1336:
461:(double bucket design), which exhausted the water to the side, eliminating some energy loss of the Knight wheel which exhausted some water back against the center of the wheel. In about 1895, William Doble improved on Pelton's half-cylindrical bucket form with an elliptical bucket that included a cut in it to allow the jet a cleaner bucket entry. This is the modern form of the Pelton turbine which today achieves up to 92% efficiency. Pelton had been quite an effective promoter of his design and although Doble took over the Pelton company he did not change the name to Doble because it had brand name recognition.
841:
1253:
higher efficiency through easier rotation. The most common material used in Kaplan
Turbine blades are stainless steel alloys (SS). The martensitic stainless steel alloys have high strength that allow thinner sections than standard carbon steel; reduced mass enhances the hydrodynamic flow conditions and efficiency of the water turbine. The SS(13Cr-4Ni) has been shown to have improved erosion resistance at all angles of attack through the process of
227:
78:
1215:
423:
207:
187:
833:
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136:
178:". The main difference between early water turbines and water wheels is a swirl component of the water which passes energy to a spinning rotor. This additional component of motion allowed the turbine to be smaller than a water wheel of the same power. They could process more water by spinning faster and could harness much greater heads. (Later, impulse turbines were developed which didn't use swirl.)
1667:
ft. head: 'I am now satisfied that here is a new and pregnant principle to be applied to the art of gauging fluids, inclusive of fluids such as compressed air, illuminating or fuel gases, steam, etc. Further, that the shape of the meter should be trumpet-shaped in both directions; such a meter will measure volumes flowing in either direction, which in certain localities becomes a useful attribute...'
93:
944:
350:, with flow inward at the inlet, axial through the wheel's body, and slightly outward at the outlet. Initially performing optimally at 90% efficiency at lower speeds, this design would see many improvements in the subsequent decades in derivatives under names like "Victor", "Risdon", "Samson" and "New American," ushering in a new era of American turbine engineering.
36:
529:) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is spinning, the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with diminished energy. An impulse turbine is one in which the pressure of the fluid flowing over the rotor blades is constant and all the work output is due to the change in kinetic energy of the fluid.
1194:
many parameters that could be set on the feedback system for precise controls. In the later part of the twentieth century, electronic governors and digital systems started to replace the mechanical governors. In the electronic governors, also known as second-generation governors, the flyball was replaced by rotational speed
1193:
that comprises a series of gears that use the turbine's speed to drive the flyball and turbine's power to drive the control mechanism. The mechanical governors were continued to be enhanced in power amplification through the use of gears and the dynamic behavior. By 1930, the mechanical governors had
973:
may be either vertical or horizontal shaft machines because the size of the machine is so much less than the available head. Some impulse turbines use multiple jets per runner to balance shaft thrust. This also allows for the use of a smaller turbine runner, which can decrease costs and mechanical
286:
on some of the early mathematical theories of turbine design. In the 18th century, a Dr. Robert Barker invented a similar reaction hydraulic turbine that became popular as a lecture-hall demonstration. The only known surviving example of this type of engine used in power production, dating from 1851,
1666:
reproduces a letter from
Herschel to the late Dr. Unwin describing his invention of the Venturi Meter. The letter is dated June 5, 1888, and addressed from the hydraulic engineer's office of the Holyoke Water Power Co., Mass. In his letter, Herschel says he tested a one-inch Venturi Meter, under 210
1252:
which have high strength compared to austenitic stainless steels by a factor of 2. Along with corrosion resistance and strength, weld-ability and density are important criteria for turbine blade material selection. Greater weld-ability allows for easier and high quality repairs. Low density allows
1564:
As the result of testing of experimental models there has been a gradual and progressive development in the uniformity of water wheels and water wheel patterns since the
Holyoke Testing Flume was opened which did not exist before that time so that the wheels at the present time are more uniform in
1188:
systems, or first-generation governors, were used during the first 100 years of water turbine speed controls. In early flyball systems, the flyball component countered by a spring acted directly to the valve of the turbine or the wicket gate to control the amount of water that enters the turbines.
1247:
that have 17% to 20% chromium to increase stability of the film which improves aqueous corrosion resistance. The chromium content in these steel alloys exceed the minimum of 12% chromium required to exhibit some atmospheric corrosion resistance. Having a higher chromium concentration in the steel
445:
In 1866, California millwright Samuel Knight invented a machine that took the impulse system to a new level. Inspired by the high pressure jet systems used in hydraulic mining in the gold fields, Knight developed a bucketed wheel which captured the energy of a free jet, which had converted a high
1138:
Flow through the turbine is controlled either by a large valve or by wicket gates arranged around the outside of the turbine runner. Differential head and flow can be plotted for a number of different values of gate opening, producing a hill diagram used to show the efficiency of the turbine at
334:
Inward flow water turbines have a better mechanical arrangement and all modern reaction water turbines are of this design. As the water swirls inward, it accelerates, and transfers energy to the runner. Water pressure decreases to atmospheric, or in some cases subatmospheric, as the water passes
2022:
Robert
Sackett, Preservationist, PRSHPO (Original 1990 draft). Arleen Pabon, Certifying Official and State Historic Preservation Officer, State Historic Preservation Office, San Juan, Puerto Rico. September 9, 1994. In National Register of Historic Places Registration Form—Hacienda Buena Vista.
1118:
of a turbine characterizes the turbine's shape in a way that is not related to its size. This allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing design of known performance. The specific speed is also the main criteria for matching a specific hydro site with the correct turbine type. The
811:
This type of system is used in El Hierro, one of the Canary
Islands: "When wind production exceeds demand, excess energy will pump water from a lower reservoir at the bottom of a volcanic cone to an upper reservoir at the top of the volcano 700 meters above sea level. The lower reservoir stores
516:
Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and are used in low (<30 m or 100 ft) and medium (30–300 m or 100–1,000 ft) head applications. In reaction turbine pressure drop occurs in both fixed and moving blades. It is largely used in dam and large power plants
1130:
allow the output of a turbine to be predicted based on model tests. A miniature replica of a proposed design, about one foot (0.3 m) in diameter, can be tested and the laboratory measurements applied to the final application with high confidence. Affinity laws are derived by requiring
1160:
1350:
Water turbines are generally considered a clean power producer, as the turbine causes essentially no change to the water. They use a renewable energy source and are designed to operate for decades. They produce significant amounts of the world's electrical supply.
331:, named for him, is the first modern water turbine. It is still the most widely used water turbine in the world today. The Francis turbine is also called a radial flow turbine, since water flows from the outer circumference towards the centre of runner.
1285:
Turbines are designed to run for decades with very little maintenance of the main elements; overhaul intervals are on the order of several years. Maintenance of the runners and parts exposed to water include removal, inspection, and repair of worn parts.
812:
150,000 cubic meters of water. The stored water acts as a battery. The maximum storage capacity is 270 MWh. When demand rises and there is not enough wind power, the water will be released to four hydroelectric turbines with a total capacity of 11 MW."
1242:
Given that the turbine blades in a water turbine are constantly exposed to water and dynamic forces, they need to have high corrosion resistance and strength. The most common material used in overlays on carbon steel runners in water turbines are
506:
Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the water pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow.
1309:
rods. Damaged areas are cut or ground out, then welded back up to their original or an improved profile. Old turbine runners may have a significant amount of stainless steel added this way by the end of their lifetime. Elaborate
1234:, is a ring of gates (or vanes) surrounding a water turbine which control the flow of water entering it; varying the aperture between them manages the rate of the turbine's spin, and thereby the amount of electricity generated.
450:) of water to kinetic energy. This is called an impulse or tangential turbine. The water's velocity, roughly twice the velocity of the bucket periphery, does a U-turn in the bucket and drops out of the runner at low velocity.
1585:
I have called the
Holyoke testing flume the first modern hydraulic laboratory. There were such before 1881, but they were of so modest or minute dimensions that they failed to produce results suited to, certainly, modern
747:
head (m). For still water, this is the difference in height between the inlet and outlet surfaces. Moving water has an additional component added to account for the kinetic energy of the flow. The total head equals the
479:
Flowing water is directed on to the blades of a turbine runner, creating a force on the blades. Since the runner is spinning, the force acts through a distance (force acting through a distance is the definition of
1164:
385:
calculations were held by
European hydrologists, the facility allowed for standard efficiency testing among major manufacturers through 1932, by which time more modern facilities and methods had proliferated.
1167:
1166:
1162:
1161:
617:
1168:
1151:
of a water turbine is its speed at full flow, and no shaft load. The turbine will be designed to survive the mechanical forces of this speed. The manufacturer will supply the runaway speed rating.
346:
and subsequently improved upon by engineers in
Germany and the United States. The design effectively combined the inward flow principles of the Francis design with the downward discharge of the
1354:
Negative consequences of water turbines are mostly associated with the dams normally required for their operation. Dams alter the natural ecology of rivers, potentially killing fish, stopping
1257:. It is important to minimize erosion in order to maintain high efficiencies because erosion negatively impacts the hydraulic profile of the blades which reduces the relative ease of rotation.
1165:
309:
developed an outward-flow turbine. This was an efficient machine (~80%) that sent water through a runner with blades curved in one dimension. The stationary outlet also had curved guides.
1753:
800:
to fill a high reservoir during off-peak electrical hours, and then revert to a water turbine for power generation during peak electrical demand. This type of turbine is usually a
282:. It had a horizontal axis and was a precursor to modern water turbines. It is a very simple machine that is still produced today for use in small hydro sites. Segner worked with
250:, dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The horizontal water wheel with angled blades was installed at the bottom of a water-filled, circular shaft. The water from the
1335:
525:
Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet pushes on the turbine's curved blades which changes the direction of the flow. The resulting change in momentum (
1358:, and disrupting livelihoods. Dams also cause less obvious, but potentially serious, consequences, including increased evaporation of water (especially in arid regions),
785:
327:
improved the inward flow reaction turbine to over 90% efficiency. He also conducted sophisticated tests and developed engineering methods for water turbine design. The
695:
670:
1116:
745:
720:
645:
962:
with adjustable blade pitch are well-adapted to wide ranges of flow or head conditions, since their peak efficiency can be achieved over a wide range of flows.
1696:
1321:, packing box and shaft sleeves, servomotors, cooling systems for the bearings and generator coils, seal rings, wicket gate linkage elements and all surfaces.
342:, building on Francis's designs, demonstrated the first modern mixed-flow turbine with the development of the Hercules turbine, initially manufactured by the
969:
and Kaplan machines usually have vertical shafts because this makes best use of the available head, and makes installation of a generator more economical.
965:
Small turbines (mostly under 10 MW) may have horizontal shafts, and even fairly large bulb-type turbines up to 100 MW or so may be horizontal. Very large
1163:
381:, the first accurate means of measuring large flows, to properly measure water power efficiency by different turbine models. While skepticism of certain
1821:
57:
44:
2048:
1119:
specific speed is the speed with which the turbine turns for a particular discharge Q, with unit head and thereby is able to produce unit power.
1339:
1761:
849:
158:, using scientific principles and methods. They also made extensive use of new materials and manufacturing methods developed at the time.
954:, and less so on the available flow rate. In general, impulse turbines are used for high head sites, and reaction turbines are used for
154:
that can be harnessed. The migration from water wheels to modern turbines took about one hundred years. Development occurred during the
1330:
316:
developed an outward flow turbine that improved on the performance of the
Fourneyron turbine. Its runner shape was similar to that of a
408:, a propeller-type machine. It was an evolution of the Francis turbine and revolutionized the ability to develop low-head hydro sites.
2079:
1455:
563:
540:
and focused on the turbine. No pressure change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for operation.
1949:
2039:
1971:
1541:
1784:
254:
entered the pit tangentially, creating a swirling water column which made the fully submerged wheel act like a true turbine.
1912:
Padhy, M.; Senapati, P. (2015), "Turbine Blade
Materials Used For The Power Plants Exposed to High Silt Erosion- A Review",
498:
The precise shape of water turbine blades is a function of the supply pressure of water, and the type of impeller selected.
1991:
Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology",
150:
have been used for hundreds of years for industrial power. Their main shortcoming is size, which limits the flow rate and
836:
Various types of water turbine runners. From left to right: Pelton wheel, two types of Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine.
442:
head acted on the machine and produced work. A reaction turbine needs to fully contain the water during energy transfer.
393:
was invented, now universally used to support heavy water turbine spindles. As of 2002, fluid bearings appear to have a
924:
1946:
Mechanical Overhaul Procedures for Hydroelectric Units (Facilities Instructions, Standards, and Techniques, Volume 2-7)
1249:
1705:
1396:
510:
394:
1202:
systems. In the modern systems, also known as third-generation governors, the controls are performed digitally by
840:
49:
1712:
1802:
353:
Water turbines, particularly in the Americas, would largely become standardized with the establishment of the
796:
Some water turbines are designed for pumped-storage hydroelectricity. They can reverse flow and operate as a
2108:
343:
1450:
Rossi, C; Russo, F; Russo, F (2009). "Ancient Engineers' Inventions: Precursors of the Present". Springer.
1956:; United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, July 1994 (800KB pdf).
1844:
886:
374:
1599:
821:
370:
354:
271:
155:
1965:
United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation; Duncan, William (revised April 1989):
1531:
1222:. Varying their angle manages water flow, thereby regulating turbine speed and energy produced by it.
366:
1647:
1391:
1318:
1185:
955:
306:
299:
288:
85:
1894:
1679:
1184:
have been used since the mid-18th century to control the speeds of the water turbines. A variety of
454:
427:
1248:
alloys allows for a much longer lifespan of the turbine blades. Currently, the blades are made of
2012:
2004:
1616:
1578:
1298:
1278:
1132:
999:
913:
861:
488:
468:
365:, the latter of which would serve as its chief engineer for a time. Initially created in 1872 by
292:
279:
1514:
1281:
and a catastrophic failure. Earlier repair jobs that used stainless steel weld rods are visible.
761:
1189:
Newer systems with mechanical governors started around 1880. An early mechanical governor is a
123:. Now, they are mostly used for electric power generation. Water turbines are mostly found in
2035:
2027:
1698:
The History of the Holyoke Water Power Company; A Subsidiary of Northeast Utilities, 1859-1967
1557:
1537:
1495:
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339:
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1996:
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362:
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324:
226:
219:
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109:
1944:
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in the early 19th century and is derived from the Greek word "τύρβη" for "whirling" or a "
2083:
1975:
1966:
1953:
1306:
1270:
1219:
1009:
966:
866:
845:
805:
555:
481:
328:
317:
313:
265:
257:
211:
120:
2051:(1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel",
1305:
from suspended solids in the water. Steel elements are repaired by welding, usually with
2077:"Selecting Hydraulic Reaction Turbines", US Bureau of Reclamation publication, 48 MB pdf
1651:
727:
702:
627:
546:
Impulse turbines are often used in very high (>300m/1000 ft) head applications.
1379:
1355:
1190:
1086:
1004:
959:
919:
881:
871:
801:
405:
347:
105:
81:
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186:
119:
were developed in the 19th century and were widely used for industrial power prior to
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2016:
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1019:
994:
929:
908:
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401:
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171:
1869:
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135:
77:
1014:
970:
943:
903:
458:
417:
275:
235:
2034:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400,
2023:
Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service.
1968:
Turbine Repair (Facilities Instructions, Standards & Techniques, Volume 2-5)
1926:
1371:
989:
898:
435:
147:
92:
1401:
1294:
951:
377:
hydraulic laboratory was standardized by Herschel, who used it to develop the
215:
140:
17:
1840:
357:, described as the first modern hydraulic laboratory in the United States by
1244:
1203:
251:
199:
2093:
1785:"An Independent Evaluation of the El Hierro Wind & Pumped Hydro System"
543:
Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
35:
484:). In this way, energy is transferred from the water flow to the turbine.
202:
made the submerged horizontal wheel in the shaft turn like a true turbine.
1684:. San Francisco, Calif.: Neal Publishing Company. 1916. pp. 498–499.
1559:
Dexter Sulphit Pulp & Paper Company v. Jefferson Power Company, et al
1302:
447:
1317:
Other elements requiring inspection and repair during overhauls include
264:(1595) described a vertical axis mill with a rotor similar to that of a
238:. Two helix-turbine mill sites of almost identical design were found at
2008:
1343:
1311:
247:
243:
239:
195:
191:
167:
116:
1660:
1635:
1375:
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537:
175:
2000:
2072:
European Union publication, Layman's hydropower handbook,12 MB pdf
1334:
1264:
1213:
1158:
839:
831:
421:
283:
225:
205:
185:
134:
91:
76:
1604:. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 48–49.
434:
All common water machines until the late 19th century (including
1361:
797:
612:{\displaystyle P=\eta \cdot \rho \cdot g\cdot h\cdot {\dot {q}}}
382:
1502:. Vol. XIX, no. 8. Chicago. August 1915. p. 442.
1314:
procedures may be used to achieve the highest quality repairs.
916:(also known as the Bánki-Michell turbine, or Ossberger turbine)
1754:"How a small Spanish island became a renewable energy pioneer"
1516:
The American Mixed-Flow Turbine and It's [sic] Setting
124:
29:
1995:, vol. 52, British Institute at Ankara, pp. 1–17,
1681:
Transactions of the International Engineering Congress, 1915
1583:. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. p. 59.
983:
942:
2089:"Laboratory for hydraulic machines", Lausanne (Switzerland)
1897:(2013), "Choosing the Right Material for Turbine Runners",
1366:
and changes to water temperature and flow patterns. In the
532:
Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (
1727:
Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers
1562:. State of New York, Court of Appeals. 1919. p. 619.
1519:. American Society of Civil Engineers. pp. 1265–1266.
1425:
1423:
1421:
1929:(2009), "Combating Silt Erosion in Hydraulic Turbines",
513:
describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
127:
to generate electric power from water potential energy.
1536:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 180–181.
1370:, it is now illegal to block the migration of fish, so
2088:
1437:
1206:
that are programmed to the computer of the governor.
1097:
764:
730:
705:
680:
655:
630:
566:
2030:(2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),
1742:, Stanford University, Mechanical Engineering, 1939.
1513:Safford, Arthur T; Hamilton, Edward Pierce (1922).
1473:
Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution
1577:US Congress, Senate Committee on Commerce (1922).
1110:
779:
739:
714:
689:
664:
639:
611:
457:, experimenting with a Knight Wheel, developed a
230:A propeller-type runner rated 28,000 hp (21 MW)
234:The earliest known water turbines date to the
446:head (hundreds of vertical feet in a pipe or
335:through the turbine blades and loses energy.
8:
1580:To Establish a National Hydraulic Laboratory
1135:between the test model and the application.
950:Turbine selection is based on the available
487:Water turbines are divided into two groups:
1725:W. A. Doble, "The Tangential Water Wheel",
1624:. Providence, R. I.: Builders Iron Foundry.
1533:Man and Water: A History of Hydrotechnology
1346:, Germany, has been in operation since 1924
2094:DoradoVista, Small Hydro Power Information
1889:
1887:
438:) were basically reaction machines; water
1659:
1198:but the controls were still done through
1102:
1096:
766:
765:
763:
729:
704:
679:
654:
629:
598:
597:
565:
143:water Turbo Generator in Budapest in 1886
1783:Jargstorf, Benjamin (23 February 2017).
1433:
60:of all important aspects of the article.
1822:"A Short History of Hydropower Control"
1417:
820:Large modern water turbines operate at
722:acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s)
1752:Guevara-Stone, Laurie (3 March 2014).
1601:The Origins of the Turbojet Revolution
1429:
1340:Walchensee Hydroelectric Power Station
536:) is converted to kinetic energy by a
170:was introduced by the French engineer
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
1496:"Chronology of Power Plant Apparatus"
1476:, p. 45 (Taylor & Francis, 1969).
850:Raccoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant
198:. The tangential water inflow of the
96:The runner of the small water turbine
7:
2032:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
1530:Smith, Norman Alfred Fisher (1975).
1470:Musson, Albert and Robinson, Eric.
1438:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
1218:Wicket gates (yellow) surrounding a
1176:to control speeds of a water turbine
274:developed a reactive water turbine (
214:runner, rated at nearly one million
1331:Environmental impacts of reservoirs
1382:must be provided by dam builders.
302:developed an inward-flow turbine.
104:is a rotary machine that converts
25:
1820:Fasol, Karl Heinz (August 2002).
218:(750 MW), being installed at the
1636:"Invention of the Venturi Meter"
34:
2055:, vol. 8, pp. 499–510
1704:. Holyoke, Mass. Archived from
1273:at the end of its life showing
792:Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
112:of water into mechanical work.
48:may be too short to adequately
1646:(3433): 254. August 17, 1935.
1289:Normal wear and tear includes
430:original patent (October 1880)
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
1829:IEEE Control Systems Magazine
278:) in the mid-18th century in
2053:Journal of Roman Archaeology
1598:Constant, Edward W. (1980).
1250:martensitic stainless steels
925:Reverse overshot water-wheel
471:were later impulse designs.
369:from the testing flumes of
2125:
1933:, vol. 17, no. 1
1901:, vol. 32, no. 6
1713:Holyoke Gas & Electric
1711:on 2019-12-12 – via
1615:Herschel, Clemens (1887).
1397:Carbon offsets and credits
1328:
1084:
780:{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}}
558:available in a stream is;
415:
395:mean time between failures
2067:Introductory turbine math
848:runner on display at the
397:of more than 1300 years.
1870:"What Is a Wicket Gate?"
1841:10.1109/MCS.2002.1021646
1803:"Francis hydro turbines"
389:Around 1890, the modern
1245:austenitic steel alloys
1238:Turbine blade materials
828:Types of water turbines
822:mechanical efficiencies
697:density of fluid (kg/m)
344:Holyoke Machine Company
1740:The Pelton Water Wheel
1347:
1282:
1223:
1177:
1112:
978:Typical range of heads
947:
939:Design and application
887:Gorlov helical turbine
852:
837:
781:
741:
716:
691:
690:{\displaystyle \rho =}
666:
665:{\displaystyle \eta =}
641:
613:
431:
375:Holyoke, Massachusetts
231:
223:
203:
190:Roman turbine mill at
144:
139:The construction of a
97:
89:
1500:The National Engineer
1338:
1268:
1217:
1180:Different designs of
1171:
1113:
1111:{\displaystyle n_{s}}
946:
843:
835:
782:
742:
717:
692:
667:
642:
614:
425:
355:Holyoke Testing Flume
229:
209:
189:
156:Industrial Revolution
138:
95:
80:
1374:for species such as
1325:Environmental impact
1220:Francis type turbine
1139:varying conditions.
1095:
1031:< 4 (
762:
728:
703:
678:
653:
647:power (J/s or watts)
628:
564:
300:Jean-Victor Poncelet
289:Hacienda Buena Vista
86:electrical generator
1695:Barrett, Robert E.
1652:1935Natur.136Q.254.
1091:The specific speed
475:Theory of operation
469:cross-flow turbines
2082:2006-09-27 at the
1974:2006-06-14 at the
1952:2009-05-13 at the
1850:on 6 November 2015
1729:, Vol. XXIX, 1899.
1565:the United States.
1485:R. Sackett, p. 16.
1432:, pp. 507f.;
1348:
1283:
1224:
1178:
1108:
948:
914:Cross-flow turbine
853:
838:
824:greater than 90%.
777:
740:{\displaystyle h=}
737:
715:{\displaystyle g=}
712:
687:
672:turbine efficiency
662:
640:{\displaystyle P=}
637:
609:
511:Newton's third law
432:
293:Ponce, Puerto Rico
280:Kingdom of Hungary
232:
224:
204:
145:
98:
90:
1993:Anatolian Studies
1764:on 3 October 2017
1618:The Venturi Meter
1392:Archimedes' screw
1291:pitting corrosion
1275:pitting corrosion
1169:
1076:
1075:
856:Reaction turbines
844:A decommissioned
787:= flow rate (m/s)
774:
606:
502:Reaction turbines
373:, after 1880 the
340:John B. McCormick
307:Benoît Fourneyron
75:
74:
16:(Redirected from
2116:
2056:
2044:
2019:
1979:
1963:
1957:
1941:
1935:
1934:
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1917:
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1902:
1891:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1849:
1843:. Archived from
1826:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1760:. Archived from
1749:
1743:
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1730:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1710:
1703:
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1492:
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1477:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1447:
1441:
1427:
1407:Hydroelectricity
1365:
1299:fatigue cracking
1279:fatigue cracking
1174:flyball governor
1170:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1107:
1106:
984:
786:
784:
783:
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746:
744:
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721:
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718:
713:
696:
694:
693:
688:
671:
669:
668:
663:
646:
644:
643:
638:
618:
616:
615:
610:
608:
607:
599:
534:potential energy
521:Impulse turbines
367:James B. Emerson
363:Clemens Herschel
359:Robert E. Horton
325:James B. Francis
222:, United States.
220:Grand Coulee Dam
121:electrical grids
110:potential energy
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2099:
2098:
2084:Wayback Machine
2063:
2047:
2042:
2028:Wikander, Örjan
2026:
2001:10.2307/3643076
1990:
1987:
1982:
1976:Wayback Machine
1964:
1960:
1954:Wayback Machine
1942:
1938:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1895:Spicher, Thomas
1893:
1892:
1885:
1875:
1873:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1824:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1789:euanmearns.com/
1782:
1781:
1777:
1767:
1765:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1738:W. F. Durrand,
1737:
1733:
1724:
1720:
1708:
1701:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1634:
1633:
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1621:
1614:
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1609:
1597:
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1555:
1551:
1544:
1529:
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1524:
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1507:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1436:, p. 377;
1428:
1419:
1415:
1388:
1364:behind the dam,
1359:
1333:
1327:
1307:stainless steel
1271:Francis turbine
1263:
1240:
1212:
1172:Operation of a
1159:
1157:
1155:Control systems
1145:
1125:
1098:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1083:
1078:
1077:
1071:< 250
1066:
1060:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1010:Francis turbine
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
980:
960:Kaplan turbines
941:
895:
893:Impulse turbine
867:Francis turbine
858:
846:Francis turbine
830:
818:
806:Francis turbine
794:
760:
759:
726:
725:
701:
700:
676:
675:
651:
650:
626:
625:
562:
561:
552:
523:
504:
477:
420:
414:
329:Francis turbine
318:Francis turbine
314:Uriah A. Boyden
266:Francis turbine
258:Fausto Veranzio
212:Francis turbine
184:
164:
133:
71:
65:
62:
55:
43:This article's
39:
28:
27:Type of turbine
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2122:
2120:
2112:
2111:
2109:Water turbines
2101:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2074:
2069:
2062:
2061:External links
2059:
2058:
2057:
2049:Wilson, Andrew
2045:
2040:
2024:
2020:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1958:
1943:Cline, Roger:
1936:
1918:
1904:
1883:
1861:
1812:
1794:
1775:
1744:
1731:
1718:
1687:
1671:
1627:
1607:
1590:
1569:
1549:
1542:
1522:
1505:
1487:
1478:
1463:
1457:978-9048122523
1456:
1442:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1387:
1384:
1380:white sturgeon
1329:Main article:
1326:
1323:
1262:
1259:
1239:
1236:
1211:
1208:
1191:servomechanism
1156:
1153:
1144:
1141:
1124:
1121:
1105:
1101:
1087:Specific speed
1085:Main article:
1082:
1081:Specific speed
1079:
1074:
1073:
1024:
1005:Kaplan turbine
982:
981:
979:
976:
940:
937:
936:
935:
932:
927:
922:
920:Jonval turbine
917:
911:
906:
901:
894:
891:
890:
889:
884:
882:Deriaz turbine
879:
874:
872:Kaplan turbine
869:
864:
857:
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522:
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503:
500:
476:
473:
416:Main article:
413:
410:
406:Kaplan turbine
348:Jonval turbine
262:Machinae Novae
183:
180:
163:
160:
132:
129:
106:kinetic energy
88:cut-away view.
82:Kaplan turbine
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
18:Water turbines
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2121:
2110:
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2041:90-04-11123-9
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2018:
2014:
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1984:
1978:(1.5 MB pdf).
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1543:9780684145228
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1435:
1434:Wikander 2000
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1368:United States
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1300:
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1260:
1258:
1256:
1255:laser peening
1251:
1246:
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1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1183:
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1154:
1152:
1150:
1149:runaway speed
1143:Runaway speed
1142:
1140:
1136:
1134:
1129:
1128:Affinity laws
1123:Affinity laws
1122:
1120:
1103:
1099:
1088:
1080:
1072:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1020:Turgo turbine
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
995:Screw turbine
991:
986:
985:
977:
975:
972:
971:Pelton wheels
968:
963:
961:
957:
953:
945:
938:
934:Barkh Turbine
933:
931:
930:Screw turbine
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
915:
912:
910:
909:Turgo turbine
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
896:
892:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
877:Tyson turbine
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
859:
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851:
847:
842:
834:
827:
825:
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815:
813:
809:
807:
803:
799:
791:
771:
768:
758:
755:
754:velocity head
751:
750:pressure head
734:
731:
724:
709:
706:
699:
684:
681:
674:
659:
656:
649:
634:
631:
624:
623:
622:
619:
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594:
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579:
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549:
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544:
541:
539:
535:
530:
528:
520:
518:
514:
512:
508:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:turbines and
490:
485:
483:
474:
472:
470:
466:
462:
460:
456:
455:Lester Pelton
451:
449:
443:
441:
437:
429:
426:Figure from
424:
419:
411:
409:
407:
403:
402:Viktor Kaplan
400:Around 1913,
398:
396:
392:
391:fluid bearing
387:
384:
380:
379:Venturi meter
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
351:
349:
345:
341:
336:
332:
330:
326:
321:
319:
315:
310:
308:
303:
301:
296:
294:
290:
287:is found at
285:
281:
277:
273:
272:Johann Segner
269:
267:
263:
259:
255:
253:
249:
246:, modern-day
245:
241:
237:
228:
221:
217:
213:
208:
201:
197:
193:
188:
181:
179:
177:
173:
172:Claude Burdin
169:
161:
159:
157:
153:
149:
142:
137:
130:
128:
126:
122:
118:
113:
111:
107:
103:
102:water turbine
94:
87:
83:
79:
69:
66:November 2023
59:
53:
51:
46:
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
2052:
2031:
1992:
1967:
1961:
1945:
1939:
1931:Hydro Review
1930:
1927:Gummer, John
1921:
1913:
1907:
1899:Hydro Review
1898:
1874:. Retrieved
1864:
1852:. Retrieved
1845:the original
1835:(4): 68–76.
1832:
1828:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1788:
1778:
1766:. Retrieved
1762:the original
1758:greenbiz.com
1757:
1747:
1739:
1734:
1726:
1721:
1706:the original
1697:
1690:
1680:
1674:
1665:
1643:
1639:
1630:
1617:
1610:
1600:
1593:
1584:
1579:
1572:
1563:
1558:
1552:
1532:
1525:
1515:
1508:
1499:
1490:
1481:
1471:
1466:
1445:
1440:, p. 13
1372:fish ladders
1353:
1349:
1316:
1288:
1284:
1241:
1231:
1227:
1225:
1179:
1148:
1146:
1137:
1126:
1090:
1068:
1062:
1056:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1035:= head in m)
1032:
1028:
1026:
1015:Pelton wheel
987:
964:
949:
904:Pelton wheel
819:
810:
795:
753:
749:
620:
560:
553:
545:
542:
531:
524:
515:
509:
505:
497:
486:
478:
463:
459:Pelton wheel
452:
444:
439:
436:water wheels
433:
418:Pelton wheel
404:created the
399:
388:
352:
337:
333:
322:
311:
304:
297:
276:Segner wheel
270:
261:
260:in his book
256:
236:Roman Empire
233:
165:
148:Water wheels
146:
114:
101:
99:
63:
47:
45:lead section
1430:Wilson 1995
1360:buildup of
1261:Maintenance
1228:wicket gate
1210:Wicket gate
1000:VLH turbine
990:Water wheel
899:Water wheel
862:VLH turbine
808:in design.
412:New concept
1876:29 January
1872:. wiseGEEK
1854:29 January
1807:alstom.com
1413:References
1402:Carbon Tax
1356:migrations
1295:cavitation
1232:guide vane
1204:algorithms
1133:similitude
952:water head
816:Efficiency
495:turbines.
2017:163811541
1182:governors
1065:< 1600
1043:1.5 <
1027:0.2 <
772:˙
682:ρ
657:η
604:˙
595:⋅
589:⋅
583:⋅
580:ρ
577:⋅
574:η
453:In 1879,
338:In 1876,
323:In 1849,
312:In 1844,
305:In 1826,
298:In 1820,
252:mill race
200:mill race
166:The word
50:summarize
2103:Category
2080:Archived
1972:Archived
1950:Archived
1586:practice
1386:See also
1319:bearings
1303:abrasion
1067:50 <
1061:80 <
1059:< 300
1055:10 <
1047:< 4.5
974:losses.
956:low head
489:reaction
448:penstock
440:pressure
428:Pelton's
182:Timeline
117:turbines
2009:3643076
1985:Sources
1648:Bibcode
1344:Bavaria
1312:welding
1186:flyball
1053:< 70
1049:2 <
1041:< 10
1037:1 <
967:Francis
958:sites.
621:where:
527:impulse
493:impulse
248:Tunisia
244:Testour
240:Chemtou
196:Tunisia
192:Chemtou
168:turbine
131:History
2038:
2015:
2007:
1914:ICHPSD
1640:Nature
1540:
1454:
1376:salmon
1301:, and
1200:analog
1196:sensor
802:Deriaz
538:nozzle
371:Lowell
176:vortex
115:Water
2013:S2CID
2005:JSTOR
1848:(PDF)
1825:(PDF)
1768:4 May
1709:(PDF)
1702:(PDF)
1622:(PDF)
1293:from
1230:, or
752:plus
556:power
550:Power
465:Turgo
284:Euler
162:Swirl
2036:ISBN
1878:2015
1856:2015
1770:2017
1538:ISBN
1452:ISBN
1378:and
1362:silt
1147:The
798:pump
554:The
482:work
467:and
383:weir
361:and
242:and
152:head
141:Ganz
125:dams
108:and
84:and
1997:doi
1837:doi
1656:doi
1644:136
1342:in
804:or
291:in
2105::
2011:,
2003:,
1886:^
1833:22
1831:.
1827:.
1805:.
1787:.
1756:.
1664:.
1654:.
1642:.
1638:.
1498:.
1420:^
1297:,
1277:,
1269:A
1226:A
1018:•
1013:•
1008:•
1003:•
998:•
993:•
988:•
320:.
295:.
268:.
216:hp
210:A
194:,
100:A
1999::
1880:.
1858:.
1839::
1809:.
1791:.
1772:.
1715:.
1658::
1650::
1546:.
1460:.
1104:s
1100:n
1069:H
1063:H
1057:H
1051:H
1045:H
1039:H
1033:H
1029:H
769:q
756:.
735:=
732:h
710:=
707:g
685:=
660:=
635:=
632:P
601:q
592:h
586:g
571:=
568:P
68:)
64:(
54:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
