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misplaced. He explains that energy exists in discrete packets called quanta. Energy fields are composed of their component parts and so only exist when quanta are present. Therefore, energy fields are not holistic, but are rather a system of discrete parts that must obey the laws of physics. This also means that energy fields are not instantaneous. These facts of quantum physics place limitations on the infinite, continuous field that is used by some theorists to describe so-called "human energy fields". Stenger continues, explaining that the effects of EM forces have been measured by physicists as accurately as one part in a billion and there is yet to be any evidence that living organisms emit a unique field.
2027:"Chiropractors are not unique in recognizing a tendency and capacity for self-repair and auto-regulation of human physiology. But we surely stick out like a sore thumb among professions which claim to be scientifically based by our unrelenting commitment to vitalism. So long as we propound the 'One cause, one cure' rhetoric of Innate, we should expect to be met by ridicule from the wider health science community. Chiropractors can't have it both ways. Our theories cannot be both dogmatically held vitalistic constructs and be scientific at the same time. The purposiveness, consciousness and rigidity of the Palmers' Innate should be rejected."
1963:"It is, therefore, unwarranted to continue the statement that in addition to the acceleration of oxidations the beginning of individual life is determined by the entrance of a metaphysical "life principle" into the egg; and that death is determined, aside from the cessation of oxidations, by the departure of this "principle" from the body. In the case of the evaporation of water we are satisfied with the explanation given by the kinetic theory of gases and do not demand that to repeat a well-known jest of Huxley the disappearance of the "aquosity" be also taken into consideration." (pp. 14–15)
2019:"Vitalism is that rejected tradition in biology which proposes that life is sustained and explained by an unmeasurable, intelligent force or energy. The supposed effects of vitalism are the manifestations of life itself, which in turn are the basis for inferring the concept in the first place. This circular reasoning offers pseudo-explanation, and may deceive us into believing we have explained some aspect of biology when in fact we have only labeled our ignorance. 'Explaining an unknown (life) with an unknowable (Innate),' suggests chiropractor Joseph Donahue, 'is absurd'."
1771:. In Franklin's garden, a patient was led to each of five trees, one of which had been "mesmerized"; he hugged each in turn to receive the "vital fluid," but fainted at the foot of a 'wrong' one. At Lavoisier's house, four normal cups of water were held before a "sensitive" woman; the fourth produced convulsions, but she calmly swallowed the mesmerized contents of a fifth, believing it to be plain water. The commissioners concluded that "the fluid without imagination is powerless, whereas imagination without the fluid can produce the effects of the fluid."
3302:(1800–82) synthesized an organic compound from an inorganic substance, a process that vitalists considered to be impossible. ... Vitalists claim to be scientific, but in fact they reject the scientific method with its basic postulates of cause and effect and of provability. They often regard subjective experience to be more valid than objective material reality. Today, vitalism is one of the ideas that form the basis for many pseudoscientific health systems that claim that illnesses are caused by a disturbance or imbalance of the body's vital force.
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1528:(1867–1941) interpreted his experiments as showing that life is not run by physicochemical laws. His main argument was that when one cuts up an embryo after its first division or two, each part grows into a complete adult. Driesch's reputation as an experimental biologist deteriorated as a result of his vitalistic theories, which scientists have seen since his time as pseudoscience. Vitalism is a superseded scientific hypothesis, and the term is sometimes used as a
3298:– The concept that bodily functions are due to a 'vital principle' or 'life force' that is distinct from the physical forces explainable by the laws of chemistry and physics. Many alternative approaches to modern medicine are rooted in vitalism. ... The exact nature of the vital force was debated by early philosophers, but vitalism in one form or another remained the preferred thinking behind most science and medicine until 1828. That year, German scientist
1476:, which became the leading textbook in the field for much of the nineteenth century. The book showed MĂĽller's commitments to vitalism; he questioned why organic matter differs from inorganic, then proceeded to chemical analyses of the blood and lymph. He describes in detail the circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, endocrine, nervous, and sensory systems in a wide variety of animals but explains that the presence of a
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the writings of philosophers than it did in the writings of physicists. But so far as I know, there are no vitalists among the philosophers of biology who started publishing after 1965. Nor do I know of a single reputable living biologist who still supports straightforward vitalism. The few late twentieth-century biologists with vitalist leanings (A. Hardy, S. Wright, A. Portmann) are no longer alive.
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1856:, promoted an immaterial, vitalistic view of disease: "...they are solely spirit-like (dynamic) derangements of the spirit-like power (the vital principle) that animates the human body." The view of disease as a dynamic disturbance of the immaterial and dynamic vital force is taught in many homeopathic colleges and constitutes a fundamental principle for many contemporary practising homeopaths.
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1461:, as historian Peter Ramberg called it, originated from a popular history of chemistry published in 1931, which, "ignoring all pretense of historical accuracy, turned Wöhler into a crusader who made attempt after attempt to synthesize a natural product that would refute vitalism and lift the veil of ignorance, until 'one afternoon the miracle happened'".
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2216:) published a series of works that in Evelyn Fox Keller's view took on the task of uprooting the remaining vestiges of vitalism, essentially by showing that the principles of physics and chemistry were enough, by themselves, to account for the growth and development of biological form. On the other hand,
1636:, in which the properties of a system cannot be fully described in terms of the properties of the constituents. This may be because the properties of the constituents are not fully understood, or because the interactions between the individual constituents are important for the behavior of the system.
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It would be ahistorical to ridicule vitalists. When one reads the writings of one of the leading vitalists like
Driesch one is forced to agree with him that many of the basic problems of biology simply cannot be solved by a philosophy as that of Descartes, in which the organism is simply considered a
2043:
According to
Williams, "oday, vitalism is one of the ideas that form the basis for many pseudoscientific health systems that claim that illnesses are caused by a disturbance or imbalance of the body's vital force." "Vitalists claim to be scientific, but in fact they reject the scientific method with
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is a belief that starts from the premise that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things." Where vitalism explicitly invokes a vital principle, that element is
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Yet considering how dominant vitalism was in biology and for how long a period it prevailed, it is surprising how rapidly and completely it collapsed. The last support of vitalism as a viable concept in biology disappeared about 1930." (p. 94) From p. 95: "Vitalism survived even longer in
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On the one hand, many scientists and philosophers regard emergence as having only a pseudo-scientific status. On the other hand, new developments in physics, biology, psychology, and cross-disciplinary fields such as cognitive science, artificial life, and the study of non-linear dynamical systems
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Vitalistic thinking has been identified in the naive biological theories of children: "Recent experimental results show that a majority of preschoolers tend to choose vitalistic explanations as most plausible. Vitalism, together with other forms of intermediate causality, constitute unique causal
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Such a field is sometimes explained as electromagnetic, though some advocates also make confused appeals to quantum physics. Joanne
Stefanatos states that "The principles of energy medicine originate in quantum physics." Stenger offers several explanations as to why this line of reasoning may be
2003:
was especially reviewed by Sokal, who concluded, "nearly all the pseudoscientific systems to be examined in this essay are based philosophically on vitalism" and added that "Mainstream science has rejected vitalism since at least the 1930s, for a plethora of good reasons that have only become
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in 1913. Haldane borrowed arguments from the vitalists to use against mechanism; however, he was not a vitalist. Haldane treated the organism as fundamental to biology: "we perceive the organism as a self-regulating entity", "every effort to analyze it into components that can be reduced to a
1509:, performed several experiments that he felt supported vitalism. According to Bechtel, Pasteur "fitted fermentation into a more general programme describing special reactions that only occur in living organisms. These are irreducibly vital phenomena." Rejecting the claims of Berzelius,
2039:, for example, pointed out the irrationality of attributing behavior to mental states and traits. Such 'mental way stations,' he argued, amount to excess theoretical baggage which fails to advance cause-and-effect explanations by substituting an unfathomable psychology of 'mind'."
1845:" field of a patient is manipulated by a practitioner. The subtle energy is held to exist beyond the electromagnetic energy produced by the heart and brain. Beverly Rubik describes the biofield as a "complex, dynamic, extremely weak EM field within and around the human body...."
1309:, that is, he marks the point when embryonic development began to be described in terms of the proliferation of cells rather than the incarnation of a preformed soul. However, this degree of empirical observation was not matched by a mechanistic philosophy: in his
1605:. Haldane stated that a purely mechanist interpretation could not account for the characteristics of life. Haldane wrote a number of books in which he attempted to show the invalidity of both vitalism and mechanist approaches to science. Haldane explained:
1156:, between those who felt that the known mechanics of physics would eventually explain the difference between life and non-life and vitalists who argued that the processes of life could not be reduced to a mechanistic process. Vitalist biologists such as
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like names applied to every other kind of vital power, of itself, explains nothing: it serves merely to designate a peculiar power formed by the combination of the mechanical principle with that which is susceptible of
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with vitalist theories: that whereas the chemical transformations undergone by non-living substances are reversible, so-called "organic" matter is permanently altered by chemical transformations (such as cooking).
1998:
published an analysis of the wide acceptance among professional nurses of "scientific theories" of spiritual healing. (Pseudoscience and
Postmodernism: Antagonists or Fellow-Travelers?). Use of a technique called
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Vitalism has become so disreputable a belief in the last fifty years that no biologist alive today would want to be classified as a vitalist. Still, the remnants of vitalist thinking can be found in the work of
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See; briefly, some philosophers see emergentism as midway between traditional spiritual vitalism and mechanistic reductionism; others argue that, structurally, emergentism is equivalent to vitalism. See
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We must find a different theoretical basis of biology, based on the observation that all the phenomena concerned tend towards being so coordinated that they express what is normal for an adult organism.
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makes each organism an indivisible whole. He claimed that the behaviour of light and sound waves showed that living organisms possessed a life-energy for which physical laws could never fully account.
1437:, argued that a regulative force must exist within living matter to maintain its functions. Berzelius contended that compounds could be distinguished by whether they required any organisms in their
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within organisms, and between organisms and the environment, which occur by normal physical and chemical processes. This is not, however, what the new vitalists have in mind. They imagine the
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meant to show inadequacies with mechanistic explanations, but their experiments failed to provide support for vitalism. Biologists now consider vitalism in this sense to have been refuted by
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repeated this feat for numerous organic compounds. In retrospect, Wöhler's work was the beginning of the end of
Berzelius's vitalist hypothesis, but only in retrospect, as Ramberg had shown.
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to describe his work, claiming that it would eventually be verified through experimentation, and that it was an improvement over the other vitalistic theories. The work of Reinke influenced
1971:, and therefore a pernicious metaphysical doctrine." For many scientists, "vitalist" theories were unsatisfactory "holding positions" on the pathway to mechanistic understanding. In 1967,
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have focused strongly on the high level 'collective behaviour' of complex systems, which is often said to be truly emergent, and the term is increasingly used to characterize such systems.
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Mihi a docto doctore / Demandatur causam et rationem quare / Opium facit dormire. / A quoi respondeo, / Quia est in eo / Vertus dormitiva, / Cujus est natura / Sensus assoupire.
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Ramberg, Peter J. (2000). "The Death of
Vitalism and the Birth of Organic Chemistry: Wohler's Urea Synthesis and the Disciplinary Identity of Organic Chemistry".
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1815:. Amongst unterritorialized traditions such as religions and arts, forms of vitalism continue to exist as philosophical positions or as memorial tenets.
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its basic postulates of cause and effect and of provability. They often regard subjective experience to be more valid than objective material reality."
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from inorganic components in 1828. However, contemporary accounts do not support the common belief that vitalism died when Wöhler made urea. This
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In medicine and biology, vitalism has been seen as a philosophically-charged term, a pseudoscientific gloss that corrupted scientific practice …
1979:, stated "And so to those of you who may be vitalists I would make this prophecy: what everyone believed yesterday, and you believe today, only
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and others that fermentation resulted from chemical agents or catalysts within cells, Pasteur concluded that fermentation was a "vital action".
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of the Hotel Dieu." However, "Bichat moved from the tendency typical of the French vitalistic tradition to progressively free himself from
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1955:"... we must either succeed in producing living matter artificially, or we must find the reasons why this is impossible." (pp. 5–6)
1735:="breath") specifically to identify his force as a quality that belonged to all creatures with breath; viz., the animate beings: humans
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The notion that bodily functions are due to a vitalistic principle existing in all living creatures has roots going back at least to
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Whether emergence should be grouped with traditional vitalist concepts is a matter of semantic controversy. According to
Emmeche
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Another criticism is that vitalists have failed to rule out mechanistic explanations. This is rather obvious in retrospect for
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practices posited that disease results from some imbalance in vital forces. One example of a similar notion in Africa is the
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in order to combine with hypotheses and theories which accorded to the scientific criteria of physics and chemistry."
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Bowler, Peter J. Reconciling science and religion: the debate in early-twentieth-century
Britain, 2001, pp. 168–169.
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3050:"Evaluating Mesmerism, Paris, 1784: the controversy over the blinded placebo controlled trials has not stopped"
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1449:). Vitalist chemists predicted that organic materials could not be synthesized from inorganic components, but
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3098:"Complementary and Alternative Medicine – U.S. National Library of Medicine Collection Development Manual"
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and established that the removed parts would regenerate. He inferred the presence of a "formative drive" (
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states that the term "bioenergetics" "is applied in biochemistry to refer to the readily measurable
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Virtual
Laboratory: Essays and Resources on the Experimentalization of Life (Max Planck Institute)
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mechanical explanation violates this central experience". The work of
Haldane was an influence on
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compared vitalism to stating that water is the way it is because of its "aquosity". His grandson
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was influential in establishing epigenesis in the life sciences in 1781 with his publication of
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2994:"Does a robot have an Umwelt? Reflections on the qualitative biosemiotics of Jakob von UexkĂĽll"
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Mesmer felt that this particular force/power only resided in the bodies of humans and animals.
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Inagaki, K.; Hatano, G. (2004). "'Vitalistic causality in young children's naive biology.'".
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2035:"Vitalism has many faces and has sprung up in many areas of scientific inquiry. Psychologist
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The Rise and Decline of Colloid Science in North America, 1900–1935: The Neglected Dimension
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1944:
1943:, in which he described experiments on how a sea urchin could have a pin for its father, as
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philosophy early on in his career. Haldane saw his work as a vindication of his belief that
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This article is about the non-mechanist philosophy. For the Jain philosophical concept, see
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Making Sense of Life Explaining Biological Development with Models, Metaphors, and Machines
1767:. The commissioners learned about Mesmeric theory, and saw its patients fall into fits and
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By 1931, biologists had "almost unanimously abandoned vitalism as an acknowledged belief."
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for the vitalist hypothesis that only organisms could make the components of living things.
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The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy and Science
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field as a holistic living force that goes beyond reductionist physics and chemistry."
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was an essential concept in biology. His views became widely known with his first book
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Molecular biology vs. organicism: The enduring dispute between mechanism and vitalism.
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For vital force and vitalism in the Spanish context, see Nicolás Fernández-Medina's
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2893:"A century of (epithelial) transport physiology: from vitalism to molecular cloning"
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While many vitalistic theories have in fact been falsified, notably Mesmerism, the
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Vitalism and the Scientific Image in Post-Enlightenment Life Science, 1800–2010
6012:
5741:
5732:
5719:
5463:
5426:
5274:
5239:
5098:
5088:
5058:
4966:
4934:
4652:
4553:
4475:
4462:
4351:
4211:
3896:
3783:
3761:
3714:
3709:
3657:
3625:
2851:
2843:
2620:
2138:
2106:
1995:
1887:
1869:
1849:
1602:
1536:
1529:
1469:
1324:
1315:(1759), he tried to explain the emergence of the organism by the actions of a
1306:
1164:
1062:
559:
544:
534:
422:
169:
119:
2536:
1354:, "the claims of the vitalists came to the fore again" in the 18th century: "
5779:
5372:
5005:
4943:
4917:
4890:
4786:
4637:
4381:
4201:
3864:
3612:
3505:
3197:
20:238–253, who describes Crick's remark as "raising spectral red herrings".
2237:
succeeded in making acetic acid from inorganic compounds, and in the 1850s,
2111:
1905:
1764:
1748:
1744:
1633:
1593:
1579:
1434:
1410:
1228:
1190:
practices posited that disease results from some imbalance in vital forces.
984:
944:
919:
624:
584:
449:
3442:
3379:
Complementary and Alternative Veterinary Medicine: Principles and Practices
3083:
2959:
2628:
2585:
3012:
2918:
2739:"BOTANY ONLINE: Ernst MAYR: Walter Arndt Lecture: The Autonomy of Biology"
17:
5517:
4885:
4037:
3891:
3065:
2183:
2076:
1589:
1562:, who seem to believe in some sort of nonmaterial principle in organisms.
1238:
1233:
1161:
897:
805:
98:
5306:
4835:
3025:
Emmeche, C. (1997) Explaining Emergence: towards an ontology of levels.
5497:
4331:
4231:
4079:
4074:
3788:
3540:
3210:
Pseudoscience and Postmodernism: Antagonists or Fellow-Travelers? (pdf)
3191:
2504:
1780:
1532:
1183:
989:
907:
872:
862:
604:
2951:
10.1002/1097-0177(2000)9999:9999<::AID-DVDY1036>3.0.CO;2-A
2577:
2007:
Joseph C. Keating, Jr. discusses vitalism's past and present roles in
1358:'s followers were active as were others, such as the physician genius
5564:
2148:
2143:
1838:
1768:
1544:
machine... The logic of the critique of the vitalists was impeccable.
1510:
1247:
1077:
902:
857:
524:
3394:, University of Wales College of Medicine, viewed 30 November 2006,
3281:
Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy
1231:, this account was supplemented, (for example, by the unpredictable
3520:
3400:
3392:
Unitary Health Care: Martha Rogers' Science of Unitary Human Beings
2785:
2764:
Toward a new philosophy of biology: observations of an evolutionist
2385:"Developmental Biology 8e Online: A Selective History of Induction"
2355:
A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier
4287:
4096:
3995:
3131:
1897:
1863:
1830:
1825:, associated with vitalism, especially biofield therapies such as
1812:
1667:
1482:
1409:
1258:
1253:
954:
929:
810:
360:
2023:
Keating views vitalism as incompatible with scientific thinking:
1693:(1734–1815). However, the use of the (conventional) English term
5443:
4246:
2818:
2816:
1807:. Multiple Asian traditions posited an imbalance or blocking of
1477:
1454:
1415:
1265:
from the air, which the blood communicates throughout the body.
939:
793:
5310:
4839:
3544:
3534:
Life Embodied: The Promise of Vital Force in Spanish Modernity
3515:
1976:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2466:
3342:"The Physics of 'Alternative Medicine': Bioenergetic Fields"
2838:
2836:
2407:"Chapter 5: Life and the Mind in Nineteenth-Century Britain"
1705:
Mesmer chose his term to clearly distinguish his variant of
1370:
recognised "a 'living principle' in addition to mechanics."
2158:
1935:, but the criticism goes back at least a century. In 1912,
1834:
1808:
892:
3190:. Crick's remark is cited and discussed in: Hein H (2004)
1273:
In Europe, medieval physics was influenced by the idea of
2786:"Jung's concept of die Dominanten (the Dominants) (1997)"
2066:
devices for naive biology as a core domain of thought."
1632:
Contemporary science and engineering sometimes describe
2934:"Embracing complexity: organicism for the 21st century"
1920:
to explaining a railroad locomotive's operation by its
1390:) in living matter. But he pointed out that this name,
3471:
The Liberation of Life: From the Cell to the Community
1327:, a form of life-energy that permeates living things.
3244:
Keating, Joseph C. (2002), "The Meanings of Innate",
3186:; Great Minds Series Prometheus Books 2004, reviewed
2560:
Kinne-Saffran, E.; Kinne, R. K. H. (August 7, 1999).
2409:. In Normandin, Sebastian; Wolfe, T. Charles (eds.).
1588:
adopted an anti-mechanist approach to biology and an
3246:
The Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association
2325:"17. From Organicism to Mechanism-and Halfway Back?"
1896:, where a quack "answers" the question of "Why does
5985:
5976:
5878:
5808:
5622:
5344:
5283:
5177:
5029:
4942:
4873:
4705:
4630:
4534:
4461:
4417:
4272:
4176:
3993:
3952:
3821:
3611:
2659:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A
1841:
healing and SHEN therapy. In these therapies, the "
1747:of France appointed two commissions to investigate
1685:
A popular vitalist theory of the 18th century was "
1433:, one of the early 19th century founders of modern
1132:
often referred to as the "vital spark", "energy", "
3222:"Joseph C. Keating, Jr., PhD: Biographical sketch"
3239:
3237:
3235:
1967:Bechtel states that vitalism "is often viewed as
1330:In the 17th century, modern science responded to
2981:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
2329:Beyond Mechanism: Putting Life Back Into Biology
2277:Bechtel, William; Williamson, Robert C. (1998).
1378:Über den Bildungstrieb und das Zeugungsgeschäfte
3128:American Medical Student Association Foundation
1743:Mesmer's ideas became so influential that King
1709:force from those referred to, at that time, as
1645:
1607:
1547:
1541:
1392:
1152:. In the 18th and 19th centuries, vitalism was
1799:, these vital forces were associated with the
1301:(1733–1794) is considered to be the father of
5322:
4851:
3556:
3346:The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine
2327:. In Henning, Brian G.; Scarfe, Adam (eds.).
1109:
8:
3048:Best, M.; Neuhauser, D.; Slavin, L. (2003).
2295:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3491:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
3270:
3268:
2506:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
2031:Keating also mentions Skinner's viewpoint:
5982:
5329:
5315:
5307:
4858:
4844:
4836:
3563:
3549:
3541:
3332:
3330:
3328:
2716:"Psychic Energy: A Historical Perspective"
2220:notes that D'Arcy Thompson's avoidance of
1882:Vitalism has sometimes been criticized as
1323:(1788–1869) later developed the theory of
1116:
1102:
185:Association for Research and Enlightenment
40:
5948:Relationship between religion and science
3257:
3156:Le Malade imaginaire, (French Wikisource)
3073:
3027:Journal for General Philosophy of Science
2949:
2908:
2544:
2476:
2457:
2272:
2270:
2268:
1959:Loeb addressed vitalism more explicitly:
1505:(1822–1895) after his famous rebuttal of
4797:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
3205:
3203:
3117:
3115:
3113:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2224:had an "odor of spirit forces" about it.
1975:, the co-discoverer of the structure of
2979:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2714:Galatzer-Levy, R. M. (August 7, 1976).
2264:
2196:
1795:. In the European tradition founded by
1175:, or, since the mid-20th century, as a
52:
2802:
2791:
2487:
2485:
2288:
1890:had famously parodied this fallacy in
1819:Complementary and alternative medicine
4560:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
3468:Birch, Charles; Cobb, John B (1985).
3375:Introduction to Bioenergetic Medicine
1701:can be misleading for three reasons:
1490:argued that only life could catalyse
1289:Vitalists included English anatomist
7:
2400:
2398:
2283:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2169:Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
1731:," for its root meaning (from Latin
4957:Alternatives to Darwinian evolution
3054:Quality & Safety in Health Care
2694:"Johannes Peter MĂĽller (1801-1858)"
2652:"The notion of nature in chemistry"
2650:Schummer, Joachim (December 2003).
1900:cause sleep?" with "Because of its
1868:The 17th century French playwright
1293:(1597–1677) and the Italian doctor
3965:Evolutionary developmental biology
3275:Williams, William F., ed. (2013).
2932:Gilbert, S.F.; Sarkar, S. (2000).
2897:The American Journal of Physiology
1941:The Mechanistic Conception of Life
1916:in 1926 compared "vital force" or
1319:(an organizing, formative force).
1171:, and hence regard it either as a
25:
5968:Sociology of scientific knowledge
5963:Sociology of scientific ignorance
5916:History and philosophy of science
3283:(revised ed.). p. 367.
2313:. Harvard University Press, 2002.
1872:mocked vitalism in his 1673 play
255:Chiropractic treatment techniques
6165:
6153:
4933:
4819:
4810:
4809:
2562:"Vitalism and Synthesis of Urea"
2352:Williams, Elizabeth Ann (2003).
2331:. Lexington Books. p. 419.
1994:theories continues to this day.
1058:Electromagnetic hypersensitivity
60:
4622:Extended evolutionary synthesis
3811:Gene-centered view of evolution
2521:"History of Clinical Chemistry"
2519:Wilkinson, Ian (10 June 2002).
1779:Vitalism has a long history in
1675:proposed the vitalist force of
1598:Mechanism, life and personality
1418:in the early 19th century from
1380:. Blumenbach cut up freshwater
1182:Vitalism has a long history in
94:Alternative veterinary medicine
5357:Analytic–synthetic distinction
4750:Hologenome theory of evolution
4617:History of molecular evolution
3843:Evolutionarily stable strategy
3732:Last universal common ancestor
2910:10.1152/ajpcell.1998.274.1.C13
2566:American Journal of Nephrology
2011:and calls vitalism "a form of
1951:). He offered this challenge:
1215:proposed natural explanations
1148:", which some equate with the
717:Water fluoridation controversy
673:Big Pharma conspiracy theories
1:
4544:Renaissance and Enlightenment
3377:, Shoen, A.M. and S.G. Wynn,
2788:– via www.academia.edu.
2679:10.1016/S0039-3681(03)00050-5
2015:." He further explains that:
1088:Wilson's temperature syndrome
1073:Multiple chemical sensitivity
200:Biological terrain assessment
27:Belief about living organisms
6202:Obsolete scientific theories
4755:Missing heritability problem
4382:Gamete differentiation/sexes
2726:: 41–61 – via PEP Web.
2692:Otis, Laura (October 2004).
1173:superseded scientific theory
5690:Hypothetico-deductive model
5665:Deductive-nomological model
5650:Constructivist epistemology
2992:Emmeche, C (16 July 2001).
2596:– via www.karger.com.
2438:African Philosophy, 2nd Ed.
1445:) or whether they did not (
1374:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
749:Alternative medical systems
378:Fabunan Antiviral Injection
144:Fringe medicine and science
6223:
4387:Life cycles/nuclear phases
3939:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
3537:(McGill-Queen's UP, 2018).
3435:10.1016/j.tics.2004.06.004
3381:, Mosby-Yearbook, Chicago.
3315:"Victor J. Stenger's site"
3167:The Physical Basis of Life
2973:O’Connor, Timothy (2021).
2864:Cambridge University Press
2440:Indiana University Press,
1990:retention of untested and
1661:
1625:
1403:
1227:. However, by the time of
1154:discussed among biologists
759:Biologically based therapy
319:Dental amalgam controversy
29:
6144:
5751:Semantic view of theories
5670:Epistemological anarchism
5607:dependent and independent
5011:Evolutionary epistemology
4931:
4805:
3885:Parent–offspring conflict
3690:Earliest known life forms
3578:
2848:"The Decline of Vitalism"
2621:10.1179/amb.2000.47.3.170
2413:. Springer. p. 104.
1566:Other vitalists included
1406:Alternatives to Darwinism
1277:, helping to shape later
383:Facilitated communication
5493:Intertheoretic reduction
5482:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
5459:Functional contextualism
4738:Cultural group selection
4602:The eclipse of Darwinism
4574:On the Origin of Species
4549:Transmutation of species
3390:Biley, Francis C. 2005,
3124:"Bioenergetic Medicines"
1983:will believe tomorrow."
1474:Handbuch der Physiologie
1261:believed the lungs draw
1048:Candida hypersensitivity
230:Fake COVID-19 treatments
44:This article is part of
5978:Philosophers of science
5756:Scientific essentialism
5705:Model-dependent realism
5640:Constructive empiricism
5533:Evidence-based practice
5031:Philosophers of biology
4743:Dual inheritance theory
4582:History of paleontology
1753:Joseph-Ignace Guillotin
1727:Mesmer chose the word "
1681:in animals with breath.
1574:. Reinke used the word
1464:Between 1833 and 1844,
722:COVID-19 misinformation
650:Young blood transfusion
530:Orthomolecular medicine
495:Mind–body interventions
165:Anthroposophic medicine
105:Rise of modern medicine
6061:Alfred North Whitehead
6051:Charles Sanders Peirce
4431:Punctuated equilibrium
3752:Non-adaptive radiation
3700:Evolutionary arms race
3340:(Spring–Summer 1999).
3182:Crick, Francis (1967)
2938:Developmental Dynamics
2891:Schultz, S.G. (1998).
2801:Cite journal requires
2436:Jidenu, Paulin (1996)
2358:. Ashgate. p. 4.
2323:Ruse, Michael (2013).
2174:Vis medicatrix naturae
2117:Irreducible complexity
1924:("locomotive force").
1879:
1697:to translate Mesmer's
1689:", in the theories of
1682:
1655:
1616:
1564:
1546:
1507:spontaneous generation
1499:
1427:
1397:
1299:Caspar Friedrich Wolff
1142:), "vital force", or "
1138:" (coined by vitalist
754:Mind–body intervention
705:MMR vaccine and autism
695:Vaccine misinformation
590:Rapid prompting method
36:Vital (disambiguation)
34:. For other uses, see
6160:Philosophy portal
5911:Hard and soft science
5906:Faith and rationality
5775:Scientific skepticism
5555:Scientific Revolution
5338:Philosophy of science
4925:Evolutionary taxonomy
4867:Philosophy of biology
4723:Evolutionary medicine
4597:Mendelian inheritance
4305:Biological complexity
4293:Programmed cell death
3985:Phenotypic plasticity
3705:Evolutionary pressure
3695:Evidence of evolution
3593:Timeline of evolution
3494:. Vol. 29. 2007.
3373:Stefanatos, J. 1997,
3013:10.1515/semi.2001.048
2975:"Emergent Properties"
2477:Birch & Cobb 1985
2458:Birch & Cobb 1985
2281:. In E. Craig (ed.).
2004:stronger with time."
1933:developmental biology
1886:by inventing a name.
1867:
1671:
1486:
1466:Johannes Peter MĂĽller
1413:
1404:Further information:
1360:Francis Xavier Bichat
1338:and the mechanism of
1083:Vertebral subluxation
1032:Alternative diagnoses
620:Thought Field Therapy
260:Vertebral subluxation
5886:Criticism of science
5761:Scientific formalism
5645:Constructive realism
5550:Scientific pluralism
5523:Problem of induction
4697:Teleology in biology
4592:Blending inheritance
3970:Genetic assimilation
3833:Artificial selection
3572:Evolutionary biology
3525:Skeptic's Dictionary
3184:Of Molecules and Men
3066:10.1136/qhc.12.3.232
2737:Mayr, Ernst (2002).
2491:Ede, Andrew. (2007)
2391:on October 31, 2006.
2082:Energy (esotericism)
1949:Religion and Science
1893:Le Malade imaginaire
1884:begging the question
1875:Le Malade imaginaire
1775:Medical philosophies
1755:, the other, led by
1431:Jöns Jakob Berzelius
1336:action at a distance
1312:Theoria Generationis
1251:assumed the role of
1053:Chronic Lyme disease
782:Traditional medicine
764:Manipulative methods
565:Postural Integration
428:Bach flower remedies
304:Craniosacral therapy
132:Therapeutic nihilism
77:Alternative medicine
54:Alternative medicine
5953:Rhetoric of science
5891:Descriptive science
5635:Confirmation holism
5528:Scientific evidence
5488:Inductive reasoning
5417:Demarcation problem
5069:Peter Godfrey-Smith
4760:Molecular evolution
4718:Ecological genetics
4587:Transitional fossil
4377:Sexual reproduction
4217:endomembrane system
4146:pollinator-mediated
4102:dolphins and whales
3880:Parental investment
3352:(1). Archived from
2671:2003SHPSA..34..705S
2405:Dyde, Sean (2013).
2309:Evelyn Fox Keller,
2239:Marcellin Berthelot
2052:exchanges of energy
1910:Thomas Henry Huxley
1785:traditional healing
1783:philosophies: many
1719:planetary magnetism
1539:(1904–2005) wrote:
1447:inorganic compounds
1420:inorganic compounds
1188:traditional healing
1186:philosophies: many
700:Vaccines and autism
690:Anti-vaccinationism
683:OPV AIDS hypothesis
485:Megavitamin therapy
398:Functional medicine
175:Applied kinesiology
71:General information
6197:History of biology
6172:Science portal
6101:Carl Gustav Hempel
6056:Wilhelm Windelband
5943:Questionable cause
5766:Scientific realism
5587:Underdetermination
5422:Empirical evidence
5412:Creative synthesis
5296:History of biology
5291:Philosophy of mind
5265:John Maynard Smith
5185:Francisco J. Ayala
5169:William C. Wimsatt
5164:Gerard Verschuuren
5074:James R. Griesemer
4733:Cultural evolution
3848:Fisher's principle
3777:Handicap principle
3767:Parallel evolution
3631:Adaptive radiation
3338:Stenger, Victor J.
3035:2006-10-06 at the
2903:(1 Pt 1): C13–23.
2866:. pp. 93–95.
2213:On Growth and Form
2092:Georges Canguilhem
1880:
1821:therapies include
1683:
1634:emergent processes
1586:John Scott Haldane
1500:
1428:
1169:empirical evidence
1068:Leaky gut syndrome
1043:Aerotoxic syndrome
980:Prophetic medicine
678:HIV/AIDS denialism
505:Myofascial release
413:Holistic dentistry
393:Feldenkrais Method
373:Estrogen dominance
299:Conversion therapy
32:Vitalism (Jainism)
6179:
6178:
6021:
6020:
5933:Normative science
5790:Uniformitarianism
5545:Scientific method
5439:Explanatory power
5304:
5303:
5235:Humberto Maturana
5220:Stephen Jay Gould
5114:Roberta Millstein
5079:Paul E. Griffiths
4833:
4832:
4449:Uniformitarianism
4402:Sex-determination
3907:Sexual dimorphism
3902:Natural selection
3806:Unit of selection
3772:Signalling theory
3321:on March 3, 2016.
3171:Pall Mall Gazette
2856:Cleland, Carol E.
2578:10.1159/000013463
2420:978-94-007-2445-7
2365:978-0-7546-0881-3
2291:cite encyclopedia
2222:natural selection
2179:Vital materialism
2134:Morphic resonance
2129:Mind–body dualism
2123:Lebensphilosophie
2102:Holism in science
2001:therapeutic touch
1929:organic chemistry
1827:therapeutic touch
1801:four temperaments
1757:Benjamin Franklin
1751:; one was led by
1711:mineral magnetism
1699:magnétisme animal
1678:magnétisme animal
1443:organic compounds
1414:The synthesis of
1356:Georg Ernst Stahl
1340:Cartesian dualism
1295:Marcello Malpighi
1126:
1125:
853:Chinese herbology
610:Scientific racism
575:Psychodermatology
480:Medical intuitive
460:Lightning Process
418:Hologram bracelet
366:Therapeutic touch
267:Christian Science
240:Cancer treatments
16:(Redirected from
6214:
6170:
6169:
6158:
6157:
6156:
6131:Bas van Fraassen
6086:Hans Reichenbach
6066:Bertrand Russell
5983:
5809:Philosophy of...
5592:Unity of science
5385:Commensurability
5331:
5324:
5317:
5308:
5255:Joan Roughgarden
5225:Richard Lewontin
5210:Michael Ghiselin
5159:Francisco Varela
5154:Alfred I. Tauber
5109:Jane Maienschein
4937:
4860:
4853:
4846:
4837:
4823:
4813:
4812:
4612:Modern synthesis
4372:Multicellularity
4367:Mosaic evolution
4252:auditory ossicle
3934:Social selection
3917:Flowering plants
3912:Sexual selection
3565:
3558:
3551:
3542:
3495:
3485:
3455:
3454:
3418:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3408:
3399:. Archived from
3397:"RogersHomepage"
3388:
3382:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3334:
3323:
3322:
3317:. Archived from
3311:
3305:
3304:
3300:Friedrich Wöhler
3272:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3241:
3230:
3229:
3228:on May 25, 2006.
3224:. Archived from
3218:
3212:
3207:
3198:
3180:
3174:
3164:
3158:
3150:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3130:. Archived from
3122:Rubik, Beverly.
3119:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3077:
3045:
3039:
3030:available online
3023:
3017:
3016:
3007:(134): 653–693.
2998:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2953:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2912:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2840:
2831:
2820:
2811:
2810:
2804:
2799:
2797:
2789:
2781:
2775:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2741:. Archived from
2734:
2728:
2727:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2698:
2689:
2683:
2682:
2656:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2516:
2510:
2502:
2496:
2489:
2480:
2479:, pp. 76–78
2474:
2461:
2455:
2449:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2402:
2393:
2392:
2387:. Archived from
2381:
2370:
2369:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2320:
2314:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2294:
2286:
2274:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2231:
2225:
2201:
1988:pseudoscientific
1945:Bertrand Russell
1902:dormitive virtue
1854:Samuel Hahnemann
1823:energy therapies
1715:cosmic magnetism
1695:animal magnetism
1687:animal magnetism
1664:Animal magnetism
1653:
1614:
1468:wrote a book on
1451:Friedrich Wöhler
1321:Carl Reichenbach
1209:Greek philosophy
1118:
1111:
1104:
868:Gill plate trade
630:Vaginal steaming
277:Colloidal silver
245:Charcoal cleanse
64:
41:
21:
6222:
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6217:
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6182:
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6140:
6121:Paul Feyerabend
6081:Michael Polanyi
6017:
6003:Galileo Galilei
5972:
5958:Science studies
5874:
5804:
5795:Verificationism
5700:Instrumentalism
5685:Foundationalism
5660:Conventionalism
5618:
5454:Feminist method
5340:
5335:
5305:
5300:
5279:
5200:Richard Dawkins
5190:Patrick Bateson
5173:
5119:Sandra Mitchell
5025:
4938:
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4869:
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4728:Group selection
4701:
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4530:
4457:
4419:Tempo and modes
4413:
4268:
4172:
3989:
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3824:
3817:
3794:Species complex
3607:
3598:History of life
3574:
3569:
3502:
3488:
3482:
3474:. CUP Archive.
3467:
3464:
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3458:
3423:Trends Cogn Sci
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3037:Wayback Machine
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2784:Noll, Richard.
2783:
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2720:Ann. Psychoanal
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2208:D'Arcy Thompson
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1848:The founder of
1777:
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1652:
1630:
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1615:
1613:
1568:Johannes Reinke
1523:
1496:Albert Edelfelt
1424:counterevidence
1408:
1402:
1317:vis essentialis
1291:Francis Glisson
1287:
1279:aether theories
1271:
1213:Milesian school
1201:
1196:
1158:Johannes Reinke
1122:
1093:
1092:
1038:Adrenal fatigue
1033:
1025:
1024:
799:Southern Africa
784:
774:
773:
744:
742:Classifications
734:
733:
710:in chiropractic
668:
660:
659:
580:Quantum healing
570:Psychic surgery
445:Ionized jewelry
408:Herbal medicine
356:Esoteric energy
346:Energy medicine
314:Cupping therapy
309:Crystal healing
282:Colon cleansing
220:Bowen technique
190:Auriculotherapy
145:
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6106:W. V. O. Quine
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6031:Henri Poincaré
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5879:Related topics
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5449:Falsifiability
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5094:Philip Kitcher
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5064:Marjorie Grene
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5044:Lindley Darden
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4568:Charles Darwin
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4506:Non-ecological
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3757:Origin of life
3754:
3749:
3744:
3742:Microevolution
3739:
3737:Macroevolution
3734:
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3675:Common descent
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3653:Baldwin effect
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3500:External links
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2852:Bedau, Mark A.
2832:
2828:978-0226068589
2812:
2803:|journal=
2776:
2772:978-0674896666
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2729:
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2665:(4): 705–736.
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1922:Ă©lan locomotif
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1662:Main article:
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1626:Main article:
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1552:Alistair Hardy
1522:
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1494:. Painting by
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6207:Pseudoscience
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5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5567:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5534:
5531:
5530:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5466:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5433:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5406:
5403:
5402:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5379:
5376:
5375:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5349:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5327:
5325:
5320:
5318:
5313:
5312:
5309:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5282:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5245:Jacques Monod
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5230:Konrad Lorenz
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5205:Jared Diamond
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5182:
5180:
5176:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5144:Elliott Sober
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5104:Helen Longino
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5032:
5028:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4988:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4982:Structuralism
4980:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4962:Catastrophism
4960:
4959:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4952:Adaptationism
4950:
4949:
4947:
4945:
4941:
4936:
4926:
4923:
4919:
4916:
4915:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4897:
4896:Kin selection
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4861:
4856:
4854:
4849:
4847:
4842:
4841:
4838:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4816:
4808:
4807:
4804:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4770:Phylogenetics
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4730:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4704:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4673:Structuralism
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4648:Catastrophism
4646:
4645:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4635:
4633:
4629:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4607:Neo-Darwinism
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4576:
4575:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4566:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4537:
4533:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4521:Reinforcement
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4454:
4453:Catastrophism
4450:
4447:
4445:
4444:Macromutation
4441:
4440:Micromutation
4438:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4416:
4410:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4379:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4347:Immune system
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4271:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4239:
4237:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4207:symbiogenesis
4205:
4204:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4175:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4142:
4139:
4135:
4132:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4082:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4072:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3997:
3992:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3951:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3875:Kin selection
3873:
3871:
3870:Genetic drift
3868:
3866:
3863:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3820:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3782:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3718:
3717:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3577:
3573:
3566:
3561:
3559:
3554:
3552:
3547:
3546:
3543:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3529:
3526:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3487:
3483:
3481:9780521315142
3477:
3473:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3461:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3429:(8): 356–62.
3428:
3424:
3417:
3414:
3403:on 2006-12-05
3402:
3398:
3393:
3387:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3370:
3367:
3356:on 2006-12-18
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3325:
3320:
3316:
3310:
3307:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3292:
3290:9781135955229
3286:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3269:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3238:
3236:
3232:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3179:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3149:
3146:
3134:on 2006-02-14
3133:
3129:
3125:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3110:
3099:
3093:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3022:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2995:
2988:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2969:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2928:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2875:
2873:9781139488655
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2808:
2795:
2787:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2766:1988, p. 13.
2765:
2759:
2756:
2745:on 2006-09-26
2744:
2740:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2707:
2702:
2695:
2688:
2685:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2646:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2603:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2553:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2515:
2512:
2509:, p. 238
2508:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2446:0-253-21096-8
2443:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2348:
2345:
2340:
2338:9780739174371
2334:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2303:
2298:
2292:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2258:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2230:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2197:
2190:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2164:Ratiovitalism
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2097:Henri Bergson
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2034:
2033:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1973:Francis Crick
1970:
1969:unfalsifiable
1962:
1961:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1914:Julian Huxley
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1877:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1844:
1843:subtle energy
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1680:
1679:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1657:
1649:
1644:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1629:
1621:
1619:
1610:
1606:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1572:Oscar Hertwig
1569:
1563:
1561:
1560:Charles Birch
1557:
1556:Sewall Wright
1553:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1503:Louis Pasteur
1497:
1493:
1489:
1488:Louis Pasteur
1485:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1399:
1396:
1395:modification.
1391:
1389:
1388:Bildungstrieb
1385:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1348:Charles Birch
1346:As worded by
1344:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1297:(1628–1694).
1296:
1292:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1243:Stoic physics
1240:
1236:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1205:ancient Egypt
1199:Ancient times
1198:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1177:pseudoscience
1174:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1140:Henri Bergson
1137:
1136:
1130:
1119:
1114:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
956:
953:
951:
948:
946:
943:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
925:Faith healing
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
845:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
833:Bush medicine
831:
829:
826:
824:
823:Balneotherapy
821:
817:
814:
812:
809:
808:
807:
804:
800:
797:
795:
792:
791:
790:
787:
786:
783:
778:
777:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
746:
743:
738:
737:
728:
725:
724:
723:
720:
718:
715:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
692:
691:
688:
684:
681:
680:
679:
676:
674:
671:
670:
667:Controversies
664:
663:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
635:Vegetotherapy
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
550:Ozone therapy
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
465:Lymphotherapy
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
429:
426:
425:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
403:Hair analysis
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
388:FasciaBlaster
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
351:Correactology
349:
348:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
330:
327:
326:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
294:Colorpuncture
292:
288:
285:
284:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
272:Chromotherapy
270:
268:
265:
261:
258:
256:
253:
252:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
160:Alkaline diet
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
147:
141:
140:
133:
130:
126:
123:
122:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
110:Pseudoscience
108:
106:
103:
100:
97:
95:
92:
88:
85:
83:
80:
79:
78:
75:
74:
68:
67:
63:
59:
58:
55:
51:
47:
43:
42:
37:
33:
19:
6136:Larry Laudan
6116:Imre Lakatos
6071:Otto Neurath
6046:Karl Pearson
6036:Pierre Duhem
6008:Isaac Newton
5938:Protoscience
5896:Epistemology
5799:
5770:Anti-realism
5768: /
5749: /
5740: /
5726: /
5724:Reductionism
5722: /
5695:Inductionism
5675:Evolutionism
5480:
5367:a posteriori
5366:
5362:
5270:E. O. Wilson
5260:Rolf Sattler
5149:Kim Sterelny
5134:Michael Ruse
5021:Tree of life
4998:
4972:Orthogenesis
4908:Reductionism
4782:Polymorphism
4765:Astrobiology
4713:Biogeography
4689:
4668:Saltationism
4658:Orthogenesis
4643:Alternatives
4572:
4558:
4491:Cospeciation
4486:Cladogenesis
4435:Saltationism
4392:Mating types
4315:Color vision
4300:Avian flight
4222:mitochondria
3960:Canalisation
3838:Biodiversity
3583:Introduction
3532:
3510:
3490:
3470:
3426:
3422:
3416:
3405:. Retrieved
3401:the original
3391:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3358:. Retrieved
3354:the original
3349:
3345:
3319:the original
3309:
3295:
3294:
3280:
3249:
3245:
3226:the original
3216:
3194:
3183:
3178:
3170:
3162:
3152:
3148:
3136:. Retrieved
3132:the original
3127:
3101:. Retrieved
3092:
3060:(3): 232–3.
3057:
3053:
3043:
3026:
3021:
3004:
3000:
2987:
2978:
2968:
2941:
2937:
2927:
2900:
2896:
2886:
2877:
2859:
2794:cite journal
2779:
2763:
2758:
2747:. Retrieved
2743:the original
2732:
2723:
2719:
2709:
2700:
2687:
2662:
2658:
2645:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2569:
2565:
2555:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2505:
2500:
2492:
2460:, p. 75
2453:
2437:
2432:
2424:
2410:
2389:the original
2354:
2347:
2328:
2318:
2310:
2305:
2285:. Routledge.
2282:
2246:
2235:Adolph Kolbe
2229:
2218:Michael Ruse
2211:
2199:
2154:Orthogenesis
2121:
2087:Etheric body
2064:
2060:
2056:bioenergetic
2046:
2042:
2037:B.F. Skinner
2030:
2022:
2013:bio-theology
2009:chiropractic
2006:
1985:
1966:
1958:
1948:
1940:
1937:Jacques Loeb
1926:
1921:
1917:
1901:
1891:
1881:
1873:
1847:
1817:
1778:
1742:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1698:
1694:
1691:Franz Mesmer
1684:
1676:
1673:Franz Mesmer
1646:
1640:
1638:
1631:
1617:
1608:
1597:
1584:
1575:
1565:
1548:
1542:
1526:Hans Driesch
1524:
1521:20th century
1501:
1492:fermentation
1473:
1463:
1458:
1453:synthesised
1429:
1400:19th century
1393:
1387:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1352:John B. Cobb
1345:
1329:
1316:
1310:
1288:
1285:Early modern
1274:
1272:
1262:
1252:
1246:
1232:
1202:
1181:
1144:
1143:
1133:
1128:
1127:
1005:Thai massage
975:Naftalan oil
848:Blood stasis
727:Turbo cancer
644:
615:ThetaHealing
540:Osteomyology
440:Hypnotherapy
435:Hydrotherapy
341:Ear candling
336:Dry needling
287:Coffee enema
250:Chiropractic
215:Bone-setting
195:Bates method
180:Aromatherapy
6126:Ian Hacking
6111:Thomas Kuhn
6096:Karl Popper
6076:C. D. Broad
5993:Roger Bacon
5921:Non-science
5863:Linguistics
5843:Archaeology
5738:Rationalism
5728:Determinism
5715:Physicalism
5680:Fallibilism
5630:Coherentism
5560:Testability
5513:Observation
5508:Objectivity
5469:alternative
5400:Correlation
5390:Consilience
5250:Denis Noble
5124:Susan Oyama
5039:John Beatty
4977:Mutationism
4792:Systematics
4663:Mutationism
4481:Catagenesis
4409:Snake venom
4342:Eusociality
4320:in primates
4310:Cooperation
4238:In animals
4058:butterflies
4031:Cephalopods
4021:Brachiopods
3953:Development
3927:Mate choice
3680:Convergence
3663:Coevolution
3621:Abiogenesis
3511:In Our Time
3252:(1): 4–10,
2844:Mayr, Ernst
2762:Ernst Mayr
1833:, external
1797:Hippocrates
1791:concept of
1759:, included
1628:Emergentism
1622:Emergentism
1576:neovitalism
1459:Wöhler Myth
1368:John Hunter
1364:metaphysics
1221:materialism
1145:vis vitalis
965:Mien Shiang
883:Moxibustion
595:Reflexology
520:Oil pulling
515:Naturopathy
455:Jilly Juice
235:Camel urine
205:Black salve
155:Acupuncture
150:Acupressure
115:Antiscience
87:Terminology
6186:Categories
6013:David Hume
5986:Precursors
5868:Psychology
5848:Economics‎
5742:Empiricism
5733:Pragmatism
5720:Positivism
5710:Naturalism
5580:scientific
5464:Hypothesis
5427:Experiment
5275:Jonas Salk
5240:Ernst Mayr
5178:Biologists
5099:Tim Lewens
5089:Hans Jonas
5084:David Hull
5059:Carla Fehr
5054:John Dupré
4967:Lamarckism
4903:Naturalism
4653:Lamarckism
4631:Philosophy
4554:David Hume
4516:Peripatric
4511:Parapatric
4496:Ecological
4476:Anagenesis
4471:Allopatric
4463:Speciation
4427:Gradualism
4352:Metabolism
4212:chromosome
4202:Eukaryotes
3980:Modularity
3897:Population
3823:Population
3784:Speciation
3762:Panspermia
3715:Extinction
3710:Exaptation
3685:Divergence
3658:Cladistics
3646:Reciprocal
3626:Adaptation
3407:2006-12-02
3360:2006-12-03
3277:"Vitalism"
3138:8 November
3103:2008-03-31
2944:(1): 1–9.
2749:2006-09-24
2279:"Vitalism"
2259:References
2139:Odic force
2107:Homeopathy
1996:Alan Sokal
1992:untestable
1939:published
1918:Ă©lan vital
1850:homeopathy
1603:organicism
1537:Ernst Mayr
1530:pejorative
1470:physiology
1325:Odic force
1307:embryology
1303:epigenesis
1241:), and in
1165:hypotheses
1135:Ă©lan vital
1063:Heavy legs
1020:Vietnamese
1000:Sri Lankan
560:Phrenology
545:Osteopathy
535:Orthopathy
423:Homeopathy
329:Foot detox
225:Breathwork
170:Apitherapy
125:Scientific
120:Skepticism
18:Vitalistic
5853:Geography
5821:Chemistry
5780:Scientism
5575:ladenness
5395:Construct
5373:Causality
5016:Teleology
5006:Darwinism
4944:Evolution
4918:Emergence
4891:Dysgenics
4787:Protocell
4638:Darwinism
4526:Sympatric
4275:processes
4163:Tetrapods
4112:Kangaroos
4038:Dinosaurs
3975:Inversion
3944:Variation
3865:Gene flow
3858:Inclusive
3668:Mutualism
3613:Evolution
3001:Semiotica
2537:1650-3414
2233:In 1845,
2112:Hylozoism
1908:power)."
1906:soporific
1860:Criticism
1765:Lavoisier
1749:mesmerism
1745:Louis XVI
1658:Mesmerism
1594:teleology
1580:Carl Jung
1439:synthesis
1435:chemistry
1229:Lucretius
1225:mechanism
1160:proposed
985:Shamanism
970:Mongolian
945:Kayakalpa
920:Curandero
838:Cambodian
828:Brazilian
625:Urophagia
585:Radionics
490:Mesmerism
450:Iridology
6192:Vitalism
6148:Category
5800:Vitalism
5623:Theories
5597:Variable
5518:Paradigm
5405:function
5363:A priori
5352:Analysis
5345:Concepts
4999:Vitalism
4994:Theistic
4987:Spandrel
4886:Eugenics
4815:Category
4690:Vitalism
4685:Theistic
4678:Spandrel
4362:Morality
4357:Monogamy
4232:plastids
4197:Flagella
4153:Reptiles
4134:sea cows
4117:primates
4026:Molluscs
4004:Bacteria
3892:Mutation
3825:genetics
3801:Taxonomy
3747:Mismatch
3727:Homology
3641:Cheating
3636:Altruism
3521:Vitalism
3506:Vitalism
3451:29256474
3443:15335462
3296:VITALISM
3195:Synthese
3084:12792017
3033:Archived
2960:10974666
2858:(eds.).
2846:(2010).
2637:44613876
2629:11640223
2594:71727190
2586:10213830
2184:Vitality
2077:Egregore
2070:See also
1947:put it (
1739:animals.
1707:magnetic
1651:—
1643:(1997):
1612:—
1590:idealist
1269:Medieval
1239:Epicurus
1234:clinamen
1162:testable
1129:Vitalism
955:Japanese
898:San Jiao
878:Meridian
806:Ayurveda
645:Vitalism
210:Bodywork
99:Quackery
46:a series
5858:History
5826:Physics
5816:Biology
5614:more...
5602:control
5498:Inquiry
5284:Related
4706:Related
4536:History
4397:Meiosis
4332:Empathy
4327:Emotion
4227:nucleus
4168:Viruses
4158:Spiders
4070:Mammals
4053:Insects
3853:Fitness
3789:Species
3588:Outline
3523:at the
3514:at the
3462:Sources
3259:2505097
3075:1743715
2919:9458708
2667:Bibcode
2546:6208063
2495:, p. 23
2448:, p.16.
1904:(i.e.,
1888:Molière
1870:Molière
1805:humours
1781:medical
1769:trances
1533:epithet
1472:called
1217:deduced
1194:History
1184:medical
1010:Tibetan
990:Shiatsu
935:Iranian
915:Chumash
908:Zang-fu
873:Long gu
863:Gua sha
843:Chinese
789:African
605:Rolfing
82:History
5570:choice
5565:Theory
5503:Nature
5432:design
4913:Holism
4881:Ethics
4874:Themes
4825:Portal
4501:Hybrid
4337:Ethics
4179:organs
4141:Plants
4127:lemurs
4122:humans
4107:horses
4097:hyenas
4085:wolves
4080:canids
4014:origin
3478:
3449:
3441:
3287:
3256:
3173:, 1869
3082:
3072:
2958:
2917:
2870:
2826:
2770:
2635:
2627:
2592:
2584:
2543:
2535:
2525:EJIFCC
2444:
2417:
2362:
2335:
2149:Orgone
2144:Orenda
1981:cranks
1839:chakra
1789:Yoruba
1761:Bailly
1733:animus
1729:animal
1641:et al.
1558:, and
1515:Traube
1511:Liebig
1498:, 1885
1332:Newton
1275:pneuma
1263:pneuma
1248:pneuma
1245:, the
1211:, the
1078:PANDAS
995:Siddha
960:Korean
903:Tui na
858:Dit da
525:Orgone
4288:Death
4283:Aging
4262:brain
4048:Fungi
4009:Birds
3922:Fungi
3720:Event
3603:Index
3447:S2CID
2997:(PDF)
2850:. In
2697:(PDF)
2655:(PDF)
2633:S2CID
2609:Ambix
2590:S2CID
2251:also.
2191:Notes
1898:opium
1831:Reiki
1813:prana
1383:Hydra
1259:Galen
1254:logos
1219:from
1207:. In
1015:Unani
950:Kambo
930:Hilot
811:Dosha
361:Reiki
5474:null
5444:Fact
5365:and
4775:Tree
4247:hair
4187:Cell
4090:dogs
4075:cats
4065:Life
4043:Fish
3996:taxa
3476:ISBN
3439:PMID
3285:ISBN
3188:here
3140:2006
3080:PMID
3005:2001
2956:PMID
2915:PMID
2868:ISBN
2824:ISBN
2807:help
2768:ISBN
2625:PMID
2582:PMID
2533:ISSN
2442:ISBN
2415:ISBN
2360:ISBN
2333:ISBN
2297:link
2206:and
1931:and
1803:and
1763:and
1717:and
1570:and
1478:soul
1455:urea
1422:was
1416:urea
1350:and
1223:and
1150:soul
940:Jamu
816:MVAH
794:Muti
600:RBOP
510:NAET
4273:Of
4242:eye
4192:DNA
4177:Of
3994:Of
3516:BBC
3508:on
3431:doi
3254:PMC
3070:PMC
3062:doi
3009:doi
2946:doi
2942:219
2905:doi
2901:274
2675:doi
2617:doi
2574:doi
2541:PMC
1977:DNA
1811:or
1793:ase
1737:and
1334:'s
1305:in
1237:of
500:MMS
6188::
3445:.
3437:.
3425:.
3348:.
3344:.
3327:^
3293:.
3279:.
3267:^
3250:46
3248:,
3234:^
3202:^
3169:,
3126:.
3112:^
3078:.
3068:.
3058:12
3056:.
3052:.
3003:.
2999:.
2977:.
2954:.
2940:.
2936:.
2913:.
2899:.
2895:.
2876:.
2862:.
2854:;
2835:^
2815:^
2798::
2796:}}
2792:{{
2722:.
2718:.
2699:.
2673:.
2663:34
2661:.
2657:.
2631:.
2623:.
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2611:.
2588:.
2580:.
2570:19
2568:.
2564:.
2539:.
2529:13
2527:.
2523:.
2484:^
2465:^
2423:.
2397:^
2374:^
2293:}}
2289:{{
2267:^
2159:Qi
1852:,
1837:,
1835:qi
1829:,
1809:qi
1713:,
1582:.
1554:,
1535:.
1513:,
1281:.
1257:.
1179:.
893:Qi
48:on
5330:e
5323:t
5316:v
4859:e
4852:t
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4451:/
4442:/
4433:/
4429:/
3564:e
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3484:.
3453:.
3433::
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3410:.
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3142:.
3106:.
3086:.
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3015:.
3011::
2962:.
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2921:.
2907::
2830:.
2809:)
2805:(
2774:.
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2724:4
2703:.
2681:.
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2639:.
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2576::
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2368:.
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2299:)
2210:(
1878:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
