Ghana Empire - Knowledge (XXG)

1275: 1287: 1421:, a twelfth-century writer, described Ghana's royal city as lying on a riverbank, a river he called the "Nile." This followed the geographic custom of his day, which confused the Niger and Senegal Rivers and believed that they formed a single river often called the "Nile of the Blacks". Whether al-Idrisi was referring to a new and later capital located elsewhere, or whether there was confusion or corruption in his text is unclear. However, he does state that the royal palace he knew was built in 510 AH (1116–1117 AD), suggesting that it was a newer town, rebuilt closer to the river than Koumbi Saleh. 1263: 1299: 1251: 1311: 1879:, p. 19: "Mali is the name of an extensive territory lying in the far west to the direction of the Ocean. It was Kaya-Magha who founded the first kingdom in that region. His capital was Ghana, an important town in the country of Baghana. It is said that their kingdom was in existence before the hijra, and that twenty-two kings reigned before it and twenty-two afterwards, making forty four in all. In origin they were white, though we do not know to whom they trace their origin. Their subjects, however, were Wa'kore ." 566:), after which he migrated to a variety of locations in western Sudan, in each place leaving children by different wives. In order to take power he had to kill a serpent deity (named Bida), and then marry his daughters, who became the ancestors of the clans that were dominant in the region at the time. Some traditions state he did a deal with Bida to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for rainfall, and other versions add a constant supply of gold. Upon Dinga's death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested the 1406: 1382: 1110:. As Mali became more powerful, the Ghana's role as an ally declined to that of a submissive state, although he was still accorded prestige as the leader of an ancient and storied state. According to a detailed account of al-'Umari, written around 1340 but based on testimony given to him by the "truthful and trustworthy" shaykh Abu Uthman Sa'id al-Dukkali, Ghana still retained its functions as a sort of kingdom within the empire, its ruler being the only one allowed to bear the title 728: 1239: 570:, and Dyabe was victorious, founding Wagadu. In some versions, the fall of Wagadu happens when a nobleman tries to save a maiden, despite her objection, and kills the snake, unleashing its curse and annulling the prior deal. This tale appears to have been a fragment of what once was a much longer narrative, now lost, however the legend of Wagadu continues to have a deep-rooted significance in Soninke culture and history. The tradition of 2305: 70: 1397:, although there have always been controversies about the location of Ghana's capital and whether Koumbi Saleh is the same town as the one described by al-Bakri. The site was excavated in 1949–50 by Paul Thomassey and Raymond Mauny and by another French team in 1975–81. The remains of Koumbi Saleh are impressive, even if the remains of the royal town, with its large palace and burial mounds, have not been located. 1035: 1188:

splendid garments and their hair plaited with gold. The governor of the city sits on the ground before the king and around him are ministers seated likewise. At the door of the pavilion are dogs of excellent pedigree that hardly ever leave the place where the king is, guarding him. Around their necks they wear collars of gold and silver studded with a number of balls of the same metals.

1214:) who surrounded his throne when he gave justice, and these included the sons of the "kings of his country" which we must assume are the same kings that al-Ya'qubi mentioned in his account of nearly 200 years earlier. Al-Bakri's detailed geography of the region shows that in his day, or 1067/1068, Ghana was surrounded by independent kingdoms, and Sila, one of them located on the 1361:, one of which was designated for Friday prayers, and had a full group of scholars, scribes and Islamic jurists. Because the majority of these Muslims were merchants, this part of the city was probably its primary business district. It is likely that these inhabitants were largely black Muslims known as the 1196:

including the Baxaran of Maghan and the Gbewaa States south of the sahel region. One of the earliest sources to describe Ghana, al-Ya'qubi, writing in 889/90 (276 AH) says that "under his authority are a number of kings" which included Sama and 'Am (?) and so extended at least to the Niger River

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According to al-Bakri, the major part of the city was called El-Ghaba and was the residence of the king. It was protected by a stone wall and functioned as the royal and spiritual capital of the Empire. It contained a sacred grove of trees in which priests lived. It also contained the king's palace,

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in 1076–77, but this interpretation has been sharply questioned by modern scholars. Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources. Dierke Lange agrees

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Beginning in the mid 20th century as more archeological data became available, scholars began to favor a purely local origin for Ghana. These works bring together archaeology, descriptive geographical sources written between 830 and 1400 AD, the Tarikhs from the 16th and 17th centuries, and the oral

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Al-Idrisi, whose account was written in 1154, has the country fully Muslim by that date. He describes an empire as powerful as it had been in the days of al-Bakri, 75 years earlier. In fact, he describes its capital as "the greatest of all towns of the Sudan with respect to area, the most populous,

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Sheryl L. Burkhalter (1992) suggested that there were reasons to believe that there was conflict between the Almoravids and the empire of Ghana. Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century North African historian who read and cited both al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, reported an ambiguous account of the country's history

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He sits in audience or to hear grievances against officials in a domed pavilion around which stand ten horses covered with gold-embroidered materials. Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on his right are the sons of the kings of his country wearing

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This resurgence did not last, however. By 1203, the Sosso rose against their masters and conquered Ghana. Oral historians link the coming of Islam to the final end of Ghana. When the Muslims Cisse dynasty came to power they killed Bida, the sacred snake and protector of the kingdom. A seven-year

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Testimony about ancient Ghana depended on how well disposed the king was to foreign travelers, from whom the majority of information on the empire comes. Islamic writers often commented on the social-political stability of the empire based on the seemingly just actions and grandeur of the king.

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played a key role in Soninke success as well, allowing products and goods to be transported much more efficiently across the Sahara. These contributing factors all helped the empire remain powerful for some time, providing a rich and stable economy based on trading gold, iron, salt and slaves.

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on imports of salt, and two on exports of salt. Other products had fixed dues; al-Bakri mentioned both copper and "other goods." Imports probably included products such as textiles, ornaments and other materials. Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in present-day Morocco also had their

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drought ensued, destroying the kingdom and forcing much of the population to flee in search of more hospitable territory. According to much later traditions, from the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Diara Kante took control of Koumbi Saleh and established the Diarisso dynasty. His son,

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but argues that this does not preclude Almoravid political agitation, claiming that Ghana's demise owed much to the latter. Furthermore, the archaeology of ancient Ghana does not show the signs of rapid change and destruction that would be associated with any Almoravid-era military conquests.

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300 BCE. Munsun theorized that, around 700 BCE Libyco-Berbers raiders destroyed this burgeoning state. Their opening of a trade route north, however, eventually changed the economic calculus from raiding to trade, and the native Soninke reasserted themselves around 300 BCE. This trade and the

1274: 1832:, p. 19: "It is disputed as to the tribe to which these kings belonged; some say they were Wa'kore , others say they were Wangara which appears improbable. Others say they were Sanhaja which seems to me most likely ... The nearest to the truth is that they were not black." 696:. The archaeologist and historian Raymond Mauny argues that al-Kati's and al-Saadi's theories were based on the presence (after Ghana's demise) of nomadic Berbers originally from Libya, and the assumption that they were the ruling caste in an earlier age. Earlier accounts such 994:

and with the most extensive trade." This capital may not be the same city as the one described by al-Bakri, however. In this period the ruling dynasty, now thoroughly Islamized, re-established control over many of the former vassals who had become independent, including

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Given the scattered nature of the Arabic sources and the ambiguity of the existing archaeological record, it is difficult to determine when and how Ghana declined. With the gradual drying of the Sahel, the all-important epicenters of trade began to most south to the

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in 1067/1068, the capital actually consisted of two cities 10 kilometres (6 mi) apart but "between these two towns are continuous habitations", so that they might be said to have merged into one. The most common identification for this capital is the site of

867:, in a section probably composed around 1580 but citing the chief judge Ida al-Massini who lived somewhat earlier, twenty kings ruled Ghana before the advent of Islam. Al-Sadi purports that approximately 18 through 34 ancient Kaya (kings) ruled before the 3534: 691:

This idea of a foreign origin for Wagadu is generally disregarded by modern scholars. Levtzion and Spaulding, for example, argue that al-Idrisi's testimony should be looked at skeptically due to serious miscalculations in geography and historical

645:, which the author considered most likely. The author concludes that "the nearest to the truth is that they were not black." This interpretation derived from his opinion that the rulers' genealogies linked them to the Berbers. The 841:

portrays early Ghana as very warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce. Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly on

1150:. The king claimed as his own all nuggets of gold, and allowed other people to have only 'gold dust'. In addition to the influence exerted by the king in local regions, tribute was received from various tributary states and 797:, on the Niger Bend. This area was historically more fertile than the Tichitt zone, and Lange draws on oral traditions to support his argument, contending that dynastic struggles in the 11th century pushed the capital west. 1732: 977:

Whether the Almoravids conquered Ghana or not, the country certainly did convert to Islam around 1076. This conversion and its accompanying rejection of the earlier, more accommodating Islam may have pushed the

761:(a site associated with the ancestors of the Soninke), which clearly reflected a complex culture that was present by 1600 BC and had architectural and material cultural elements similar to those found at 858:

scattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu there were many more simultaneous and preceding kingdoms which have unfortunately been lost to time.

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the grandest structure in the city, surrounded by other "domed buildings". There was also one mosque for visiting Muslim officials. (El-Ghaba, coincidentally or not, means "The Forest" in Arabic.)

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The name of the other section of the city is not recorded. In the vicinity were wells with fresh water, used to grow vegetables. It was inhabited almost entirely by Muslims, who had with twelve

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heading south, despite not controlling the gold fields themselves. It is possible that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of many smaller polities into a

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at some point in the 13th century. Despite its collapse, the empire's influence can be felt in the establishment of numerous urban centers throughout its former territory. In 1957, the

724:, Robert Cornevin and others for being "unacceptable" and "too creative to be useful to historians", particularly in relation to his interpretation of West African genealogies, 2194:

Kevin McDonald, Robert Vernet, Dorian Fuller and James Woodhouse, "New Light on the Tichitt Tradition" A Preliminary Report on Survey and Excavation at Dhar Nema," pp. 78–80.

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In al-Bakri's time, the rulers of Ghana had begun to incorporate more Muslims into government, including the treasurer, his interpreter, and "the majority of his officials."

1373:. The separate and autonomous towns outside of the main governmental center is a well-known practice used by the Jakhanke tribe of the Mandinka people throughout history. 5966: 2962:

Recherches archéologiques sur la capitale de l'empire de Ghana: Etude d'un secteur, d'habitat à Koumbi Saleh, Mauritanie: Campagnes II-III-IV-V (1975–1976)-(1980–1981)

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in the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation which had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, resulting in Wagadu rising out of the

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and linked them to North African and Middle Eastern origins. Delafosse produced a convoluted theory of an invasion by "Judeo-Syrians", which he linked to the

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further states that "In origin they were white, though we do not know to whom they trace their origin. Their subjects, however, were Wa'kore ." Chronicles by

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It is uncertain among historians when Ghana's ruling dynasty began. The first identifiable mention of the imperial dynasty in written records was made by

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and acquired all their possessions, both their ancient kingdom and that of Ghana." According to a modern tradition, this resurgence of Mali was led by

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The Arabic sources are vague as to how the country was governed. Al-Bakri, far and away the most detailed one, mentions that the king had officials (

2217: 1577: 935:. This gradually strengthened Ghana's vassals while weakening the core. Awdaghost, at the time a seat of the king, fell to the Almoravids in 1054. 772:

agro-pastoralist chiefdoms that were spread over the western-most portion of the Niger River basin for over a millennium roughly spanning 1300 BCE

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In recent years, the identification of Koumbi Saleh with the 'city of Ghana' described in the sources has been increasingly disputed by scholars.

3642: 558:, although they vary much amongst themselves, the legendary progenitory of the Soninke was a man named Dinga, who came "from the east" (possibly 5976: 5746: 5128: 3675: 3600: 3581: 3544: 3459:

Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1982), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. I. The external Arabic sources",

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outnumbered the peoples of the Sudan in their neighborhood and dominated the whole region." He went on to relate that they "vanquished the

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Vicente, Mário; Priehodová, Edita; Diallo, Issa; Podgorná, Eliška; Poloni, Estella S.; Černý, Viktor; Schlebusch, Carina M. (2019-12-02).

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Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1983), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The local oral sources",

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has shown that, as the desert advanced, the local groups moved southward into the still well-watered areas of what is now northern Mali.

5798: 4798: 5991: 2714: 2326:"Background to the Ghana empire: Archaeological investigations on the transition to statehood in the Dhar Tichitt region (mauritania)" 3301: 5917: 4442: 3936: 3565: 3234: 1904:"Population history and genetic adaptation of the Fulani nomads: inferences from genome-wide data and the lactase persistence trait" 1218:, was "almost a match for the king of Ghana." Sama is the only such entity mentioned as a province, as it was in al-Ya'qubi's day. 882:

in the desert to accept its rule sometime between 970 and 1054. Oral traditions indicate that, at its height, the empire controlled

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in the 7th century, the camel had changed the ancient, irregular trade routes into a network running between North Africa and the

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Fall, Mamadou (2021). "Les Terroirs Historiques et la Poussée Soninké". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.).

69: 854:, whose composites stood in varying relations to the core, from fully administered to nominal tribute-paying parity. Based on 377: 363: 349: 335: 321: 296: 282: 5981: 4147: 4028: 3941: 3688: 827: 826:

served as major catalysts for the transformative social changes that resulted in the empire's formation. By the time of the

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origins in the empire. al-Bakri also mentioned that Muslims played a central role in commerce and held court appointments.

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in 1394, according to which the power of Ghana waned as that of the "veiled people" grew through the Almoravid movement.

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in 1235 (a date again assigned arbitrarily by Delafosse), the new rulers of Koumbi Saleh became permanent allies of the

112: 4904: 1102:, rebelled with Kangaba and became part of a loose federation of Mande-speaking states. After Soumaoro's defeat at the 5986: 5867: 4586: 3784: 492: 5996: 4180: 3982: 3848: 3719: 3647: 2841: 2757: 1967:

Preserving African Cultural Heritage: Proceedings of the Panafrican Archaeological Association 13th Congress, Dakar

4537: 2491:"Listening for Silences in Almoravid History: Another Reading of "The Conquest that Never Was" Camilo Gómez-Rivas 5825: 4973: 4043: 3904: 3668: 3383:

Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au moyen age, d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie

1776: 3302:"Not quite Venus from the waves: The Almoravid conquest of Ghana in the modern historiography of Western Africa" 1695: 1183:

nobleman living in Spain questioned merchants who visited the empire in the 11th century and wrote of the king:

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out of the Gajaaga. Two other Soninke groups to the south, the Gaja and the Karo, were dominated by the Wagu.

3734: 3632: 2105:"Tracing History in Dia, in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali -Archaeology, Oral Traditions and Written Sources" 5850: 5731: 5272: 5225: 5168: 4867: 4811: 4559: 4121: 3921: 3769: 2964:, British Archaeological Reports 680, Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 41, Oxford: Archaeopress, 1619: 5324: 5039: 4793: 4309: 3558:(in French), translated by Cuoq, Joseph M., Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 2716:

The Trans-Saharan Book Trade: Manuscript Culture, Arabic Literacy and Intellectual History in Muslim Africa

5872: 5773: 5768: 5456: 5404: 5257: 5161: 5146: 4806: 4760: 4601: 4488: 4259: 4018: 3951: 3863: 3833: 1405: 1047:, succeeded him and forced the people to pay him tribute. The Sosso also managed to annex the neighboring 2325: 5956: 5803: 5763: 5576: 5451: 4515: 4505: 4464: 4435: 3066:

Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents

1615: 1381: 945:. This may have created a succession dispute with Bassi's son Qanamar, providing an opportunity for the 777:

development of ironworking technology were crucial in the formation of the state. Work in Dhar Tichitt,

5696: 5691: 3050: 1331:, gave the name of the empire's capital as "Koumbi". According to the description of the town left by 5896: 5726: 5676: 5571: 5502: 5473: 5392: 5294: 4726: 4564: 4554: 4284: 4264: 4219: 4091: 4053: 4023: 3909: 3894: 3789: 3661: 2140:

Mcintosh, Susan Keech; Mcintosh, Roderick J. (February 1980). "Jenne-Jeno: An Ancient African City".

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Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIe au XVIe siècle (Bilād al-Sūdān)

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Chu, Daniel and Skinner, Elliot. A Glorious Age in Africa, 1st ed. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965.

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Historian Dierk Lange has argued that the core of Wagadou was not Koumbi Saleh but in fact lay near

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The earliest proto-polity ancestral to Ghana likely arose from a large collection of ancient proto-

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Trade routes of the Western Sahara c. 1000–1500. Goldfields are indicated by light brown shading:

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Posnansky, Merrick (1981). "The societies of Africa south of the Sahara in the Early Iron Age".

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classical to post-classical era western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast of

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Haut-Sénégal-Niger: Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues; l'Histoire; les Civilizations. 3 Vols

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Before the Empire of Ghana: Pastoralism and the Origins of Cultural Complexity in the Sahel

1963:"Seeking the Origins of Takrur: Human Settlement in the Middle Senegal Valley 2500-1000 BP" 1015: 5877: 5845: 5718: 5669: 5625: 5620: 5598: 5593: 5551: 5544: 5519: 5379: 5374: 5215: 5096: 4990: 4985: 4953: 4778: 4768: 4662: 4655: 4650: 4635: 4591: 4473: 4459: 4409: 4364: 4359: 4140: 4078: 4063: 3987: 3965: 3858: 3827: 3764: 3696: 3391:

Munson, Patrick J. (1980), "Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire",

1551: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1048: 1034: 979: 915: 815: 721: 638: 625: 531:. This meant the "place of the Wague", the term current in the 19th century for the local 424: 287: 102: 5319: 5299: 1733:"The Conquest That Never Was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The Local Oral Sources" 1429:

The empire was populated by ancient Mande tribes and would come under unity through the

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valley. These "kings" were presumably the rulers of the territorial units often called

1080: 1044: 838: 835: 794: 634: 602: 598: 555: 488: 476: 527:(king of gold) was another title for these kings. The Soninke name for the polity was 5950: 5901: 5788: 5583: 5556: 5529: 5507: 5485: 5329: 5309: 5235: 5220: 5064: 5017: 5005: 4931: 4823: 4697: 4692: 4667: 4549: 4319: 4224: 4156: 4111: 4106: 4068: 3729: 3525: 3488: 3420: 3373: 3336: 3123: 2341: 1215: 1007: 982:

diaspora throughout the region. In 1083, supported by the Almoravids, Ghana attacked

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The earliest discussions of Ghana's origins are found in the Sudanese chronicles of

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to the western Sahara in the 3rd century AD and pressure from the nomadic Saharan

720:". Delafosse's works, meanwhile, have been harshly criticised by scholars such as 3042: 3024:

African dominion : a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa

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The fortunes of Africa : a 5000-year history of wealth, greed, and endeavour

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In its last centuries, Ghana increasingly lost control of the gold trade to the

1107: 1072: 1068: 942: 938: 928: 914:. Diabe, supposedly the son of Dinga, is sometimes given credit for driving the 831: 782: 614: 484: 446: 238: 173: 3256:. Excerpts from Levtzion & Hopkins 1981. Includes an extended introduction. 3115: 5539: 5356: 5230: 5190: 5123: 4269: 3404: 1920: 1280:

Western necropolis of Koumbi Saleh showing the density of funerary structures

1139: 891: 705: 697: 693: 590: 450: 403: 5932: 5919: 3627: 3614:, Dakar: Mémoire de l'Institute Français d'Afrique Noire 23, pp. 359–408 2500:"Law and the Islamization of Morocco under the Almoravids" Camilo Gómez-Rivas 1929: 1268:

Individual burial from the Column Tomb with isolated stele placed at the head

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Written sources vague as to the empire's maximum extent, though according to

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in the 13th noted that rulers of Ghana traced their descent from the clan of

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in 830. Further information about the empire was provided by the accounts of

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Monteil, Charles (1954), "La légende du Ouagadou et l'origine des Soninke",

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The Negroland revisited: Discovery and invention of the Sudanese middle ages

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Lange, Dierk (1996a), "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana",

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La première hégémonie peule. Le Fuuta Tooro de Koli Teηella à Almaami Abdul

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to intervene in the empire, promoting pro-Islam candidates for the throne.

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and relied on slave raiding and trading as a principal economic activity.

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Information about the empire at its height is sparse. According to Kati's

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A tradition in historiography maintains that Ghana was conquered by the

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were Black. These regions, part of the core of Wagadu, remained largely

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Tarikh el-fettach par Mahmoūd Kāti et l'un de ses petit fils (2 Vols.)

2842:"Le Tombeau à Colonnes de Koumbi Saleh (Mauritanie – xie-xiie siècle)" 1316:

Burial excavation showing the over-pit system and surface arrangements

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Ghana appears to have had a central core region and was surrounded by

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assigned an arbitrary but widely accepted date of 1230 to the event.

1023: 1019: 1011: 1006:

and others. Ghana was the master of an extensive trade system in the

911: 907: 883: 744: 732: 685: 480: 4172: 3591:

Mauny, Raymond (1971), "The Western Sudan", in Shinnie, P.L. (ed.),

3509: 3472: 3357: 3320: 3148: 1962: 1748: 1393:

Beginning in the 1920s, French archaeologists excavated the site of

2028:"La légende officielle de Soundiata, fondateur de l'Empire manding" 475:

After centuries of prosperity, the empire began its decline in the

5210: 4394: 4344: 4304: 4279: 4234: 1978: 1976: 1404: 1380: 1180: 1132: 1112: 1099: 1033: 819: 740: 726: 717: 681: 578: 559: 500: 234: 221: 117: 31: 2032:

Bulletin du Comité d'Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l'AOF

1652:

Willie F. Page; R. Hunt Davis, Jr., eds. (2005), "Ghana Empire",

4229: 3684: 3653: 1442: 899: 847: 843: 454: 398: 4424: 4176: 3657: 3214:

Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F. P. eds. and trans. (2000),

2007:

Monteil, Charles (1966). "Fin de siècle à Médine (1898-1899)".

1694:

Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. Jr. (9 February 2010).

1656:, vol. 2 (revised ed.), Facts on File, pp. 85–87 1487:

Kambine Diaresso (sometimes also written as Jarisso): 1087–1090

1809: 1807: 1805: 1127:

Most of the information about the economy of Ghana comes from

987: 716:(1068 CE) all describe the population and rulers of Ghana as " 666: 1437:

ethnic group, with its citizens living in deeply established

3262:"Un État Soudanais Médiéval Inconnu: Le Royaume de Zāfūn(u)" 3243:

Medieval West Africa: Views from Arab Scholars and Merchants

1697:

Encyclopedia of African American History [3 volumes]

1018:

throughout the region. It also controlled the gold mines of

3560:. Reprinted in 1985 with corrections and additional texts, 1665: 1663: 1256:

Column Tomb with remains of the corner columns still intact

676:, erroneously concluded that Ghana had been founded by the 4420: 593:

maintain that the earliest occupants of areas such as the

3229:. First published in 1981 by Cambridge University Press, 1119:

Koumbi Saleh was abandoned sometime in the 15th century.

902:

to the north. It also had some degree of influence over

523:, and was the title given to the rulers of the kingdom. 1131:. He noted that merchants had to pay a tax of one gold 3434:

Bulletin de l'Institut Français de l'Afrique Noire (B)

2644: 2642: 2564: 2562: 2414: 2412: 2512:

ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.

2813:

al-Ya'qubi in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.

1083:, the founder of Mali and ruler of its core area of 472:

when he wrote about the region in the 11th century.

5886: 5838: 5717: 5355: 4759: 4458: 4077: 4005: 3964: 3881: 3808: 3695: 3595:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 66–87, 3568:. Similar to Levtzion and Hopkins, 1981 & 2000. 3344:Mauny, Raymond A. (1954), "The question of Ghana", 2826:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans., 2663:al-'Umari in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans. 2548: 2546: 1154:on the empire's periphery. The introduction of the 990:, helping to spread Sunni orthodoxy there as well. 391: 231: 218: 205: 193: 179: 167: 157: 145: 131: 123: 108: 90: 79: 39: 2743:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans. 2366:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans. 1146:worth 42,000 dinars. The main centre of trade was 3041:Houdas, Octave; Delafosse, Maurice, eds. (1913), 3017:(in French). Dakar: HGS Editions. pp. 14–39. 2508: 2506: 1982: 1576:Gestrich, Nikolas (2019). "The Empire of Ghana". 1244:Central mausoleum in 1951 (left) and 2007 (right) 3539:(2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, pp. 1001–2, 3015:Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe - XVIIe siécle 2929:"Mande | West African, Mali, Griot | Britannica" 1304:Central mausoleum (the qubba) of the Column Tomb 1055:to the south, where the important goldfields of 757:traditions. In 1969 Patrick Munson excavated at 633:offers three different theories: that they were 3079:. Reprint of the 1999 edition with corrections. 3008:, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press 1856: 1841: 1813: 1185: 535:, or may have meant 'the land of great herds'. 3346:Journal of the International African Institute 3216:Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa 3006:The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 2891: 2219:Oxford Research Encyclopedias: African history 1454:Soninke rulers ("Ghanas") of the Cisse dynasty 941:died in 1063, and was succeeded by his nephew 27:Empire in West Africa from c. 200s to c. 1200s 4436: 4188: 3669: 3026:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 2692:. United States: Public Affairs. p. 73. 2455: 1014:in the 10th century, that exported salt from 8: 5893:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 3300:Masonen, Pekka; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1996), 3127:. Reprinted in Lange 2004, pp. 455–493. 2659: 2657: 30:Not to be confused with the modern country, 2796: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2713:Krätli, Graziano; Lydon, Ghislaine (2011). 1726: 1724: 1654:Encyclopedia of African History and Culture 1098:Soumaba Cisse, at the time a vassal of the 1067:In his brief overview of Sudanese history, 1038:Map of successor states to the Ghana Empire 871:and 24 more kaya (kings) ruled afterward. 5714: 4443: 4429: 4421: 4195: 4181: 4173: 4011: 3970: 3887: 3814: 3676: 3662: 3654: 3643:Kingdom of Ghana, Primary Source Documents 3385:, Dakar: Institut français d'Afrique Noire 3241:Levtzion, Nehemia; Spaulding, Jay (2003), 3085:Archaeology of Islam in Sub-saharan Africa 3053:in 1964 and 1981. The French text is also 2216:Gestrich, Nikolas (2019). "Ghana Empire". 68: 36: 3628:Ghana Empire - World History Encyclopedia 3087:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2800:al-Bakri (1067) in Levtzion and Hopkins, 2629: 1937: 1919: 810:Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, a 609:Medieval Arab Writers and a Berber Origin 5967:13th-century disestablishments in Africa 3428:Thomassey, Paul; Mauny, Raymond (1951), 2903: 2878:al-Bakri, 1067 in Levtzion and Hopkins, 2866: 2758:"The Story of Africa- BBC World Service" 2170: 1876: 1864: 1829: 1731:Conrad, David; Fisher, Humphrey (1983). 1669: 3057:from Aluka but requires a subscription. 2604: 2580: 2354: 1568: 1234: 74:The Ghana Empire at its greatest extent 2479: 2467: 2430: 2330:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 2228:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396 2203: 2182: 2158: 2090: 1770: 1768: 1766: 1638:al-Kuwarizmi in Levtzion and Hopkins, 1588:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396 629:). Addressing the rulers' origin, the 3430:"Campagne de fouilles à Koumbi Saleh" 2915: 2781: 2648: 2616:ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, 2592: 2568: 2537: 2525: 2418: 2078: 1994: 1681: 1116:and "who is like a deputy unto him." 752:Modern Archaeology and a Local Origin 230: 217: 204: 200: 178: 166: 156: 144: 140: 130: 7: 5972:8th-century establishments in Africa 2403: 2391: 2379: 2253:"The Origins of the Empire of Ghana" 1961:McIntosh, Susan Keech (2017-01-01). 1609: 1607: 1321:A 17th-century chronicle written in 3175:, Dettelbach, Germany: J. H. Röll, 2552:al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins, 2307:General History of Africa: Volume 2 2279:Canadian Journal of African Studies 1888:al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins, 1292:Funerary complex of the Column Tomb 898:, as well as the Awker, Adrar, and 672:French colonial officials, notably 428: 3533:Cornevin, Robert (1965), "Ghana", 2285:(2). Taylor and Francis: 347–373. 1781:. Paris: Karthala. p. 57-60. 1340:on the rim of the Sahara desert. 25: 2990:Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues 623:) and Abd al-Rahman as-Sadi (the 605:until at least the 16th century. 3210:. Reprinted with additions 1980. 2986:(in French), Paris: Émile Larose 1892:, p. 109, and ibn Sa'id, p. 186. 1510:Rulers during Kaniaga occupation 1309: 1297: 1285: 1273: 1261: 1249: 1237: 961:as related to him by 'Uthman, a 375: 361: 347: 333: 319: 294: 280: 3536:Encyclopaedia of Islam Volume 2 3245:, Princeton NJ: Markus Wiener, 3218:, New York, NY: Marcus Weiner, 3173:Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa 2275:"Reconceptualizing Early Ghana" 1614:Etheredge, Laura (2009-04-14). 828:Muslim conquest of North Africa 661:, either through his protector 3446:. Includes a plan of the site. 3393:The Journal of African History 1409:The Western Nile according to 1385:The Western Nile according to 462:Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī 1: 3554:Cuoq, Joseph M., ed. (1975), 2048:African Studies Association, 1983:Levtzion & Spaulding 2003 1579:Oxford Research Encyclopedias 1547:History of the Soninke people 1010:valley, first established by 550:History of the Soninke people 479:, and would finally become a 248: 244: 211: 60: 56: 5977:Countries in medieval Africa 2342:10.1016/0278-4165(85)90005-4 2251:Abbou, Tahar (August 2020). 1071:related that "the people of 197:1st–3rd century–13th century 113:African traditional religion 3266:Cahiers d'Études Africaines 3004:Ehret, Christopher (2016), 2114:. Institute of Archaeology. 1857:Houdas & Delafosse 1913 1842:Houdas & Delafosse 1913 1814:Houdas & Delafosse 1913 1527:Ghanas of Wagadou tributary 1518:Soumaba Cisse as vassal of 1462:(also known as Dinga Cisse) 1094:This tradition states that 132: 6018: 3720:History of the Mali Empire 3190:Levtzion, Nehemia (1973), 3116:10.1515/islm.1996.73.2.313 2892:Thomassey & Mauny 1951 2081:, pp. 72–74, 508–511. 1228: 818:. The introduction of the 665:or through his son-in-law 547: 495:, under the leadership of 29: 5992:Political history of Mali 4210: 4134: 4014: 3973: 3890: 3817: 3440:: 438–462, archived from 3405:10.1017/s0021853700018685 3260:Lewicki, Tadeusz (1971). 2960:Berthier, Sophie (1997), 2686:Meredith, Martin (2014). 2456:Masonen & Fisher 1996 2112:University College London 1921:10.1186/s12864-019-6296-7 1717:– via Google Books. 1532:Soumaba Cisse as ally of 684:(who actually co-founded 259: 255: 201: 189: 141: 67: 55: 3633:African Kingdoms | Ghana 3083:Insoll, Timothy (2003), 2357:, p. 13 and note 5. 2324:Holl, Augustine (1985). 2273:McIntosh, Susan (2008). 1496:Magan Wagadou: 1120–1130 1445:and family structures. 1401:Contested Identification 890:, Bakhunu, Neema, Soso, 653:in the 11th century and 574:mentions Wagadu's fall. 431:), also known as simply 86:(likely a later capital) 3572:Masonen, Pekka (2000), 3381:Mauny, Raymond (1961), 3022:Gomez, Michael (2018). 2442:For example, Levtzion, 1620:Encyclopedia Britannica 1465:Dyabe Cisse: circa 790s 1365:and are today known as 712:(c. 1036 CE), and 5962:1240 disestablishments 3612:Mélanges Ethnologiques 3193:Ancient Ghana and Mali 3131:Lange, Dierk (1996b). 3047:, Paris: Ernest Leroux 2313:. UNESCO. p. 729. 1515:Diara Kante: 1180–1202 1414: 1390: 1190: 1039: 748: 577:The traditions of the 5982:History of Mauritania 5863:Medieval great powers 3770:2012 Tuareg rebellion 3638:Empires of west Sudan 3278:10.3406/cea.1971.2781 3171:Lange, Dierk (2004), 2988:. Gallica: Volume 1, 2840:Capel, Chloe (2021). 2026:Vidal, Jules (1924). 1493:Bannu Bubu: 1100–1120 1433:tribe of the greater 1408: 1384: 1037: 986:and may have reached 730: 539:Origin Historiography 220:• Conversion to 91:Common languages 5873:European colonialism 5858:Ancient great powers 3844:Environmental issues 3593:The African Iron age 2069:vol. 1, pp. 256-257) 2063:Histoire de l'Africa 1775:Kane, Oumar (2004). 1142:quotes the use of a 965:of Ghana who took a 233:• Conquered by 5929: / 5868:Modern great powers 3785:Ebola disease event 3650:— BBC World Service 3199:, London: Methuen, 2854:10.4000/remmm.16109 2470:, pp. 122–159. 1863:, translation from 1490:Suleiman: 1090–1100 967:pilgrimage to Mecca 878:, Ghana had forced 503:upon independence. 207:• Established 5987:History of Senegal 4320:Mahdiyya caliphate 3983:Telecommunications 3735:Kénédougou Kingdom 2980:Delafosse, Maurice 2933:www.britannica.com 2129:. pp. 71–103. 2067:Haut-Sénégal-Niger 2061:Cornevin, Robert, 2009:Bulletin de l'IFAN 1415: 1411:Muhammad al-Idrisi 1391: 1040: 852:confederated state 846:heading north and 806:Rise of the Empire 749: 704:(c. 944 CE), 237:/Submitted to the 5997:Sahelian kingdoms 5912: 5911: 5834: 5833: 5799:Polish–Lithuanian 4974:Gurjara-Pratihara 4418: 4417: 4204:Sahelian kingdoms 4170: 4169: 4130: 4129: 4044:Human trafficking 4001: 4000: 3960: 3959: 3937:Political parties 3932:National Assembly 3905:Foreign relations 3877: 3876: 3750:Toucouleur Empire 3710:Pre-Imperial Mali 3602:978-0-19-813158-8 3583:978-951-41-0886-0 3546:978-90-04-07026-4 3498:History in Africa 3461:History in Africa 3309:History in Africa 3252:978-1-55876-305-0 3225:978-1-55876-241-1 3206:978-0-8419-0431-6 3182:978-3-89754-115-3 3137:History in Africa 3094:978-0-521-65702-0 3075:978-90-04-12560-5 3068:, Leiden: Brill, 3033:978-0-691-17742-7 2998:Les Civilisations 2971:978-0-86054-868-3 2869:, pp. 22–26. 2730:978-90-04-18742-9 2699:978-1-61039-459-8 2237:978-0-19-027773-4 2050:History in Africa 1788:978-2-84586-521-1 1737:History in Africa 1707:978-1-85109-774-6 1672:, pp. 16–17. 1597:978-0-19-027773-4 1505:Birama: 1160–1180 1328:Tarikh al-fattash 954:Almoravid dynasty 864:Tarikh al-Fettash 789:Niger Bend Theory 674:Maurice Delafosse 631:Tarikh al-Fattash 620:Tarikh al-Fattash 477:second millennium 417: 416: 387: 386: 383: 382: 357:Pre-imperial Mali 329:Kingdom of Diarra 307: 306: 181:• 1203–1235 169:• 1040–1062 16:(Redirected from 6009: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5933:15.667°N 8.000°W 5930: 5927: 5926: 5925: 5922: 5715: 5380:Austro-Hungarian 5080:Chagatai Khanate 4445: 4438: 4431: 4422: 4197: 4190: 4183: 4174: 4150: 4143: 4012: 3971: 3888: 3815: 3755:Wassoulou Empire 3678: 3671: 3664: 3655: 3615: 3605: 3586: 3559: 3549: 3528: 3491: 3445: 3423: 3386: 3376: 3339: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3292: 3255: 3228: 3209: 3198: 3185: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3126: 3097: 3078: 3062:Hunwick, John O. 3048: 3037: 3018: 3009: 2987: 2974: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2876: 2870: 2864: 2858: 2857: 2848:(149): 237–262. 2837: 2831: 2824: 2818: 2811: 2805: 2798: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2754: 2748: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2721:Brill Publishers 2710: 2704: 2703: 2683: 2677: 2674: 2668: 2661: 2652: 2646: 2637: 2627: 2621: 2614: 2608: 2602: 2596: 2590: 2584: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2557: 2550: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2510: 2501: 2498: 2492: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2447: 2440: 2434: 2433:, p. 165-6. 2428: 2422: 2416: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2383: 2377: 2371: 2364: 2358: 2352: 2346: 2345: 2321: 2315: 2314: 2312: 2301: 2295: 2294: 2270: 2264: 2263: 2257: 2248: 2242: 2241: 2213: 2207: 2201: 2195: 2192: 2186: 2180: 2174: 2173:, pp. 8–17. 2168: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2125:MacDonald, K.C. 2122: 2116: 2115: 2109: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2076: 2070: 2059: 2053: 2046: 2040: 2039: 2023: 2017: 2016: 2004: 1998: 1992: 1986: 1980: 1971: 1970: 1958: 1952: 1951: 1941: 1923: 1899: 1893: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1854: 1848: 1839: 1833: 1827: 1821: 1811: 1800: 1799: 1797: 1795: 1772: 1761: 1760: 1728: 1719: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1691: 1685: 1679: 1673: 1667: 1658: 1657: 1649: 1643: 1636: 1630: 1629: 1627: 1626: 1611: 1602: 1601: 1573: 1460:Kaya Magan Cissé 1313: 1301: 1289: 1277: 1265: 1253: 1241: 1104:Battle of Kirina 1030:Sosso occupation 931:and west to the 430: 379: 378: 365: 364: 351: 350: 337: 336: 323: 322: 311: 310: 298: 297: 284: 283: 277: 276: 261: 260: 250: 246: 213: 152:Kaya Magan Cissé 72: 62: 58: 37: 21: 6017: 6016: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6007: 6006: 6002:Spread of Islam 5947: 5946: 5937: 5935: 5931: 5928: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5908: 5897:American Empire 5882: 5878:African empires 5830: 5713: 5405:Central African 5351: 5169:Romano-Germanic 4755: 4489:Middle Assyrian 4462: 4454: 4449: 4419: 4414: 4206: 4201: 4171: 4166: 4153: 4146: 4139: 4126: 4122:Public holidays 4073: 3997: 3956: 3922:Law enforcement 3873: 3804: 3765:Mali Federation 3691: 3682: 3624: 3619: 3609: 3603: 3590: 3584: 3571: 3553: 3547: 3532: 3510:10.2307/3171690 3495: 3473:10.2307/3171598 3458: 3454: 3452:Further reading 3449: 3427: 3390: 3380: 3358:10.2307/1156424 3343: 3321:10.2307/3171941 3304: 3299: 3290: 3288: 3259: 3253: 3240: 3226: 3213: 3207: 3196: 3189: 3183: 3170: 3161: 3159: 3149:10.2307/3171939 3130: 3101: 3095: 3082: 3076: 3060: 3040: 3034: 3021: 3012: 3003: 2978: 2972: 2959: 2955: 2949: 2947: 2946: 2937: 2935: 2927: 2926: 2922: 2914: 2910: 2902: 2898: 2890: 2886: 2877: 2873: 2865: 2861: 2839: 2838: 2834: 2825: 2821: 2812: 2808: 2799: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2766: 2764: 2756: 2755: 2751: 2742: 2738: 2731: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2675: 2671: 2662: 2655: 2647: 2640: 2628: 2624: 2615: 2611: 2603: 2599: 2591: 2587: 2579: 2575: 2567: 2560: 2551: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2524: 2520: 2511: 2504: 2499: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2478: 2474: 2466: 2462: 2454: 2450: 2441: 2437: 2429: 2425: 2417: 2410: 2402: 2398: 2390: 2386: 2378: 2374: 2365: 2361: 2353: 2349: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2310: 2303: 2302: 2298: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2255: 2250: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2215: 2214: 2210: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2189: 2181: 2177: 2169: 2165: 2157: 2153: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2124: 2123: 2119: 2107: 2103:Arazi, Noemie. 2102: 2101: 2097: 2089: 2085: 2077: 2073: 2060: 2056: 2047: 2043: 2025: 2024: 2020: 2006: 2005: 2001: 1993: 1989: 1981: 1974: 1960: 1959: 1955: 1901: 1900: 1896: 1887: 1883: 1875: 1871: 1855: 1851: 1840: 1836: 1828: 1824: 1812: 1803: 1793: 1791: 1789: 1774: 1773: 1764: 1749:10.2307/3171690 1730: 1729: 1722: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1693: 1692: 1688: 1680: 1676: 1668: 1661: 1651: 1650: 1646: 1637: 1633: 1624: 1622: 1613: 1612: 1605: 1598: 1575: 1574: 1570: 1565: 1552:Islam in Africa 1543: 1529: 1512: 1502:Musa: 1140–1160 1499:Gane: 1130–1140 1484: 1456: 1451: 1427: 1403: 1379: 1355: 1353:Muslim district 1346: 1317: 1314: 1305: 1302: 1293: 1290: 1281: 1278: 1269: 1266: 1257: 1254: 1245: 1242: 1233: 1227: 1172: 1125: 1065: 1032: 975: 973:Ghana Resurgent 924: 816:Tichitt culture 808: 803: 791: 765:in the 1920s. 754: 722:Charles Monteil 647:Tarikh al-Sudan 643:Sanhaja Berbers 626:Tarikh al-Sudan 611: 556:oral traditions 552: 546: 544:Oral traditions 541: 509: 413: 376: 362: 348: 334: 320: 295: 288:Tichitt culture 281: 241: 224: 208: 182: 170: 160: 148: 127:Feudal Monarchy 115: 75: 51: 49: 45: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6015: 6013: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5949: 5948: 5938:15.667; -8.000 5910: 5909: 5907: 5906: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5890: 5888: 5884: 5883: 5881: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5854: 5853: 5842: 5840: 5836: 5835: 5832: 5831: 5829: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5807: 5806: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5744: 5734: 5729: 5723: 5721: 5712: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5679: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5662: 5657: 5656: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5635: 5630: 5629: 5628: 5623: 5613: 5612: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5581: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5548: 5547: 5542: 5537: 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4776: 4771: 4765: 4763: 4761:Post-classical 4757: 4756: 4754: 4753: 4752: 4751: 4741: 4736: 4735: 4734: 4729: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4707: 4706: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4659: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4633: 4632: 4631: 4626: 4616: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4568: 4567: 4562: 4560:Middle Kingdom 4557: 4547: 4542: 4541: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4520: 4519: 4518: 4516:Neo-Babylonian 4513: 4508: 4506:Old Babylonian 4498: 4497: 4496: 4491: 4481: 4476: 4470: 4468: 4456: 4455: 4450: 4448: 4447: 4440: 4433: 4425: 4416: 4415: 4413: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4335:Mossi kingdoms 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4290:Hausa kingdoms 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4211: 4208: 4207: 4202: 4200: 4199: 4192: 4185: 4177: 4168: 4167: 4165: 4164: 4159: 4152: 4151: 4144: 4136: 4135: 4132: 4131: 4128: 4127: 4125: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4083: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4019:Child marriage 4015: 4009: 4003: 4002: 3999: 3998: 3996: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3974: 3968: 3962: 3961: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3954: 3952:Vice President 3949: 3947:Prime Minister 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3918: 3917: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3891: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3875: 3874: 3872: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3854:National parks 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3824: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3745:Massina Empire 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3725:Songhai Empire 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3701: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3623: 3622:External links 3620: 3618: 3617: 3607: 3601: 3588: 3582: 3569: 3551: 3545: 3530: 3493: 3455: 3453: 3450: 3448: 3447: 3425: 3399:(4): 457–466, 3388: 3378: 3352:(3): 200–213, 3341: 3297: 3272:(44): 501–25. 3257: 3251: 3238: 3224: 3211: 3205: 3187: 3181: 3168: 3128: 3099: 3093: 3080: 3074: 3058: 3038: 3032: 3019: 3010: 3001: 2976: 2970: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2920: 2908: 2896: 2884: 2871: 2859: 2832: 2819: 2806: 2786: 2774: 2749: 2736: 2729: 2705: 2698: 2678: 2669: 2653: 2638: 2630:Delafosse 1912 2622: 2609: 2607:, p. 504. 2597: 2585: 2583:, p. 503. 2573: 2558: 2556:, pp. 109–110. 2542: 2530: 2518: 2502: 2493: 2484: 2482:, p. 230. 2472: 2460: 2448: 2444:Ghana and Mali 2435: 2423: 2408: 2396: 2384: 2372: 2359: 2347: 2316: 2296: 2265: 2260:Vitaminedz.com 2243: 2236: 2208: 2206:, p. 161. 2196: 2187: 2185:, p. 466. 2175: 2163: 2161:, p. 465. 2151: 2132: 2117: 2095: 2093:, p. 458. 2083: 2071: 2054: 2041: 2018: 1999: 1997:, p. 204. 1987: 1972: 1953: 1894: 1881: 1869: 1849: 1834: 1822: 1801: 1787: 1762: 1720: 1706: 1686: 1674: 1659: 1644: 1631: 1603: 1596: 1567: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1560: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1542: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1534:Sundiata Keita 1528: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1520:Soumaoro Kanté 1516: 1511: 1508: 1507: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1472: 1466: 1463: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1449:List of rulers 1447: 1426: 1423: 1402: 1399: 1378: 1375: 1354: 1351: 1345: 1342: 1319: 1318: 1315: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1236: 1229:Main article: 1226: 1223: 1171: 1168: 1124: 1121: 1081:Sundiata Keita 1064: 1063:Vassal of Mali 1061: 1059:were located. 1045:Soumaoro Kante 1031: 1028: 974: 971: 923: 920: 807: 804: 802: 799: 795:Lake Faguibine 790: 787: 753: 750: 610: 607: 572:Gassire's lute 545: 542: 540: 537: 508: 505: 489:British colony 483:of the rising 415: 414: 412: 411: 406: 401: 395: 393: 389: 388: 385: 384: 381: 380: 373: 367: 366: 359: 353: 352: 345: 339: 338: 331: 325: 324: 317: 308: 305: 304: 299: 291: 290: 285: 273: 272: 267: 257: 256: 253: 252: 242: 232: 229: 228: 225: 219: 216: 215: 209: 206: 203: 202: 199: 198: 195: 194:Historical era 191: 190: 187: 186: 183: 180: 177: 176: 171: 168: 165: 164: 161: 158: 155: 154: 149: 146: 143: 142: 139: 138: 135: 129: 128: 125: 121: 120: 110: 106: 105: 92: 88: 87: 81: 77: 76: 73: 65: 64: 53: 52: 43: 40: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6014: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5945: 5942: 5903: 5902:Soviet empire 5900: 5898: 5895: 5894: 5892: 5891: 5889: 5887:Miscellaneous 5885: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5852: 5849: 5848: 5847: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5837: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5805: 5802: 5801: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5720: 5716: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5671: 5668: 5667: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5614: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5582: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5521: 5518: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5486:German Empire 5484: 5483: 5482: 5479: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5465: 5462: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5412: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5360: 5358: 5354: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5297: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5254: 5251: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5228: 5227: 5226:Turco-Persian 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5171: 5170: 5167: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5093: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5067: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5015: 5014: 5011: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4987: 4984: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4882: 4881: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4864: 4861: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4820: 4817: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4804: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4764: 4762: 4758: 4750: 4747: 4746: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4720: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4711: 4708: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4638: 4637: 4634: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4621: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4584: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4552: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4525: 4524: 4521: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4503: 4502: 4499: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4446: 4441: 4439: 4434: 4432: 4427: 4426: 4423: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4212: 4209: 4205: 4198: 4193: 4191: 4186: 4184: 4179: 4178: 4175: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4154: 4149: 4145: 4142: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4029:Ethnic groups 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4016: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4004: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3975: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3963: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3880: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3819: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3790:2020 protests 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3730:Bamana Empire 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3674: 3672: 3667: 3665: 3660: 3659: 3656: 3649: 3648:Ancient Ghana 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3625: 3621: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3594: 3589: 3585: 3579: 3575: 3570: 3567: 3566:2-222-01718-1 3563: 3557: 3552: 3548: 3542: 3538: 3537: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3457: 3456: 3451: 3444:on 2011-07-26 3443: 3439: 3436:(in French), 3435: 3431: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3298: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3268:(in French). 3267: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3236: 3235:0-521-22422-5 3232: 3227: 3221: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3202: 3195: 3194: 3188: 3184: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3139:(in French). 3138: 3134: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3110:(2): 313–51, 3109: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3077: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3056: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3039: 3035: 3029: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3011: 3007: 3002: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2967: 2963: 2958: 2957: 2952: 2950: 2934: 2930: 2924: 2921: 2918:, p. 33. 2917: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2904:Berthier 1997 2900: 2897: 2893: 2888: 2885: 2881: 2875: 2872: 2868: 2867:Levtzion 1973 2863: 2860: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2836: 2833: 2829: 2823: 2820: 2816: 2810: 2807: 2803: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2787: 2784:, p. 44. 2783: 2778: 2775: 2763: 2762:www.bbc.co.uk 2759: 2753: 2750: 2746: 2740: 2737: 2732: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2717: 2709: 2706: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2690: 2682: 2679: 2673: 2670: 2666: 2660: 2658: 2654: 2651:, p. 41. 2650: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2623: 2619: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2598: 2595:, p. 40. 2594: 2589: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2574: 2571:, p. 39. 2570: 2565: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2540:, p. 26. 2539: 2534: 2531: 2528:, p. 38. 2527: 2522: 2519: 2515: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2497: 2494: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2449: 2445: 2439: 2436: 2432: 2427: 2424: 2421:, p. 37. 2420: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2406:, p. 26. 2405: 2400: 2397: 2394:, p. 32. 2393: 2388: 2385: 2382:, p. 28. 2381: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2363: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2348: 2343: 2339: 2336:(2): 73–115. 2335: 2331: 2327: 2320: 2317: 2309: 2308: 2300: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2269: 2266: 2261: 2254: 2247: 2244: 2239: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2220: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2197: 2191: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2171:Levtzion 1973 2167: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2152: 2147: 2143: 2136: 2133: 2128: 2121: 2118: 2113: 2106: 2099: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2084: 2080: 2075: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2045: 2042: 2038:(2): 317–328. 2037: 2033: 2029: 2022: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1988: 1985:, p. 27. 1984: 1979: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1964: 1957: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1898: 1895: 1891: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1877:Levtzion 1973 1873: 1870: 1866: 1865:Levtzion 1973 1862: 1858: 1853: 1850: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1835: 1831: 1830:Levtzion 1973 1826: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1790: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1771: 1769: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1709: 1703: 1699: 1698: 1690: 1687: 1684:, p. 31. 1683: 1678: 1675: 1671: 1670:Levtzion 1973 1666: 1664: 1660: 1655: 1648: 1645: 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1996b 2204:Lange 1996b 2183:Munson 1980 2159:Munson 1980 2142:Archaeology 2091:Munson 1980 2015:(1–2): 166. 2011:. série B. 1536:: 1235–1240 1522:: 1203–1235 1477:: 1062–1076 1475:Tunka Manin 1471:: 1040–1062 1439:patrilineal 1377:Archaeology 1164:Mali Empire 1108:Mali Empire 1069:Ibn Khaldun 943:Tunka Manin 939:Ghana Bassi 929:Niger river 832:Niger River 783:Dhar Walata 615:Mahmud Kati 525:Kaya Maghan 485:Mali Empire 265:Preceded by 239:Mali Empire 174:Ghana Bassi 163:Dyabe Cisse 147:• 700 5951:Categories 5811:Portuguese 5692:Revival Le 5682:Vietnamese 5325:Later Tran 5295:Vietnamese 5191:Singhasari 5179:Holy Roman 4803:Bulgarian 4739:Satavahana 4710:Phoenician 4646:Achaemenid 4607:Indo-Greek 4587:Macedonian 4501:Babylonian 4385:Toucouleur 4285:Great Fulo 4102:Literature 2994:L'Histoire 2938:2024-04-11 2916:Gomez 2018 2782:Gomez 2018 2649:Gomez 2018 2634:291 Vol. 1 2632:, p. 2593:Gomez 2018 2569:Gomez 2018 2538:Gomez 2018 2526:Gomez 2018 2419:Gomez 2018 2148:(1): 8–14. 2079:Mauny 1961 1995:Mauny 1954 1914:(1): 915. 1859:, p. 1844:, p. 1816:, p. 1682:Gomez 2018 1625:2023-07-09 1563:References 1441:/paternal 1170:Government 1140:Ibn Hawqal 947:Almoravids 922:Almoravids 894:, Gijume, 892:Guidimakha 886:, Jafunu, 812:wet period 708:(977 CE), 706:Ibn Hawqal 700:(872 CE), 694:chronology 591:Mauritania 585:Arabs and 548:See also: 493:Gold Coast 451:Mauritania 404:Mauritania 124:Government 5804:Couronian 5442:Ethiopian 5430:Manchukuo 5385:Brazilian 5231:Ghaznavid 5201:Srivijaya 5152:Trebizond 5137:Byzantine 5119:North Sea 5114:Norwegian 5102:Almoravid 5085:Ilkhanate 5055:Majapahit 5028:Muromachi 4937:Solomonic 4922:Ethiopian 4836:Caliphate 4769:Aragonese 4597:Ptolemaic 4405:Wassoulou 4265:Futa Toro 4049:Languages 4034:Education 3993:Transport 3942:President 3900:Elections 3849:Mountains 3810:Geography 3800:2021 coup 3795:2020 coup 3775:2012 coup 3526:162867483 3504:: 53–78, 3489:163009319 3467:: 21–59, 3421:161981607 3374:143619637 3337:162477947 3124:162370098 3104:Der 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March 3064:(2003), 2982:(1912), 2817:, p. 21. 2804:, p. 80. 2747:, p. 81. 2370:, p. 73. 2291:40380172 1948:31791255 1794:18 March 1541:See also 1387:al-Bakri 1371:Mandinka 1367:Jakhanke 1344:El-Ghaba 1333:Al-Bakri 1323:Timbuktu 1203:Mandinka 1177:Al-Bakri 1129:al-Bakri 1049:Mandinka 984:Tadmekka 916:Mandinka 876:al-Bakri 714:al-Bakri 659:Muhammad 655:Ibn Said 568:kingship 533:nobility 529:Ouagadou 470:al-Bakri 468:scholar 466:Cordoban 445:, was a 59:100–300– 5921:15°40′N 5851:largest 5846:Empires 5826:Swedish 5821:Spanish 5816:Russian 5779:Italian 5754:Chinese 5742:English 5737:British 5732:Belgian 5707:Vietnam 5697:Tay son 5643:Tsarist 5638:Russian 5633:Ottoman 5599:Dzungar 5594:Khoshut 5567:Mexican 5562:Maratha 5545:Pahlavi 5525:Safavid 5520:Iranian 5447:Haitian 5410:Chinese 5370:Ashanti 5342:Wagadou 5268:Eastern 5263:Western 5246:Timurid 5206:Tibetan 5196:Songhai 5186:Serbian 5107:Almohad 5097:Idrisid 5001:Samanid 4991:Tahirid 4986:Iranian 4964:Kannauj 4944:Genoese 4880:Chinese 4873:Eastern 4868:Western 4856:Fatimid 4851:Abbasid 4846:Umayyad 4819:Burmese 4779:Ayyubid 4774:Angevin 4744:Xianbei 4732:Eastern 4727:Western 4673:Magadha 4636:Iranian 4629:Xiongnu 4614:Hittite 4523:Chinese 4511:Kassite 4460:Ancient 4452:Empires 4375:Songhai 4360:Shilluk 4330:Massina 4220:Bagirmi 4141:Outline 4087:Cuisine 4079:Culture 4064:Slavery 4007:Society 3988:Tourism 3966:Economy 3859:Regions 3828:Cercles 3822:Borders 3697:History 3518:3171690 3481:3171598 3366:1156424 3329:3171941 3286:4391129 3157:3171939 1939:6888939 1757:3171690 1642:, p. 7. 1616:"Ghana" 1431:Soninke 1363:Wangara 1359:mosques 1211:mazalim 1181:Moorish 1123:Economy 1085:Kangaba 1053:Kangaba 1004:Diafunu 996:Kaniaga 980:Wangara 933:Senegal 904:Kaniaga 896:Gajaaga 836:Soninke 824:Sanhaja 801:History 718:negroes 698:Ya'qubi 678:Berbers 639:Wangara 635:Soninke 603:Soninke 587:Berbers 517:warrior 491:of the 437:Ghanata 409:Senegal 371:Gajaaga 214:100–300 99:Malinke 95:Soninke 80:Capital 47:Wagadou 5924:8°00′W 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