935:. Subsequently, China engaged in what is possibly the largest wastewater treatment investment program in history. It has been estimated that in 2006 there was sufficient capacity to treat 52% of municipal residential wastewater. According to the State Environmental Protection Agency the rate of urban wastewater treatment reached 57% in that year. The government's goal to achieve a level of 60% for treatment of municipal wastewater by 2010 was surpassed. By 2010, 77.5% of domestic waste water was treated. Between 2001 and 2004, the number of cities that charge wastewater tariffs has increased from 300 to 475 out of 661 cities. According to the Notice on the Construction Plan for the Nation's Urban Waste Water Treatment and Recycling Facilities presented in the 12th Five-Year Plan by the General Office of the State Council, which was promulgated on May 4, 2012, the waste water treatment rate in the PRC will further improve by 2015. By the end of 2015, the waste water treatment rate should increase to 100% for municipalities, provincial capital cities and cities specifically designated in the state plan, 85% for other cities, 70% for counties, and 30% for towns.
1158:
large subsidies for the financing of rural water supply and sanitation. Instead, there is greater emphasis on self-reliance with rural people using their own contributions and resources to improve their water supply. This financing structure causes poor rural areas to "accurately match their ability to pay with the proper type of systems and level of service", i.e. to choose sanitation solutions that they can afford. According to the World Bank, as a result, "China is held up as a model for other developing countries". Support for capital costs for water supply is partially provided by the local and/or provincial government. Beneficiaries have to provide upfront capital contributions. Through World Bank financing and central government counterpart financing these upfront capital contributions were reduced, thus making sanitation more affordable to the poor. According to
902:
1176:
37:
765:, the Water Division of the Shanghai Urban Construction Investment Development Corporation provides services. The Water Division includes a raw water bureau, five water bureaus, one sewage management bureau, three engineering bureaus and two construction bureaus. It serves 12 million people. In Beijing, a Water parent bureau was established in 2004, integrating the functions of formerly separate bureaus for water supply, sewerage, wastewater treatment, and water resources management. In
4949:
786:
43 million inhabitants of whom over 27 million are served through full service concessions, among which the concession in
Shenzhen is the largest. The company holds manages 22 municipal contracts and nine industrial contracts. the Israeli-Chinese Kardan Water International Group is also a major player in the Chinese water market. Notable Chinese companies engaged in the provision of water supply and sanitation services include the majority state-owned wastewater company
1042:
Subsequently, water tariffs have been increased substantially in many
Chinese cities, particularly in the north where water is scarcest. However, according to the Ministry of Construction, water tariff reforms have not been effective enough to offer the necessary incentives to save water. While many cities now have sewer tariffs, in 2005, there were more than 150 cities across the country where no wastewater treatment fee was collected.
723:
1010:(NRW) - consisting mainly leakage losses in the distribution network - are estimated by the Chinese Waterworks Association to be only 20% on average and less than 10% for the best utilities, which is very low by international standards. The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities estimated the non-revenue water for a sample of Chinese water utilities at 27% in 2006 and 21% in 2001.
704:. In 2005, 340 million people, or about 25% of China's population, lived in designated cities, each of which had a population of at least 200,000. The remaining urban population of about 200 million, or about 15% of the total population, lives in smaller towns that are either among the smaller prefecture-level capitals (96 million) that are not formally designated as cities or in townships (100 million).
494:
education training. As a result, significant disparities exist between poorer and wealthier rural counties, both among and within provinces in China. While a number of wealthier and middle-income rural counties have experienced tremendous health-related benefits as a result of improvements in water supply and sanitation, poorer counties with more limited resources have yet to receive similar benefits. In
1190:
546:
Management" (No.126 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2004), and the "Opinions on
Strengthening Regulation of Public Utilities" (No.154 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2005). However, there is no law concerning the regulation of public utilities or private sector participation in the sector. The Ministry of Health has attributions related to the promotion of rural water supply and sanitation.
489:. That work, combined with a high literacy rate (even in poor areas), has led to widespread knowledge of many basic health behaviors, such as the importance of drinking boiled water. However, actual behavioral change has been slow to follow, especially in poor areas where fuel may be scarce and understanding of the link between raw water or unwashed hands and
969:
financial, legal, and technical advisers, finding to their chagrin that the process becomes more complex in the absence of expert knowledge. Learning from the experience of past BOTs in the sector, local governments sought expert advice on bidding and public tender. In about 2000 for the first time, a BOT water project (
581:
responsible for the "provision of recommendations on economic regulation of water pricing, taxation, credit and financial affairs" as well as "coordination of capital construction of (...) water supply for townships and villages", although in practice these functions seem to be carried out by other entities.
955:
efficiency of water use in industries, as well as due to water scarcity and drought. Many
Chinese water and wastewater companies have overcapacities and are in financial difficulties because the revenues are insufficient to cover the servicing of the debt contracted to build the oversized infrastructure.
1151:, private entities undertake investments and recover their costs through fees for bulk water sale or wastewater treatment charged to the utilities. While the local government or utilities are formally not indebted through a BOT, the charges for the services are de facto similar to debt service charges.
1045:
China has a policy of universal metering, including metering of individual households in apartment complexes, where most urban residents live. Metering in urban areas is now relatively widespread with an average of 90% connections being metered. Some cities are experimenting with pre-paid debit cards
839:
has increased from 56% during pre-integration to over 88% in 2008, ranking first among large and medium-sized cities in China. The Asian
Development Bank called the Shenzhen case "a model for market-oriented reform in the urban water sector". In 2008 the Shenzhen Water Group had expanded and invested
834:
called
Shenzhen Water, Veolia holds 25% and Capital Water 20% of the shares. The Joint Venture was approved at the national level by the Ministry of Commerce. In 2009, Shenzhen Water was the largest water supply and sanitation enterprise in the country. The wastewater treatment sector in Shenzhen has
531:
The legal framework for water supply and sanitation at the national level is constituted by secondary legislation, of which the 1994 regulation of urban water supply, the 1996 administrative measures for the sanitary supervision of drinking water and the 2006 sanitary standards for drinking water are
1119:
Municipal governments provide their financing in the form of equity that typically is not remunerated. The other forms of financing require a remuneration either in the form of interests on loans or profits on private equity. Local governments in China are not allowed to borrow directly. Municipally
1037:
Many urban water and wastewater utilities in China experience financial stress, because user fees are set well below cost recovery levels and government subsidies are insufficient to cover the resulting gap. In 2004, 60% of urban water utilities reported negative net incomes. The financial situation
785:
Private sector participation in financing infrastructure and managing services is widespread. In 2007, there are over 50 water projects and well over 100 wastewater projects in China with private sector participation. The French firm Veolia alone has contracts that involve a total population of over
580:
In addition to water resources management, the
Ministry of Water Resources is also in charge of the construction of some major water infrastructure such as dams, embankments, irrigation infrastructure, and bulk conveyors for municipal and industrial water supply. According to its website, it is also
576:
Nevertheless, the
Ministry of Water Resources and its affiliated river basin commissions in all major river basins are key players in water resources management. The Water Law of 2002 emphasizes demand management and water quality protection and thus paves the way for a transition from a development
545:
water and sanitation infrastructure as well as policies concerning the regulation of water and sanitation utilities. Some important policy papers it has issued are "Accelerating the
Marketization of Public Utilities" (No.272 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2002), the "Measure on Public Utilities Concession
493:
is tenuous. Thus, the problem is more one of the effectiveness of health messages than of their dissemination: In the late 1990s, health education in most rural areas provided little concrete information to link hygienic behavior to improved health, and most provinces still lacked specialized health
399:
in 11 provinces found that over half of all drinking water samples contained unacceptably high levels of bacteria. Currently, China is facing a shortage of water due to climate and rapid development. In 2013, China "for the first time issued water quotas to every province, setting targets for annual
1157:
In terms of rural and small town infrastructure, channeling funds to the final users through the various layers of local government remains a challenge. According to the World Bank, China differs from many other developing countries in that there is not a history of the central government providing
950:
were not always those where the highest impact could have been achieved in terms of improving river water quality. As a result, many plants are underutilized or poorly functioning. According to the
Ministry of Construction, more than 50 wastewater treatment plants in more than 30 cities operated at
296:
In earlier years, access to an improved water source was 89% and access to improved sanitation was 55% in 2008. Having access to an improved water source, however, is not the same as having access to safe water. Many of those who have access to adequate infrastructure suffer from poor water quality
1086:
Investments in the sector have than tripled over the past years. According to the World Bank, in 1991–2005, a total of US$ 54 billion was invested in urban water supply and sanitation, equivalent to only US$ 3.7 billion per year. During the 11th Five Year Plan in 2006–10, almost US$ 11 billion per
968:
contracts were signed for wastewater treatment plants. More than 200 wastewater treatment plants were built with some form of private sector participation in their financing and/or management, usually using the BOT formula. Early BOTs saw governments implementing the process without the benefit of
867:
In rural areas, village committees which are community-based organizations, provide services. Its members operate the systems without remuneration. In terms of rural sanitation, human excreta are systematically used as manure for fertilising crops and vegetables. In many houses, the excreta of all
745:
Urban water supply in China is the responsibility of "cities" under complex arrangements that differ substantially from one city to the other. The term "City" has a dual and confusing meaning in China. It is used here to refer to the main urban area of a municipality, prefecture, or county. Cities
1143:
Implicitly, according to this estimate, the level of self-financing by water and wastewater utilities is zero. Nevertheless, there clearly will be an upward pressure on tariffs, since 70-80% of water infrastructure and 50-60% of wastewater infrastructure is financed either through debt or private
1064:
the average water tariff was US$ 0.14/m3 in 2001. Despite the relatively low water tariff the utility's revenues were twice as high as recurrent costs, allowing for a significant share of self-financing. In Shanghai, the average water tariff was only US$ 0.10/m3 in 2001. The utility did not even
858:
under a BOT contract in 1999. However, the water demand had been grossly overestimated, so that the plant lay idle while the local government had to pay for substantial minimum volumes without using them, which evidently pushed up tariffs. After lengthy negotiations, the local government finally
1049:
Tariff structure are complex, with different tariffs for different categories of users and higher tariffs charged to industrial and commercial users than to residential users. Most water tariffs are linear, i.e. there is a single price per unit of water, although there are some increasing-block
954:
During the 1990s, municipal and industrial water use actually declined because of low increases of connection rates to utilities because of underestimation of the importance of small-scale water providers, increased tariffs, increased metering, industrial restructuring, measures to increase the
754:
In some cities, the various companies are under the same "parent bureau", which may be the construction bureau or a water bureau, while in other cities the water bureau and the wastewater bureau report to different parent bureaus. Especially in smaller cities the county administration provides
408:
It has been estimated that in 2006 there was sufficient capacity to treat 52% of municipal residential wastewater. By June 2010, there were 1,519 municipal wastewater treatment plants in China and 18 plants were added each week. Many existing plants are being expanded and upgraded to include a
825:
is leading the reform of local water management in China. Inspired by the experience of the water utility in nearby Hong Kong, it was one of the first cities in the country that has combined all water-related government functions into one government agency in 2001. Furthermore, regulatory and
518:
To a large extent, the institutional structure of the sector has been inherited from the period of the planned economy before 1978. There are overlaps in responsibilities between public institutions at the central and local level, as well as between various Ministries. There are also no clear
514:
Responsibility for water supply and sanitation policies at the national level is shared between five Ministries. Provincial governments play a relatively limited role in the water sector, providing some limited financing for rural water supply. Local government plays a major role, providing a
1041:
Until the 1980s, urban water tariffs in China were very low and sewer tariffs were practically unknown. This has changed substantially since the adoption of National Guidelines on Urban Water Tariffs in 1988, which called for increased cost recovery and for the introduction of sewer tariffs.
996:
Most water and sanitation utilities in China have a low labor productivity and are overstaffed. For example, many utilities in small towns in Henan province have more than 20 employees per 1,000 connections, while international good practice is less than 4 employees per 1,000 connections. In
963:
In 2002, the Ministry of Construction issued a policy paper on the commercialization of public utilities. Subsequently, in October 2003, the central government decided that state-owned enterprises had to be separated from Ministries and/or provincial governments and had to be commercialized.
750:
despite the relatively limited autonomy that these companies enjoy). Water and wastewater bureaus are typically separate from each other. In larger cities, services are further unbundled: There may be a separate raw water bureau that transports water from far-away sources and sells it to the
4937:
1013:
One explanation for the relatively low level of NRW may be that most Chinese live in dense apartment complexes, which results in compact distribution systems. In some smaller cities, non-revenue water remains relatively high. For example, average non revenue water in small towns in
1087:
year are expected to be invested in the sector, thus investing in five years as much as had been invested in the previous fifteen years. More than 60% of these investments are targeted at sanitation, reflecting the backlog in that sector. Figures for rural areas are not available.
1702:
Deng, Yixiang; Brombal, Daniele; Farah, Paolo Davide; Moriggi, Angela; Critto, Andrea; Zhou, Yun; Marcomini, Antonio (2016). "China's Water Environmental Management Towards Institutional Integration. A Review of Current Progress and Constraints vis-a-vis the European Experience".
945:
lagged behind the construction of treatment plants, designs were sometimes inappropriate, there was no requirement for pre-treatment of industrial effluents thus affecting the effectiveness of treatment processes, and the sites chosen for the first priority investments within a
989:
There are many different indicators for utility efficiency. In the case of China, some indicators, such as labor productivity, suggest a low level of operational efficiency, while other indicators - such as non-revenue water - suggest a high level of operational efficiency.
806:
study by Chinese economists on the impact of private sector participation on the performance of urban water supply in 35 major cities over the period 1998 to 2008 found that " the participation of foreign companies, but not domestic private companies, significantly improves
751:
municipal water bureau for distribution. Likewise on the wastewater side, larger cities may have several district drainage bureaus in charge of parts of the city, a wastewater bureau in charge of the main collectors, and a third bureau in charge of wastewater treatment.
540:
It is the government's policy to fully recover costs for water supply and sanitation through user fees, and that water tariffs should be volumetric. The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (until 2008 the Ministry of Construction) oversees financing for
421:. In small communities, plants using only primary treatment were still common (15% of all plants). An analysis in 2004 by the Ministry of Construction showed that, according to treatment plant records, most plants operated in compliance with discharge standards.
515:
substantial share of financing and owning water supply and sanitation companies that are the main service providers in urban areas. In smaller towns, local government sometimes provides services directly. Village committees operate water systems in rural areas.
451:
Health problems caused by the lack of safe water are exacerbated by poor sanitary conditions, especially in rural China. Traditionally, Chinese households collect human waste and transport it to the fields for use as fertilizer, often without further treatment.
468:
destruction are common. The availability of public and school latrines in rural areas that met sanitary standards was low in the late 1990s. The government has made a concerted effort to promote good health-related behaviors. In most rural areas, a network of
527:
The national government does not have a single policy document for water supply and sanitation. The two major laws in the water sector relate to water resources management: the Water Law of 2002 and the Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law of 1984.
382:
According to the World Bank about 13% of urban water users receive water at inadequate pressure. Furthermore, 60% of China's 661 cities face seasonal water shortage, and over 100 cities have severe water constraints. Contamination of drinking water from
1745:
Jiane Zuo and Lili Gan:Water and Sanitation Services in China:Current Problems and Potential Solutions, in: José Estaban Castro and Léo Heller (Editors):Water and Sanitation Services. Public Policy and Management, Earthscan, London, 2009, p.
868:
family members are collected in buckets over the course of five to seven days, and then taken to the field and applied raw in the crops. The practice is an age old tradition and of enormous economic value in terms of agricultural production.
269:
over the past two decades in parallel with economic growth. The number of people lacking access to "at least basic" water in 2015 was 63 million. The term "at least basic water" is a new term since 2016, and is related to the previously used
1382:
1124:, other Chinese banks, the state bond program and international financial institutions. The State bond program is geared at less economically developed regions. The bonds are issued by the Ministry of Finance, and then distributed by the
746:
are governed by a "leading group" under the leadership of a mayor, who is assisted by various "bureaus", or departments. Services are usually provided by municipally owned water bureaus and wastewater bureaus (sometimes referred to as
850:(BOT) contracts where the private sector is in charge of large upstream or downstream infrastructure without being directly involved in serving users. Experience with BOT contracts has been mixed. For example, the local government of
713:
magazine wrote that many Chinese experts believe that basic infrastructure should be funded by provinces or the central government: "That done, prefecture and township governments could be massively trimmed or eliminated altogether."
368:
first launched in China's countryside 30 years ago have now left its peasants in the ditch." It also observed that "the income disparity between China's richest few and poorest many would make many a modern capitalist blush."
354:
As in many other developing countries, there is a significant gap between urban and rural areas. For example, in 2010, in urban areas of China 95% had access to piped water supply, while the share in rural areas was only 45%.
566:
1050:
tariffs where the unit price increases with consumption. Urban tariffs are approved by Price Bureaus of cities, after considerable prior negotiation. Tariffs do not require approval from a higher level of government.
880:
in water supply and sanitation in China. An Association for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation provides training, information exchange, technical assistance, and undertakes research. In terms of foreign NGOs, the NGO
3897:
1592:
4534:
409:
tertiary treatment stage for nutrient removal to comply with more stringent discharge standards introduced in 2002. In terms of technologies, in 2007, the most commonly used technologies were various forms of
159:
The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (until 2008 the Ministry of Construction) for urban water supply; Ministry of Health for rural water supply; Ministry of Water Resources for Water Resources
769:, the Tianjin Water Supply Group provides services. It recently divested itself from numerous side businesses to focus on its core business. Since 1997, it has cooperated with international companies such as
4901:
559:
1038:
of wastewater utilities is expected to be even more precarious. Tariffs have increased by 50% since 1998 and now stand at 1.5 RMB/m3 or US$ 0.20/m3 in 2021. These rates are insufficient to cover costs.
2212:
297:
due to fecal contamination; high levels of naturally occurring fluoride, arsenic, or salts; and growing industrial and agricultural chemical pollution. Furthermore, seasonal water shortages occur.
1834:
4682:
692:
China also has 661 designated cities, which do not constitute separate administrative units. Each municipality, prefecture, and county includes urban and rural areas. 4 cities are capitals of
951:
only 30 percent of their capacity or did not even come into operation. Consequently, the impact of the investment program on the water quality in rivers and coastal waters has been limited.
246:
931:
Until the early 1980s, there was not a single municipal wastewater treatment plant in China. In that year, the country's first municipal wastewater treatment plant was built in the city of
830:
and its Chinese partner Capital Water. Together with the State Council Committee for the Regulation and Management of State owned property, which holds 55% of the shares of a newly created
2716:
589:
In order to understand the institutional responsibilities for water supply and sanitation in China, it may be helpful to provide a brief overview of the administrative divisions of China:
519:
definitions of what terms like "supervision" and "management" that are mentioned in the legislation mean, so that "often the departments in charge cannot tell the differences themselves".
1607:
282:
3790:
2711:
1101:{ ! Wastewater |- | Municipal governments | 20-30% | 40-50% |- | Domestic banks | 20-30% | 10-20% |- | State bond program | 10-20% | 20-30% |- | Private sector | 10-20% | 10-20% |- |
223:
218:, the creation of water and wastewater utilities that are legally and financially separated from local governments, and increasing cost recovery as part of the transformation of the
5494:
826:
operative functions were separated. In 2003, the first concession for municipal public utilities in China was bid out in Shenzhen. The 30-year concession was won by the French firm
2164:
China Development Gateway: Ensuring the Safety of Urban Water Supply, Facilitating the Frugal and Appropriate Consumption of Urban Water, Ministry of Construction, August 22, 2006
1394:
China Development Gateway: Ensuring the Safety of Urban Water Supply, Facilitating the Frugal and Appropriate Consumption of Urban Water, Ministry of Construction, August 22, 2006
2367:
2306:
1922:
1883:
1689:
1639:
1427:
1366:
1280:
1113:
5597:
5389:
5262:
4134:
3829:
577:
phase focused almost exclusively on infrastructure development to a phase where more appropriate attention is being devoted to the management and protection of water resources.
4894:
4823:
1147:
Another mechanism to use debt finance are BOTs which are a popular financing mechanism for water and wastewater treatment plants and bulk water supply systems in China. Under
1060:, where water tariffs had not been raised once between 1949 and 1985, they have been raised eight times until 2006. As a result, cost recovery has improved significantly. In
964:
Competitive bidding for contracts, private sector participation and commercial financing are important element in the transition to a market economy. In the 1990s, the first
3937:
5703:
3862:
3748:
1073:
In rural areas, according to the World Bank users pay about 75% of investment costs and 100% of operation and maintenance costs. Rural tariffs do not need to be approved.
5544:
4932:
4922:
3753:
2721:
1589:
1286:
Fu, Tao, Miao Chang and Lijin Zhong: Reform of China's Urban Water Sector, International Water Association and Water Policy Research Center of Tsinghua University 2008,
1026:
Cost recovery for water and sanitation services paradoxically is lower in urban areas, while it is higher in rural areas, despite the lower incomes of rural residents.
5642:
5549:
3812:
977:. In 2004, a landmark international competitive bid for the entire water supply and sanitation system of Shenzhen was won by a joint venture including the French firm
1144:
equity that requires a remuneration. The remainder is financed through municipal equity, which typically requires no remuneration and thus helps to keep tariffs low.
2124:
5554:
4887:
2291:
1128:
as long maturity, low-interest loans, which in some cases may be converted to grants. The major international financial institutions engaged in the sector are the
5464:
5267:
2863:
840:
in 17 water projects in 7 provinces. The $ 40 million equity stake of Veolia is covered by a 15-year MIGA guarantee to protect against the risk of expropriation.
5734:
4358:
4016:
2977:
4927:
3253:
5277:
5094:
5089:
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3263:
2754:
2209:
5602:
5348:
5145:
5099:
3593:
2741:
1125:
2972:
1827:
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magazine, "some provinces are now bypassing both the prefectural- and township-level governments in order to get funds more directly to rural areas."
5587:
5155:
5150:
5064:
2422:
4999:
5713:
5658:
5632:
5607:
5338:
5282:
5192:
5170:
3932:
3917:
3817:
3674:
3632:
2728:
2652:
5693:
5678:
5617:
5559:
5489:
5307:
5257:
5247:
5160:
5129:
5109:
5014:
1667:
Global Water Intelligence:"New directions in Chinese wastewater", October 2010, p. 22, quoting the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
632:
2168:
1398:
1255:
5708:
5683:
5663:
5622:
5429:
5409:
5384:
5317:
5242:
5182:
5114:
5084:
5074:
5069:
5059:
5039:
5034:
4964:
4687:
3838:
3166:
2903:
1137:
554:
The responsibility for water resources management is split between a number of entities at the national and local level. At the national level
1985:
Hongwei Wanga, Wenqing Wub and Shilin Zhenga (2011). "An econometric analysis of private sector participation in China's urban water supply".
1440:
Cheng, Shikun; Li, Zifu; Uddin, Sayed Mohammad Nazim; Mang, Heinz-Peter; Zhou, Xiaoqin; Zhang, Jian; Zheng, Lei; Zhang, Lingling (June 2018).
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5577:
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5424:
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5272:
5227:
5217:
5197:
5124:
5119:
5079:
4969:
4539:
3927:
2989:
2967:
2846:
1969:
2336:
1098:
The World Bank estimates that urban water and wastewater infrastructure in China has been financed from the following sources in 1991–2005:
281:", in 2015. Between 1990 and 2008 alone more than 450 million Chinese gained access to an improved water source, based on estimates by the
5673:
5612:
5519:
5449:
5322:
5297:
5212:
5187:
5175:
5104:
5044:
5029:
5019:
5004:
4979:
3907:
3404:
2241:
2193:
5312:
1001:, the utility employed 34 employees per 1,000 connections, while in Shanghai, the ratio was less than 6 employees per 1,000 connections.
229:
Nevertheless, much remains to be achieved. According to survey data analyzed by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water and Sanitation of
5698:
5592:
5252:
5237:
5207:
5202:
5054:
3902:
3273:
3022:
2673:
2612:
2492:
1446:
5404:
2352:
2318:
2150:
1771:
1296:
3802:
3637:
3017:
2266:
2230:
5353:
3236:
5469:
3647:
3624:
3588:
3444:
3439:
2825:
2749:
2499:
2379:
1794:
1291:
687:
2068:
470:
4615:
4610:
4385:
3922:
3578:
2984:
2733:
2698:
2537:
5529:
5287:
5024:
1792:
Country Water Action: People's Republic of China. Private Funds for Cleaner Water — BOT Applied in the Chinese Wastewater Sector
5343:
5232:
5222:
4605:
4353:
4097:
4026:
3583:
3311:
3278:
3151:
2959:
2570:
2542:
1148:
569:(formerly the State Environmental Protection Agency, SEPA) has the responsibility to manage the quality of water resources, and
478:
474:
5459:
5292:
5514:
5509:
5394:
5009:
4994:
4974:
4662:
4302:
2504:
2097:
886:
836:
5539:
5499:
5444:
5439:
5419:
5414:
5399:
5379:
5374:
5369:
4989:
901:
855:
5524:
5484:
5479:
5474:
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1811:
973:
No. 6 Water Supply Plant) was awarded on the basis of transparent international competitive bidding, with support from the
3785:
3775:
3573:
3568:
2452:
2415:
1513:
245:. Progress in rural areas appears to lag behind what has been achieved in urban areas. According to data presented by the
1321:
4785:
4780:
4192:
3505:
3451:
3419:
3246:
2527:
3181:
2662:
4692:
4570:
4555:
4162:
4119:
4055:
4038:
3434:
2944:
2800:
2790:
2467:
2033:
1852:
1223:
3912:
2380:
World Bank:Implementation Completion And Results Report. Fourth Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project, 2007, p. 1
787:
4207:
4087:
3843:
3797:
3780:
3763:
3510:
3474:
3321:
2896:
2858:
2706:
2685:
2607:
2487:
2462:
2457:
2084:"China pays water price for progress", Water 21, Magazine of the International Water Association, August 2007, p. 6
608:
3141:
277:
Regarding sanitation, progress has been slower and there are still 329 million people without access to "at least
4810:
4402:
4226:
4107:
4060:
4004:
3469:
3414:
3027:
2954:
2657:
2632:
2477:
1867:"Missing the barefoot doctors", The Economist, October 13th 2007, p. 30. Counties are not specifically mentioned.
1213:
1208:
791:
4768:
4397:
4343:
4268:
3879:
3721:
3704:
3682:
3515:
3490:
3429:
3331:
3084:
2999:
2679:
2575:
2408:
2020:
1566:
1203:
795:
430:
414:
387:
is a critical health problem in China, as in other developing countries, that causes serious illnesses such as
208:
204:
36:
3944:
1897:
941:
However, in the rush to construct planning mistakes were made. Demand was overestimated, the construction of
532:
among the most important ones. It is complemented by numerous local regulations and administrative measures.
4818:
4600:
4316:
4202:
4197:
4102:
4077:
4021:
3855:
3807:
3642:
3563:
3558:
3500:
3424:
3409:
3268:
2482:
1243:
882:
1676:
Ministry of Environmental Protection:Statistical Report on the Environment in China for 2006, Beijing, 2007
199:
is undergoing a massive transition while facing numerous challenges such as rapid urbanization, increasing
4773:
4580:
4414:
4370:
4348:
4045:
3495:
3399:
3206:
2949:
2820:
2622:
2565:
2329:
2186:
2016:
1787:
1133:
1121:
1102:
974:
965:
906:
847:
846:. The most common form of private sector participation in water supply and sanitation in China is through
818:
774:
726:
Shanghai, like many other Chinese cities, depends on surface water that is heavily polluted, such as the
4763:
4758:
4713:
4649:
4560:
4263:
4212:
4150:
3872:
3709:
3697:
3687:
3456:
3089:
2889:
2810:
2770:
2647:
697:
693:
639:
612:
457:
316:
271:
238:
2210:
Ministry of Construction Presentation at International Water Association Conference in Beijing in 2006
2165:
1590:
World Bank: Fourth Rural Water Supply And Sanitation Project, Project Appraisal Document, 1999, p. 3-5
1395:
4489:
4437:
4297:
4092:
4067:
3994:
3989:
3824:
3716:
3692:
3550:
3032:
2785:
2780:
2590:
1252:
851:
215:
4948:
4790:
4635:
4529:
4524:
4494:
4452:
4375:
4338:
4258:
4243:
4072:
4033:
3740:
3354:
3258:
3009:
1535:
885:, for example, works in China. It is known for having introduced for the first time the concept of
418:
332:
242:
214:
Progress has been made in the past decades, with increased access to services, increased municipal
200:
4677:
4672:
4657:
4509:
4477:
4472:
4365:
4287:
4275:
4184:
3850:
3770:
3758:
3726:
3381:
3376:
3294:
2994:
2795:
2333:
1720:
925:
plants in history. Despite the substantial achievements of this program, many challenges remain.
222:
to a more market-oriented system. The government quadrupled investments in the sector during the
50:
2238:
2190:
456:
are common in rural areas. Some are rudimentary, being unprotected from flies and other disease
4736:
4728:
4442:
4309:
4280:
4238:
4167:
4124:
4082:
3949:
3889:
3661:
3598:
3460:
3241:
3211:
3037:
2595:
2532:
2522:
1965:
1756:
1732:
1728:
1287:
1007:
701:
656:
604:
461:
17:
4854:
4847:
4746:
4741:
4667:
4595:
4514:
4429:
4419:
4390:
4326:
4321:
4155:
4129:
4114:
3999:
3977:
3961:
3867:
3316:
3306:
3223:
3146:
3101:
3049:
2939:
2924:
2916:
2815:
2805:
2637:
2627:
2617:
1994:
1712:
1488:
1465:
1455:
922:
799:
482:
410:
278:
219:
61:
2270:
2227:
921:
Over the past 20 years, China has engaged in what is possibly the largest program to build
4462:
4457:
4380:
4331:
4292:
3956:
3538:
3344:
3231:
2851:
2642:
2560:
2472:
2447:
2431:
2340:
2245:
2234:
2216:
2197:
2172:
2072:
1856:
1838:
1798:
1655:
1596:
1570:
1402:
1259:
1247:
436:
4879:
1791:
2136:
2065:
4863:
4795:
4718:
4565:
4519:
4504:
4499:
4482:
4467:
4253:
3608:
3603:
3533:
3119:
2600:
1961:
1935:
1470:
1441:
1218:
1015:
942:
910:
808:
802:), and the Beijing-based engineering and construction company Sound Global Limited. An
747:
722:
499:
440:
5728:
4828:
4575:
4409:
4248:
4050:
3371:
3359:
3201:
3062:
1724:
1160:
831:
727:
709:
365:
360:
2099:
China Everbright International Limited - Investors > Investment Overview > FAQ
2049:
1831:
4868:
4753:
4625:
4590:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3176:
3171:
3161:
3079:
3074:
1228:
1195:
1181:
803:
731:
2103:
1716:
1615:
1612:
Estimates for the use of Improved Sanitation Facilities, updated March 2010, China
1611:
1460:
562:
is responsible for surface water management, with a focus on quantitative aspects,
2125:
Development of National Wastewater Tariff Guidelines for China, CDM, 2006, p. 1-2
4447:
3364:
3349:
3156:
3114:
3109:
3057:
2580:
2439:
947:
4620:
3528:
3339:
3067:
2775:
2668:
2585:
2363:
2353:
World Bank World Bank Country Water Resourcese Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 20
2302:
1998:
1918:
1879:
1685:
1635:
1423:
1378:
1362:
1276:
1171:
1129:
1109:
364:
described the urban-rural gap in the following stark terms: "The reforms that
254:
2267:"International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities:China"
1616:
Estimates for the use of Improved Water Facilities, updated March 2010, China
835:
developed rapidly since the reform of 2001. The sewage treatment rate in the
4630:
4585:
3523:
3464:
1815:
1322:"Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment"
1189:
628:
392:
1849:
1757:
Water Law of the People's Republic of China (Order of the President No.74)
1564:
Progress on sanitation and drinking water - 2015 update and MDG assessment
4705:
4698:
4011:
2514:
822:
762:
735:
620:
572:
groundwater falls within the realm of the Ministry of Land and Resources.
490:
465:
388:
2368:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
2307:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
2075:, Institute of Development Studies, Sussex, England, April 2006, p. 8-12
1923:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
1884:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
1690:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
1640:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
1428:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
1383:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
1367:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
1281:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
1114:
Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities
3134:
3129:
3124:
2552:
1061:
1057:
1046:
that residents must put into their meters in order to receive service.
998:
970:
932:
890:
770:
766:
624:
616:
486:
453:
4800:
2021:
Every Drop Counts. Learning from good practices in eight Asian cities
1651:
1563:
1514:"China: High and dry: Water shortages put a brake on economic growth"
978:
827:
495:
396:
290:
265:
Access to water supply and sanitation has increased significantly in
234:
2182:
2180:
2066:
Update on Some Recent Developments in Community-Led Total Sanitation
1264:
2319:
World Bank Country Water Resourcese Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 13
1105:| 10% | 5% |- | International Financial Institutions | 5% | 10% |}
2912:
2400:
2151:
World Bank Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 20
1772:
World Bank Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 13
900:
721:
384:
266:
250:
2881:
1240:
1120:
owned utility companies, however, are allowed to borrow from the
2045:
249:
of WHO and UNICEF in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in
4883:
2885:
2404:
854:
had the 100,000 m3/day Tangshan water treatment plant built by
877:
286:
230:
2034:
Privatization of Water Utilities in China – the Shenzhencase
1573:, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
1483:
1481:
237:, about 100 million Chinese still did not have access to an
2160:
2158:
1900:. China National Committee for Pacific Economic Cooperation
1297:
World Bank Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy 2002
481:, local epidemic prevention stations, and schools have led
1875:
1873:
1626:"China, beware", The Economist, October 13–19, 2007, p. 15
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1358:
1356:
1354:
82:
Generally continuous, but seasonal shortages in some areas
2717:
National Administration of Disease Control and Prevention
1783:
1781:
1779:
1265:
The World Bank's work and publications on water resources
1767:
1765:
1608:
Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation
283:
Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation
247:
Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation
2712:
National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine
2237:
For a profile of water and sanitation in Chengdu, see
1065:
recover its recurrent cost and had an operating loss.
241:
in 2008, and about 460 million did not have access to
2012:
2010:
2008:
502:, "10,000 people have left the area and have become
5651:
5570:
5362:
5331:
5138:
4957:
4938:
Responsibilities in Latin America and the Caribbean
4915:
4809:
4727:
4648:
4548:
4428:
4225:
4183:
4143:
3976:
3888:
3739:
3673:
3660:
3623:
3549:
3483:
3392:
3330:
3293:
3222:
3100:
3048:
3008:
2932:
2923:
2839:
2763:
2697:
2551:
2513:
2438:
917:
Massive investment program for wastewater treatment
905:A designated "Source Water Protection Area" on the
413:, including oxidation ditches (24% of all plants),
183:
172:
164:
155:
147:
139:
131:
126:
118:
110:
102:
94:
86:
78:
70:
59:
48:
43:
2092:
2090:
2060:
2058:
2722:Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention
2743:Macau Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture
1136:, complemented by bilateral donors such as the
2874: * only in special administrative regions
2864:China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study
510:Responsibility for water supply and sanitation
417:(11%), conventional activated sludge (5%) and
4895:
2897:
2416:
1413:Chinese Waterworks Association Yearbook, 2005
876:There is little information on activities by
460:, while others are odorless and insect-free.
8:
1116:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. 108
471:National Patriotic Health Campaign Committee
443:all affect the provision of drinking water.
29:
2755:National Healthcare Security Administration
2239:Asian Development Bank Chengdu Profile 2001
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1344:
1342:
106:about US$ 10 / capita (2006) in urban areas
4902:
4888:
4880:
4545:
4231:
3982:
3670:
3666:
3327:
3299:
2929:
2904:
2890:
2882:
2423:
2409:
2401:
1801:, February 2007. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
1656:China:Child's environment & sanitation
1126:National Development and Reform Commission
203:, and the supply of water to rural areas.
35:
2309:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. xix-xx
1658:, without date. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
1469:
1459:
1316:
1314:
1312:
293:that are based on household survey data.
2729:National Medical Products Administration
1886:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. 70-72
299:
2023:, 2010, retrieved on September 26, 2010
1925:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. xxxi
1369:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. xvii
1308:
4910:Water supply and sanitation by country
3839:Socialism with Chinese characteristics
1138:Japan International Cooperation Agency
485:campaigns encouraging a wide array of
253:still did not have access to improved
87:Average urban water use (L/person/day)
28:
2370:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. 33
2138:国务院办公厅关于印发"十二五"全国城镇污水处理及再生利用设施建设规划的通知
1958:Pinsent Masons Water Yearbook 2011-12
1692:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. 20
1642:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. xx
1558:
1556:
1385:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007, p. xx
730:shown here whose water comes through
447:Links to poverty, health, and hygiene
140:National water and sanitation company
71:Share of collected wastewater treated
7:
5735:Water supply and sanitation in China
2123:M.S. Clark, C.R. Huang and S.B. Liu:
567:Ministry of Environmental Protection
197:Water supply and sanitation in China
111:Share of self-financing by utilities
4535:Major Historical and Cultural Sites
2050:Shenzhen Water (Group) Company Ltd.
1447:Journal of Environmental Management
2334:Shanghai Water Supply City Profile
959:Transition to commercial utilities
132:Decentralization to municipalities
25:
3830:Political Consultative Conference
2826:Violence against doctors in China
2750:General Administration of Customs
2191:Chengdu Water Supply City Profile
2052:, retrieved on September 26, 2010
2036:, retrieved on September 26, 2010
1898:"Urban Water Sanitation in China"
688:Administrative divisions of China
156:Responsibility for policy setting
5000:Democratic Republic of the Congo
4947:
4616:Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty
4611:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty
2390:"Missing the barefoot doctors",
1812:China's environmental governance
1188:
1174:
897:History and current developments
669:) (sometimes called "districts")
4606:Four Paragons of the Early Tang
3803:Political parties and movements
3167:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
3152:Northern and Southern dynasties
1489:China to clean up polluted lake
1271:Key sources and further reading
859:bought back the plant in 2009.
788:Beijing Enterprises Water Group
479:Communist Youth League of China
2735:Hong Kong Department of Health
2064:Kamal Kar and Petra Bongartz:
1430:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007
1283:, by Greg Browder et al., 2007
1082:Investment level and breakdown
889:in China in Puchang County in
887:Community Led Total Sanitation
837:Shenzhen Special Economic Zone
817:. According to a study by the
707:In an article on rural China,
678:
665:
648:
633:special administrative regions
599:
308:Rural (44% of the population)
305:Urban (56% of the population)
184:
179:41,663 (including small towns)
173:
148:Water and sanitation regulator
30:Water supply and sanitation in
1:
1717:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.022
1705:Journal of Cleaner Production
1512:Hook, Leslie (May 14, 2013).
1461:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.043
696:, 283 cities are capitals of
439:, natural contamination, and
211:also impact access to water.
122:about 35% (from city budgets)
18:Wastewater treatment in China
3908:Ministry of National Defense
3247:Chinese Communist Revolution
2847:China–Cornell–Oxford Project
2528:Traditional Chinese medicine
1442:"Toilet revolution in China"
1253:ADB: China's Water Challenge
781:Private sector participation
475:All-China Women's Federation
4571:Flowers of the Four Seasons
4556:Four Treasures of the Study
4175:Water supply and sanitation
3903:Central Military Commission
3898:Outline of military history
3648:Province-level subdivisions
2831:Water supply and sanitation
2215:September 27, 2007, at the
2171:September 26, 2007, at the
1850:Ministry of Water Resources
1818:. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
1759:. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
1401:September 26, 2007, at the
1246:September 29, 2007, at the
1241:Ministry of Water Resources
1224:Atmospheric water generator
1140:(JICA) and the German KfW.
560:Ministry of Water Resources
536:Water supply and sanitation
464:that promise high rates of
95:Share of household metering
5751:
3844:Primary stage of socialism
3786:National People's Congress
3254:People's Republic of China
2859:China Family Panel Studies
2707:National Health Commission
1595:February 25, 2009, at the
734:from the heavily polluted
700:, and 374 are capitals of
640:prefecture-level divisions
603:) divisions, including 22
550:Water resources management
523:Policy and legal framework
428:
187:of rural service providers
176:of urban service providers
4944:
4841:
4234:
3985:
3669:
3594:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves
3302:
2872:
2478:Patriotic Health Campaign
2394:, October 13, 2007, p. 30
2339:October 19, 2007, at the
2292:Henan World Bank, Annex 1
1999:10.1016/j.jup.2011.01.004
1214:China Water Affairs Group
1209:Water supply in Hong Kong
1022:Tariffs and cost recovery
792:China Water Affairs Group
673:
660:
643:
594:
506:, "ecological migrants".
415:sequencing batch reactors
34:
4769:Catholic Church in China
3913:People's Liberation Army
3880:One country, two systems
2658:Swine influenza outbreak
2458:Healthcare system reform
2244:October 7, 2007, at the
2196:October 7, 2007, at the
2166:Ministry of Construction
1964:. 2011. pp. 16–17.
1204:Water resources of China
1077:Investment and financing
796:Everbright International
431:Water resources of China
425:Links to water resources
103:Annual investment in WSS
4601:Four Pillars of Destiny
4386:Regional discrimination
3808:Chinese Communist Party
2538:Pharmaceutical industry
2483:China Welfare Institute
2032:Globalization Monitor:
1936:"Veolia Water in China"
1569:April 18, 2014, at the
773:in a bulk water supply
672:41,636 township-level (
224:Eleventh Five-Year Plan
5390:Bosnia and Herzegovina
4354:Science and technology
4027:Special economic zones
3279:persecution of Uyghurs
3207:Century of humiliation
2653:Disease-related deaths
2613:lead poisoning scandal
2571:Cardiovascular disease
2330:Asian Development Bank
2228:Asian Development Bank
2187:Asian Development Bank
2071:June 22, 2007, at the
2017:Asian Development Bank
1855:March 1, 2007, at the
1830:The law is posted at:
1828:China Briefing p. 1.3.
1797:June 22, 2007, at the
1788:Asian Development Bank
1327:. JMP (WHO and UNICEF)
1134:Asian Development Bank
1122:China Development Bank
1103:China Development Bank
913:
907:Three Gorges Reservoir
848:Build-Operate-Transfer
819:Asian Development Bank
775:Build-Operate-Transfer
739:
657:county-level divisions
400:consumption by 2015".
119:Share of tax-financing
49:Access to an at least
4561:Four Great Inventions
3945:People's Armed Police
2581:Enterovirus 71 (EV71)
2505:Organ transplantation
2233:June 7, 2007, at the
2106:on September 27, 2015
1896:Wang, Zhenyu (2008).
1837:June 7, 2007, at the
1814:, February 21, 2007,
1258:May 13, 2007, at the
904:
725:
477:representatives, the
473:(NPHCC) workers, the
317:Improved water source
272:improved water source
239:improved water source
5313:United Arab Emirates
4540:World Heritage Sites
4068:Foreign aid received
3776:Environmental policy
3574:Environmental policy
3569:Environmental issues
2453:Disease surveillance
1755:Government of China:
1422:calculated based on
939:Remaining challenges
923:wastewater treatment
419:membrane bioreactors
404:Wastewater treatment
395:. A 2010 survey by
216:wastewater treatment
79:Continuity of supply
5704:Trinidad and Tobago
5495:Republic of Ireland
4786:History of religion
4781:Freedom of religion
4636:Four Pests campaign
4581:Four Classic Novels
4193:Automotive industry
4073:Foreign aid program
3764:Pro-democratisation
3259:Cultural Revolution
815:Shenzhen concession
755:services directly.
593:33 province-level (
333:Improved sanitation
243:improved sanitation
201:economic inequality
60:Access to at least
31:
5598:Dominican Republic
4933:Sub-Saharan Africa
4693:Population history
4673:Internal migration
4288:Harmonious Society
4163:Telecommunications
4120:Standard of living
4039:Online advertising
3791:Standing Committee
2801:Population history
2791:Illegal drug trade
2488:Hospitals in China
2468:Health informatics
2256:World Bank and ADB
1562:WHO/UNICEF (2015)
1491:. 27 October 2007.
994:Labor productivity
914:
740:
609:autonomous regions
487:hygienic behaviors
462:Composting toilets
51:basic water source
5722:
5721:
5550:England and Wales
4877:
4876:
4837:
4836:
4644:
4643:
4221:
4220:
4208:Shipping industry
3972:
3971:
3938:Strategic Support
3813:General Secretary
3798:National security
3781:Foreign relations
3735:
3734:
3656:
3655:
3619:
3618:
3322:Natural disasters
3289:
3288:
3242:Chinese Civil War
3237:Republic of China
3212:Taiping Rebellion
3085:Spring and Autumn
2990:Foreign relations
2879:
2878:
2674:COVID-19 pandemic
2608:Iodine deficiency
2523:Medicine in China
2273:on April 15, 2009
1971:978-0-9551747-7-3
1516:. Financial Times
1008:Non-revenue water
1005:Non-revenue water
585:Service provision
351:
347:
346:
194:
193:
16:(Redirected from
5742:
5555:Northern Ireland
5354:Papua New Guinea
4952:
4951:
4904:
4897:
4890:
4881:
4857:
4850:
4747:Tibetan Buddhism
4742:Chinese Buddhism
4596:Four Holy Beasts
4546:
4398:Social relations
4327:Standard Chinese
4322:Chinese language
4232:
4017:Economic history
3983:
3962:Maritime Militia
3671:
3667:
3638:Border crossings
3633:Baseline islands
3328:
3300:
3264:Tiananmen Square
3147:Sixteen Kingdoms
2955:Military history
2930:
2906:
2899:
2892:
2883:
2638:Pneumonic plague
2576:Chronic diseases
2566:Blue-ear disease
2425:
2418:
2411:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2382:
2377:
2371:
2361:
2355:
2350:
2344:
2327:
2321:
2316:
2310:
2300:
2294:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2269:. Archived from
2263:
2257:
2254:
2248:
2225:
2219:
2207:
2201:
2184:
2175:
2162:
2153:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2133:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2102:, archived from
2094:
2085:
2082:
2076:
2062:
2053:
2043:
2037:
2030:
2024:
2014:
2003:
2002:
1987:Utilities Policy
1982:
1976:
1975:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1932:
1926:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1893:
1887:
1877:
1868:
1865:
1859:
1847:
1841:
1825:
1819:
1808:
1802:
1785:
1774:
1769:
1760:
1753:
1747:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1699:
1693:
1683:
1677:
1674:
1668:
1665:
1659:
1649:
1643:
1633:
1627:
1624:
1618:
1605:
1599:
1587:
1574:
1560:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1509:
1492:
1485:
1476:
1475:
1473:
1463:
1437:
1431:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1405:
1392:
1386:
1376:
1370:
1360:
1349:
1346:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1326:
1318:
1198:
1193:
1192:
1184:
1179:
1178:
1177:
800:Everbright Water
777:(BOT) contract.
680:
675:
667:
662:
650:
645:
601:
596:
483:health education
411:activated sludge
349:
300:
279:basic sanitation
186:
175:
62:basic sanitation
39:
32:
21:
5750:
5749:
5745:
5744:
5743:
5741:
5740:
5739:
5725:
5724:
5723:
5718:
5647:
5566:
5470:North Macedonia
5358:
5327:
5134:
4953:
4946:
4942:
4911:
4908:
4878:
4873:
4860:
4853:
4846:
4833:
4805:
4723:
4683:Life expectancy
4640:
4544:
4424:
4344:Public holidays
4332:Written Chinese
4317:Intellectualism
4269:Sex trafficking
4217:
4179:
4139:
3968:
3884:
3731:
3722:Nationality law
3705:Law enforcement
3683:Judicial system
3652:
3615:
3589:Nature reserves
3579:Protected areas
3545:
3516:Water resources
3479:
3388:
3326:
3285:
3269:Economic reform
3232:1911 Revolution
3218:
3182:Jin (1115–1234)
3096:
3044:
3004:
2919:
2910:
2880:
2875:
2868:
2852:The China Study
2835:
2759:
2693:
2686:Omicron variant
2561:Avian influenza
2547:
2509:
2500:Medical schools
2473:Barefoot doctor
2434:
2432:Health in China
2429:
2399:
2398:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2374:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2347:
2341:Wayback Machine
2328:
2324:
2317:
2313:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2286:
2276:
2274:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2255:
2251:
2246:Wayback Machine
2235:Wayback Machine
2226:
2222:
2217:Wayback Machine
2208:
2204:
2198:Wayback Machine
2185:
2178:
2173:Wayback Machine
2163:
2156:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2122:
2118:
2109:
2107:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2073:Wayback Machine
2063:
2056:
2044:
2040:
2031:
2027:
2015:
2006:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1941:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1917:
1913:
1903:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1878:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1857:Wayback Machine
1848:
1844:
1839:Wayback Machine
1826:
1822:
1809:
1805:
1799:Wayback Machine
1786:
1777:
1770:
1763:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1740:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1650:
1646:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1606:
1602:
1597:Wayback Machine
1588:
1577:
1571:Wayback Machine
1561:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1495:
1486:
1479:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1403:Wayback Machine
1393:
1389:
1377:
1373:
1361:
1352:
1347:
1340:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1319:
1310:
1305:
1273:
1260:Wayback Machine
1248:Wayback Machine
1237:
1194:
1187:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1093:
1084:
1079:
1071:
1032:
1024:
987:
961:
919:
899:
874:
865:
783:
720:
587:
552:
538:
525:
512:
449:
433:
427:
406:
380:
375:
373:Service quality
263:
220:Chinese economy
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5748:
5746:
5738:
5737:
5727:
5726:
5720:
5719:
5717:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5691:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5655:
5653:
5649:
5648:
5646:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5574:
5572:
5568:
5567:
5565:
5564:
5563:
5562:
5557:
5552:
5545:United Kingdom
5542:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5405:Czech Republic
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5366:
5364:
5360:
5359:
5357:
5356:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5335:
5333:
5329:
5328:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5179:
5178:
5173:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5142:
5140:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4961:
4959:
4955:
4954:
4945:
4943:
4941:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4923:European Union
4919:
4917:
4913:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4906:
4899:
4892:
4884:
4875:
4874:
4872:
4871:
4866:
4859:
4858:
4851:
4843:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4835:
4834:
4832:
4831:
4826:
4821:
4815:
4813:
4807:
4806:
4804:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4771:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4744:
4733:
4731:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4710:
4709:
4702:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4654:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4642:
4641:
4639:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4566:Four Gentlemen
4563:
4558:
4552:
4550:
4549:Fours of China
4543:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4486:
4485:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4434:
4432:
4426:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4406:
4405:
4395:
4394:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4368:
4363:
4362:
4361:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4319:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4307:
4306:
4305:
4290:
4285:
4284:
4283:
4273:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4235:
4229:
4223:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4198:Civil aviation
4195:
4189:
4187:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4177:
4172:
4171:
4170:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4147:
4145:
4144:Infrastructure
4141:
4140:
4138:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4098:Semiconductors
4095:
4090:
4080:
4078:Historical GDP
4075:
4070:
4065:
4064:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4043:
4042:
4041:
4031:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4014:
4009:
4008:
4007:
3997:
3992:
3986:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3954:
3953:
3952:
3942:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3894:
3892:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3876:
3875:
3870:
3860:
3859:
3858:
3856:Vice President
3848:
3847:
3846:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3833:
3832:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3815:
3800:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3756:
3751:
3745:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3702:
3701:
3700:
3695:
3685:
3679:
3677:
3664:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3629:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3584:National parks
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3564:Climate policy
3561:
3559:Climate change
3555:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3465:Central Plains
3454:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3396:
3394:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3362:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3336:
3334:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3312:Extreme points
3309:
3303:
3297:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3234:
3228:
3226:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3120:Three Kingdoms
3117:
3112:
3106:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3090:Warring States
3087:
3082:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3060:
3054:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3020:
3014:
3012:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2950:Historiography
2947:
2942:
2936:
2934:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2901:
2894:
2886:
2877:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2843:
2841:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2739:
2731:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2703:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2683:
2677:
2666:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2601:Plasma Economy
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2519:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2493:Classification
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2463:Women's health
2460:
2455:
2450:
2444:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2428:
2427:
2420:
2413:
2405:
2397:
2396:
2383:
2372:
2356:
2345:
2322:
2311:
2295:
2284:
2258:
2249:
2220:
2202:
2176:
2154:
2143:
2128:
2116:
2086:
2077:
2054:
2038:
2025:
2004:
1993:(3): 134–141.
1977:
1970:
1962:Pinsent Masons
1949:
1938:. Veolia Water
1927:
1911:
1888:
1869:
1860:
1842:
1820:
1816:China Dialogue
1803:
1775:
1761:
1748:
1738:
1694:
1678:
1669:
1660:
1644:
1628:
1619:
1600:
1575:
1552:
1527:
1493:
1477:
1432:
1415:
1406:
1387:
1371:
1350:
1338:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1284:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1262:
1250:
1236:
1235:External links
1233:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1219:Water scarcity
1216:
1211:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1185:
1169:
1166:
1092:
1089:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1070:
1067:
1031:
1028:
1023:
1020:
1016:Henan province
986:
983:
960:
957:
918:
915:
911:Maoping, Hubei
898:
895:
873:
870:
864:
861:
821:, the city of
811:performance".
809:water industry
782:
779:
719:
716:
694:municipalities
684:
683:
670:
653:
636:
613:municipalities
586:
583:
574:
573:
570:
563:
551:
548:
537:
534:
524:
521:
511:
508:
504:shengtai yimin
500:Inner Mongolia
448:
445:
441:water scarcity
429:Main article:
426:
423:
405:
402:
379:
376:
374:
371:
345:
344:
341:
338:
335:
329:
328:
325:
322:
319:
313:
312:
309:
306:
303:
262:
259:
205:Water scarcity
192:
191:
188:
181:
180:
177:
170:
169:
166:
162:
161:
157:
153:
152:
149:
145:
144:
141:
137:
136:
133:
129:
128:
124:
123:
120:
116:
115:
112:
108:
107:
104:
100:
99:
96:
92:
91:
88:
84:
83:
80:
76:
75:
72:
68:
67:
64:
57:
56:
53:
46:
45:
41:
40:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5747:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5730:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5682:
5680:
5677:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5656:
5654:
5652:South America
5650:
5644:
5643:United States
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5575:
5573:
5571:North America
5569:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5361:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5336:
5334:
5330:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4956:
4950:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4928:Latin America
4926:
4924:
4921:
4920:
4918:
4914:
4905:
4900:
4898:
4893:
4891:
4886:
4885:
4882:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4861:
4856:
4852:
4849:
4845:
4844:
4840:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4814:
4812:
4808:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4775:
4774:Protestantism
4772:
4770:
4767:
4766:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4759:Folk religion
4757:
4755:
4752:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4739:
4738:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4726:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4707:
4703:
4700:
4696:
4695:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4663:Ethnic groups
4661:
4659:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4576:Four Beauties
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4547:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4427:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4415:Urban society
4413:
4411:
4408:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4399:
4396:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4371:Social issues
4369:
4367:
4364:
4360:
4357:
4356:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4349:Rural society
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4324:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4311:
4308:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4282:
4279:
4278:
4277:
4274:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4249:Chinese Dream
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4224:
4214:
4213:Space program
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4190:
4188:
4186:
4182:
4176:
4173:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4142:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4085:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4044:
4040:
4037:
4036:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4006:
4003:
4002:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3975:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3955:
3951:
3948:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3881:
3878:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3864:
3863:State Council
3861:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3849:
3845:
3842:
3841:
3840:
3837:
3831:
3828:
3827:
3826:
3823:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3792:
3789:
3788:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3749:Civil service
3747:
3746:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3659:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3437:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3356:
3355:South Central
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3333:
3329:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3256:
3255:
3252:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3225:
3221:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3142:Jin (266–420)
3140:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2985:Ethnic groups
2983:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2907:
2902:
2900:
2895:
2893:
2888:
2887:
2884:
2871:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2821:Vegetarianism
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2696:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2680:Delta variant
2678:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2663:SARS pandemic
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2623:Mental health
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2543:Biotechnology
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2421:
2419:
2414:
2412:
2407:
2406:
2403:
2393:
2392:The Economist
2387:
2384:
2381:
2376:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2357:
2354:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2288:
2285:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2229:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2152:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2120:
2117:
2105:
2101:
2100:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1978:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1950:
1937:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1912:
1899:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1851:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1810:Ma Xiangcong:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1773:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1752:
1749:
1742:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1679:
1673:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1629:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1591:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1565:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1528:
1515:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1400:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1345:
1343:
1339:
1323:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1292:1-84339-143-0
1289:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1186:
1183:
1172:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1161:The Economist
1156:
1152:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1090:
1088:
1081:
1076:
1074:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1036:
1029:
1027:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1002:
1000:
995:
991:
984:
982:
980:
976:
972:
967:
958:
956:
952:
949:
944:
940:
936:
934:
930:
926:
924:
916:
912:
908:
903:
896:
894:
892:
888:
884:
879:
871:
869:
862:
860:
857:
853:
849:
845:
844:BOT contracts
841:
838:
833:
832:Joint Venture
829:
824:
820:
816:
812:
810:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
780:
778:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
749:
744:
737:
733:
729:
728:Huangpu River
724:
717:
715:
712:
711:
710:The Economist
705:
703:
699:
695:
690:
689:
686:For details:
681:
671:
668:
658:
654:
651:
641:
637:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
592:
591:
590:
584:
582:
578:
571:
568:
564:
561:
557:
556:
555:
549:
547:
544:
535:
533:
529:
522:
520:
516:
509:
507:
505:
501:
497:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
467:
463:
459:
455:
446:
444:
442:
438:
432:
424:
422:
420:
416:
412:
403:
401:
398:
394:
390:
386:
377:
372:
370:
367:
366:Deng Xiaoping
363:
362:
361:The Economist
358:The magazine
356:
352:
342:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
326:
323:
320:
318:
315:
314:
310:
307:
304:
302:
301:
298:
294:
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
273:
268:
260:
258:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
221:
217:
212:
210:
206:
202:
198:
189:
182:
178:
171:
167:
163:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
125:
121:
117:
114:close to zero
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
63:
58:
54:
52:
47:
42:
38:
33:
27:
19:
5278:Saudi Arabia
5165:
5095:South Africa
5090:Sierra Leone
4985:Burkina Faso
4764:Christianity
4754:Confucianism
4714:Urbanization
4650:Demographics
4626:Gang of Four
4591:Four Symbols
4490:Martial arts
4264:Prostitution
4174:
4151:Architecture
4005:Central bank
3873:Vice Premier
3825:United front
3754:Constitution
3710:Penal system
3688:Human rights
3625:Subdivisions
3463: /
3459: /
3382:Southwestern
3377:Northwestern
3080:Western Zhou
3028:Yellow River
2978:1949–present
2849:
2830:
2811:Prostitution
2771:Demographics
2742:
2734:
2648:Tuberculosis
2391:
2386:
2375:
2359:
2348:
2325:
2314:
2298:
2287:
2277:November 22,
2275:. Retrieved
2271:the original
2261:
2252:
2223:
2205:
2146:
2137:
2131:
2119:
2108:, retrieved
2104:the original
2098:
2080:
2041:
2028:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1957:
1952:
1940:. Retrieved
1930:
1914:
1904:December 15,
1902:. Retrieved
1891:
1863:
1845:
1823:
1806:
1751:
1741:
1708:
1704:
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1622:
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1539:
1530:
1518:. Retrieved
1451:
1445:
1435:
1418:
1409:
1390:
1374:
1331:February 14,
1329:. Retrieved
1229:Desalination
1196:Water portal
1182:China portal
1159:
1154:
1153:
1146:
1142:
1118:
1107:
1100:
1095:
1094:
1085:
1072:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1025:
1012:
1004:
1003:
993:
992:
988:
962:
953:
938:
937:
929:Achievements
928:
927:
920:
875:
866:
843:
842:
814:
813:
784:
758:
757:
753:
742:
741:
732:Suzhou Creek
708:
706:
691:
685:
677:
664:
647:
598:
588:
579:
575:
553:
542:
539:
530:
526:
517:
513:
503:
450:
434:
407:
381:
378:Water supply
359:
357:
353:
348:
295:
276:
264:
228:
213:
196:
195:
127:Institutions
26:
5603:El Salvador
5530:Switzerland
5465:Netherlands
5349:New Zealand
5332:Australasia
5288:South Korea
5268:Philippines
5146:Afghanistan
5100:South Sudan
5025:Ivory Coast
4530:Variety art
4525:Tea culture
4453:Calligraphy
4438:Archaeology
4298:Food safety
4093:Gold mining
3995:Aquaculture
3990:Agriculture
3950:Coast Guard
3717:Naming laws
3551:Environment
3539:South China
3018:Paleolithic
3010:Prehistoric
2968:before 1912
2786:Food safety
2781:Environment
2776:Dust storms
2591:Hepatitis B
1942:February 8,
1711:: 285–298.
1454:: 347–356.
1155:Rural areas
1096:Urban areas
1069:Rural areas
1030:Urban areas
948:river basin
863:Rural areas
804:econometric
718:Urban areas
698:prefectures
682:) divisions
631:), and two
226:(2006–10).
98:90% (2004)
66:65% (2020)
55:95% (2020)
5588:Costa Rica
5344:East Timor
5233:Kyrgyzstan
5223:Kazakhstan
5156:Bangladesh
5151:Azerbaijan
5065:Mozambique
4791:Irreligion
4688:Statistics
4658:Emigration
4621:Four Wangs
4510:Philosophy
4495:Mass media
4478:Literature
4376:Patriarchy
4339:Propaganda
4259:Corruption
4244:Censorship
4034:E-commerce
3741:Government
3534:East China
3506:Waterfalls
3452:Peninsulas
3420:Grasslands
2699:Government
2669:SARS-CoV-2
2586:Fujian flu
2440:Healthcare
2364:World Bank
2303:World Bank
2110:August 15,
1960:. London:
1919:World Bank
1880:World Bank
1686:World Bank
1636:World Bank
1487:BBC News.
1424:World Bank
1379:World Bank
1363:World Bank
1303:References
1277:World Bank
1130:World Bank
1110:World Bank
985:Efficiency
391:and viral
255:sanitation
165:Sector law
160:Management
90:204 (2005)
74:52% (2006)
5714:Venezuela
5659:Argentina
5633:Nicaragua
5608:Guatemala
5460:Lithuania
5339:Australia
5293:Sri Lanka
5283:Singapore
5263:Palestine
5193:Indonesia
5171:Hong Kong
4916:By region
4678:Languages
4631:Four Olds
4586:Four arts
4473:Libraries
4403:Structure
4366:Sexuality
4303:incidents
4276:Education
4185:Transport
4061:Renewable
4056:Petroleum
3851:President
3818:Politburo
3771:Elections
3759:Democracy
3727:Terrorism
3475:Volcanoes
3457:Northeast
3435:Mountains
3345:Northeast
3295:Geography
3202:High Qing
3023:Neolithic
2995:Dynasties
2973:1912–1949
2964:Economic
2933:Overviews
2796:Pollution
1832:Water Law
1725:153290980
1545:March 21,
1540:WASHWatch
1348:WASHwatch
1091:Financing
893:in 2005.
852:Lianjiang
748:utilities
629:Chongqing
605:provinces
437:pollution
435:Man-made
393:hepatitis
209:pollution
5729:Category
5694:Paraguay
5679:Colombia
5618:Honduras
5560:Scotland
5515:Slovenia
5510:Slovakia
5490:Portugal
5395:Bulgaria
5308:Thailand
5258:Pakistan
5248:Malaysia
5161:Cambodia
5130:Zimbabwe
5110:Tanzania
5015:Ethiopia
5010:Eswatini
4995:Cameroon
4975:Botswana
4864:Category
4737:Buddhism
4729:Religion
4706:Post-90s
4699:Post-80s
4443:Archives
4310:HIV/AIDS
4281:Literacy
4239:Abortion
4168:Internet
4125:Taxation
4108:Textiles
4088:Chemical
4083:Industry
4012:Currency
3890:Military
3698:in Tibet
3662:Politics
3599:Wildlife
3511:Wetlands
3274:COVID-19
3102:Imperial
3000:Monarchs
2960:Language
2945:Timeline
2917:articles
2596:HIV/AIDS
2553:Diseases
2533:Pharmacy
2515:Medicine
2337:Archived
2242:Archived
2231:Archived
2213:Archived
2194:Archived
2169:Archived
2069:Archived
1853:Archived
1835:Archived
1795:Archived
1593:Archived
1567:Archived
1399:Archived
1256:Archived
1244:Archived
1168:See also
1132:and the
1108:Source:
1054:Examples
1035:Overview
1018:is 38%.
943:sewerage
823:Shenzhen
763:Shanghai
759:Examples
743:Overview
736:Lake Tai
702:counties
621:Shanghai
498:county,
491:diarrhea
466:pathogen
454:Latrines
389:diarrhea
5709:Uruguay
5684:Ecuador
5664:Bolivia
5623:Jamaica
5540:Ukraine
5500:Romania
5445:Iceland
5440:Hungary
5430:Germany
5420:Finland
5415:Estonia
5410:Denmark
5400:Croatia
5385:Belgium
5380:Austria
5375:Armenia
5370:Albania
5318:Vietnam
5243:Lebanon
5183:Georgia
5115:Tunisia
5085:Senegal
5075:Nigeria
5070:Namibia
5060:Morocco
5040:Liberia
5035:Lesotho
4990:Burundi
4965:Algeria
4848:Outline
4811:Symbols
4668:Eunuchs
4515:Smoking
4463:Cuisine
4430:Culture
4420:Welfare
4391:Suicide
4359:history
4227:Society
4156:Housing
4130:Tourism
4115:Poverty
4000:Banking
3978:Economy
3957:Militia
3868:Premier
3470:Valleys
3430:Islands
3415:Deserts
3405:Canyons
3393:Terrain
3372:Western
3360:Central
3332:Regions
3317:Geology
3307:Borders
3050:Ancient
3033:Yangtze
2940:History
2925:History
2840:Studies
2816:Smoking
2806:Poverty
2764:Related
2628:Obesity
2618:Leprosy
1733:2700386
1536:"China"
1520:May 15,
1471:5937855
1062:Chengdu
1058:Tianjin
999:Chengdu
971:Chengdu
933:Nanjing
909:, near
891:Shaanxi
771:Vivendi
767:Tianjin
679:xiāngjí
625:Tianjin
617:Beijing
611:, four
607:, five
600:shěngjí
458:vectors
350:Source:
285:of the
5689:Guyana
5669:Brazil
5638:Panama
5628:Mexico
5583:Canada
5578:Belize
5535:Turkey
5525:Sweden
5505:Russia
5485:Poland
5480:Serbia
5475:Norway
5455:Latvia
5435:Greece
5425:France
5363:Europe
5303:Taiwan
5273:Russia
5228:Kuwait
5218:Jordan
5198:Israel
5125:Zambia
5120:Uganda
5080:Rwanda
5050:Malawi
4970:Angola
4958:Africa
4869:Portal
4824:Emblem
4819:Anthem
4801:Taoism
4483:Poetry
4458:Cinema
4381:Racism
4293:Health
4046:Energy
4022:Reform
3933:Rocket
3918:Ground
3643:Cities
3529:Yellow
3501:Rivers
3491:Canals
3445:passes
3440:ranges
3224:Modern
2915:
2688:(2022)
2682:(2021)
2676:(2020)
2665:(2003)
2643:Stroke
2448:Health
2343:, 2001
2200:, 2001
1968:
1731:
1723:
1652:UNICEF
1468:
1290:
979:Veolia
828:Veolia
666:xiànjí
627:, and
496:Minqin
397:UNICEF
311:Total
291:UNICEF
261:Access
235:UNICEF
5674:Chile
5613:Haiti
5520:Spain
5450:Italy
5323:Yemen
5298:Syria
5213:Japan
5188:India
5176:Macau
5166:China
5105:Sudan
5045:Libya
5030:Kenya
5020:Ghana
5005:Egypt
4980:Benin
4855:Index
4796:Islam
4719:Women
4520:Sport
4505:Names
4500:Music
4468:Dance
4254:Crime
4135:Trade
4103:Steel
3609:Flora
3604:Fauna
3524:Bohai
3520:Seas
3496:Lakes
3484:Water
3461:North
3425:Hills
3410:Caves
3365:South
3350:North
3063:Shang
2913:China
2633:Opium
1721:S2CID
1325:(PDF)
798:(now
790:Ltd,
655:2872
543:urban
385:feces
267:China
251:China
5699:Peru
5593:Cuba
5253:Oman
5238:Laos
5208:Iraq
5203:Iran
5139:Asia
5055:Mali
4829:Flag
4410:Time
4203:Rail
4051:Coal
3923:Navy
3693:LGBT
3400:Bays
3340:East
3197:Qing
3192:Ming
3187:Yuan
3177:Song
3172:Liao
3162:Tang
3075:Zhou
3068:Late
3038:Liao
2279:2008
2112:2015
2046:MIGA
1966:ISBN
1944:2014
1906:2012
1729:SSRN
1614:and
1547:2017
1522:2013
1333:2016
1288:ISBN
1149:BOTs
883:Plan
878:NGOs
872:NGOs
856:SUEZ
649:dìjí
638:333
565:the
558:the
343:76%
340:64%
337:87%
327:95%
324:93%
321:98%
289:and
233:and
207:and
135:Full
44:Data
4448:Art
3928:Air
3675:Law
3157:Sui
3130:Han
3125:Wei
3115:Han
3110:Qin
3058:Xia
1995:doi
1746:311
1713:doi
1709:113
1466:PMC
1456:doi
1452:216
1396:MOC
1056:In
975:ADB
966:BOT
761:In
287:WHO
274:".
231:WHO
190:n/a
185:No.
174:No.
5731::
3135:Wu
2179:^
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2007:^
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1989:.
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1727:.
1719:.
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1480:^
1464:.
1450:.
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981:.
794:,
676:;
674:乡级
663:;
661:县级
646:;
644:地级
623:,
619:,
597:;
595:省级
257:.
168:no
151:no
143:no
4903:e
4896:t
4889:v
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2189::
2019::
2001:.
1997::
1974:.
1946:.
1921::
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1882::
1790::
1735:.
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1524:.
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1458::
1426::
1381::
1365::
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1279::
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738:.
659:(
652:)
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635:.
615:(
270:"
20:)
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