947:. Retrieved
940:the original
926:
914:. Retrieved
910:the original
905:
895:
868:. Retrieved
858:
843:
831:. Retrieved
822:
789:
785:
779:
767:. Retrieved
763:the original
756:
747:
735:. Retrieved
728:
719:
686:
682:
676:
641:
637:
627:
615:. Retrieved
601:
591:
566:
562:
556:
506:
502:
492:January 2019
489:
481:
454:
440:
436:
428:
424:
420:
400:
390:January 2019
387:
379:
339:photovoltaic
333:
324:
317:
301:
293:
241:
228:
205:
186:
173:
136:
108:
75:
37:
33:
31:
29:
2597:Prosthetics
2499:Moore's law
2430:Neuroethics
2425:Cyberethics
2169:Atomtronics
1974:11 November
1951:10 November
1910:: 208–224.
1690:"About BVA"
1526:10 February
1404:: 119–131.
1062:James Geary
1041:22 February
949:15 February
916:15 February
833:15 February
445:Dobelle Eye
408:UNSW Sydney
283:in London.
277:Tim Jackson
256:photodiodes
226:to insert.
111:degradation
2566:Categories
2390:Automation
1068:. Phoenix.
638:J Neurosci
569:(1): 3–9.
548:References
410:, Data 61
285:David Wong
38:bionic eye
2420:Bioethics
2353:Exocortex
2229:Millipede
769:5 January
532:Brainport
289:Hong Kong
42:blindness
2264:UltraRAM
2048:Archived
2028:31619496
1926:26348986
1885:19458397
1820:22922687
1768:9 August
1744:9 August
1722:9 August
1699:9 August
1676:23049619
1602:20 March
1577:20 March
1465:BBC News
1438:BBC News
1420:25906684
1379:29593642
1328:21047851
1265:29847689
1214:20 March
1193:28740344
1185:16436930
1147:15183782
1109:40168891
1101:16293092
1064:(2002).
1016:22244176
814:25193594
806:24403565
737:5 August
711:42902826
668:18434523
583:10667705
526:See also
347:Archived
2210:Memory
2019:6794937
1876:3902177
1855:Bibcode
1828:5412047
1667:3462820
1646:Bibcode
1551:30 June
1370:5859063
1319:3081743
1256:6022289
1007:3319859
870:12 June
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