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long period of being fully formed, the water falling off the ledge will retreat, causing a horizontal pit parallel to the waterfall wall. Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed. In addition to gradual processes such as erosion, earth movement caused by
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There are thousands of waterfalls in the world, though no exact number has been calculated. The World
Waterfall Database lists 7,827 as of 2013, but this is likely incomplete; as noted by Hudson, over 90% of their listings are in North America. Many guidebooks to local waterfalls have been published.
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spinning stones around on the bed, drilling it out. Sand and stones carried by the watercourse therefore increase erosion capacity. This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede upstream. Often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a canyon or gorge downstream as it
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Humans have had a distinct relationship with waterfalls since prehistory, travelling to see them, exploring and naming them. They can present formidable barriers to navigation along rivers. Waterfalls are religious sites in many cultures. Since the 18th century, they have received increased attention
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of the water hitting the bottom. However, a study of waterfalls systematics reported that waterfalls can be wider or narrower above or below a falls, so almost anything is possible given the right geological and hydrological setting. Waterfalls normally form in a rocky area due to erosion. After a
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wrote about them in the 1820s. There is no name for the specific field of researching waterfalls, and in the published literature been described as "scattered", though it is popular to describe studying waterfalls as "waterfallology". An early paper written on waterfalls was published in 1884 by
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As late as 1985 a scholar felt that "waterfalls remain a very much neglected aspect of river studies". Studies of waterfalls increased dramatically in the second half of the 20th century. Numerous waterfall guidebooks exist, and the World
Waterfall Database is a website cataloging thousands of
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Waterfall sites more than any other geomorphic feature attract and hold the interest of the general public. Because they have such a popular approval waterfalls are not given serious attention by some students of systematic geomorphology. This attitude is not to be commended. Waterfalls are
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organisms such as fish and aquatic invertebrates, as they may restrict dispersal along streams. The presence or absence of certain species can have cascading ecological effects, and thus cause differences in trophic regimes above and below waterfalls. Certain aquatic plants and insects also
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Carlson, Kathie; Flanagin, Michael N.; Martin, Kathleen; Martin, Mary E.; Mendelsohn, John; Rodgers, Priscilla Young; Ronnberg, Ami; Salman, Sherry; Wesley, Deborah A. (2010). Arm, Karen; Ueda, Kako; Thulin, Anne; Langerak, Allison; Kiley, Timothy Gus; Wolff, Mary (eds.).
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Waterfalls are often visited by people simply to see them. Hudson theorizes that they make good tourism sites because they are generally considered beautiful and are relatively uncommon. Activities at waterfalls can include bathing, swimming, photography,
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wrote that, "The most signal example of the effect of waterfalls and rapids in retarding the development of civilisation is undoubtedly presented by the continent of Africa, the 'darkness' of which is almost entirely due to this cause."
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Waterfalls also affect terrestrial species. They create a small microclimate in their immediate vicinity characterized by cooler temperatures and higher humidity than the surrounding region, which may support diverse communities of
624:. The geographer Brian J. Hudson argues that it was uncommon to specifically name waterfalls until the 1700s. The trend of Europeans specifically naming falls was in tandem with increased scientific focus on nature, the rise of
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Waterfalls are sometimes interchangeably referred to as "cascades" and "cataracts", though some sources specify a cataract as being a larger and more powerful waterfall and a cascade as being smaller. A plunge pool is a type of
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A waterfall is generally defined as a point in a river where water flows over a steep drop that is close to or directly vertical. In 2000 Mabin specified that "The horizontal distance between the positions of the lip and
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use
Piguchi waterfall as part of the Churru ritual which serves as a coming of age ceremony. Many waterfalls in Africa were places of worship for the native peoples and got their names from gods in the local religion.
640:, though it was known by local peoples as Mosi-oa-Tunya. Many waterfalls have descriptive names which can come from the river they are on, places they are near, their features, or events that happened near them.
692:. Waterfalls can also be sites for generating hydroelectric power and can hold good fishing opportunities. Wealthy people were known to visit areas with features such as waterfalls at least as early as in
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Some countries that were colonized by
European nations have taken steps to return names to waterfalls previously renamed by European explorers. Exploration of waterfalls continues; the
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207:, more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to the base of the waterfall. These blocks of rock are then broken down into smaller boulders by
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just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, meaning that undercutting due to splashback will occur here to form a shallow cave-like formation known as a
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Streams can become wider and shallower just above waterfalls due to flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep area just below the waterfall because of the
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2062:"After the Falls Last spring, Peru announced it had discovered the world's third-tallest waterfall. We went to see this remote wonder, and discovered much more"
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recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it. The rate of retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one-and-a-half metres per year.
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should be no more than c 25% of the waterfall height." There are various types and methods to classify waterfalls. Some scholars have included
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Waterfalls can be formed in several ways, but the most common method of formation is that a river courses over a top layer of resistant
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When warm and cold water meets by a gorge in the ocean, large underwater waterfalls can form as the cold water rushes to the bottom.
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which could be considered a "waterfall" under a very broad usage of that term; if so included, it is the largest known waterfall.
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in Norway. Development of the areas around falls as tourist attractions has also destroyed the natural scene around many of them.
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307:. These species preferentially nest in the space behind the falling water, which is thought to be a strategy to avoid predation.
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Water descends vertically over a vertical cliff, maintaining partial contact with the bedrock. May be several types:
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Waterfalls can pose major barriers to travel. Canals are sometimes built as a method to go around them, other times
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During Summer 2023, the background is showing more geological structures formations and farther geological features
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707:, once one of the most powerful waterfalls in the world, were submerged in 1982 by a human-made dam, as were the
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Waterfalls are commonly formed in the upper course of a river where lakes flow into valleys in steep mountains.
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Most of Canada's first railways were portage railways, designed to meet river traffic and ferry it past rapids.
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in 1952. Conversely, other waterfalls have seen significantly lower water levels as a result of diversion for
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A process known as "potholing" involves local erosion of a potentially deep hole in bedrock due to turbulent
169:. Another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers join and one is flowing faster than the other.
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Many explorers have visited waterfalls. European explorers recorded waterfalls they came across. In 1493,
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1537:"Modeling energy dissipation and hydraulic jump regime responses to channel nonuniformity at river steps"
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A series of waterfalls one after another of roughly the same size each with its own sunken plunge pool.
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296:. Species of these plants may have disjunct populations at waterfall zones far from their core range.
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1596:"Benthic community structure and ecosystem functions in above- and below-waterfall pools in Borneo"
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There is also no agreement how to measure the height of a waterfall, or even what constitutes one.
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Many artists have painted waterfalls and they are referenced in many songs, such as those of the
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formed at the bottom of a waterfall. A waterfall may also be referred to as a "foss" or "force".
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faster, leading to an increasingly high fall. Waterfalls have been studied for their impact on
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where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of steep drops. Waterfalls also occur where
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1647:"Conservation value of waterfalls as habitat for lotic insects of western Victoria, Australia"
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Waterfalls play a role in many cultures, as religious sites and subjects of art and music.
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are the largest confirmed waterfalls ever. The highest known subterranean waterfall is in
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waterfalls only flow after a rain or a significant snowmelt. Waterfalls can also be found
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Fast-moving water falls vertically, completely losing contact with the bedrock surface.
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Baker, Kate; Chadwick, Michael A.; Wahab, Rodzay A.; Kahar, Rafhiah (1 February 2017).
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Mountain Ice and Water ā Investigations of the
Hydrologic Cycle in Alpine Environments
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The caprock model of waterfall formation states that the river courses over resistant
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A river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have been formed by a
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as they collide with each other, and they also erode the base of the waterfall by
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424:: Water spreads horizontally as it falls while remaining in contact with bedrock.
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as a subsection. What actually constitutes a waterfall continues to be debated.
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1536:
1427:"Watershed Hydrology, Geomorphology, and Ecohydraulics :: Horseshoe Falls"
1354:
1353:
Pasternack, Gregory B.; Ellis, Christopher R.; Marr, Jeffrey D. (1 July 2007).
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This article is about natural river formations. For decorative waterfalls, see
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was created from a revision of this article dated 25 September 2019
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2095:"Historical Atlas of Canada: Canada's History Illustrated with Original Maps"
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wrote in 2020 that waterfalls have received "surprisingly limited research."
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An example of an ephemeral waterfall. This one, when flowing, feeds into the
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US Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
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2275:. Developments in Earth Surface Processes. Vol. 21. pp. 309ā324.
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specialize in the environment of the waterfall itself. A 2012 study of the
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involves standing underneath a waterfall in ritual clothing. In Japan the
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Waterfalls provide nesting cover for several species of bird, such as the
17:
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3443:
3120:
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1381:
1061:"Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall ā History of Early American Landscape Design"
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painted particularly notable pictures of waterfalls in the 19th century.
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Human development has also threatened many waterfalls. For instance, the
521:
Some waterfalls are also distinct in that they do not flow continuously.
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50:, a series of waterfalls located in the Westfjords (VestfirĆ°ir), Iceland.
47:
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1949:"Underground waterfall: How to see this secret spectacle in Upstate NY"
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158:
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101:, andāparticularly since the mid-20th centuryāas subjects of research.
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86:
82:
71:
2149:
Hudson, Brian J. (1 March 2006). "Waterfalls, Tourism and
Landscape".
1899:
Ephemeral waterfall seen from inside cave. Mammoth Cave
National Park.
1355:"Jet and hydraulic jump near-bed stresses below a horseshoe waterfall"
941:
is the tallest artificially built waterfall at 541 feet (165 m).
418:: A large quantity of water forced through a narrow, vertical passage.
359:: Fall height is nearly equal to stream width, forming a square shape.
275:
Waterfalls are an important factor in determining the distribution of
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1861:. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Berlin: Springer. pp. 456ā457.
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Water is constricted as it falls and then spreads into a wider pool.
166:
115:
63:
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Falling water mostly maintains contact with bedrock. Several types:
365:: Fall height is greater than the width of the falling water stream.
2491:"Waterfalls: Forms, Distribution, Processes and Rates of Recession"
38:
A point in a river or stream where water flows over a vertical drop
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1857:
Fairbridge, Rhodes W. (1997). "Glacial moulin, mill or pothole".
1645:
Rackemann, Sarah L.; Robson, Belinda J.; Matthews, Ty G. (2013).
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2532:
Hudson, Brian J. (2013b). "Waterfalls, science and aesthetics".
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1918:
About
Horsetail Falls, One of Yosemite's Ephemeral Waterfalls.
1709:"Distribution and dynamics of a tropical waterfalls ecosystem"
1535:
Wyrick, Joshua R.; Pasternack, Gregory B. (1 September 2008).
2588:
2435:
Water, Leisure and
Culture: European Historical Perspectives
1197:
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are examples of this phenomenon, which is referred to as a
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2348:
Atlas A-Z: 6th edition: A Pocket Guide to the World Today
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353:: Water descends from a relatively wide stream or river.
1980:
1978:
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visited North America, providing early descriptions of
1651:
Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems
1457:"Observe river erosion creating waterfalls and chasms"
958:
956:
954:
2319:
The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images
1830:
Kids, Lonely Planet; Brake, Mark (1 November 2017).
830:'s power over water that comes from the former two.
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818:tradition, the waterfall represents" the season of
628:, and increased importance of hydropower with the
2433:Susan C. Anderson (Editor), Bruce Tabb (Editor),
1242:. The Hamlyn Publishing Group. pp. 246ā248.
203:under and behind the waterfall. Eventually, the
574:significant items for geomorphic investigation.
571:
161:has receded or melted. The large waterfalls in
2601:
2244:Historical Dictionary of Shinto Second edition
1713:Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems
1541:Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
726:and many others are protected by governments.
2648:
1151:Dictionary of Geological Terms: Third Edition
569:wrote of the lack of research on waterfalls:
486:Distinct flows of water form as it descends.
8:
798:are a site of pilgrimage, as are falls near
769:The Jivaro: People of the Sacred Waterfalls.
2269:"Neotropical Mountains Beyond Water Supply"
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
647:were first announced to the world in 2006.
149:. Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a
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1947:Hern, Sunny; Ahern, Ez (28 October 2020).
1240:The Family Encyclopedia of Natural History
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479:
464:
449:
434:
405:
390:
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157:continues to flow into a valley after the
2514:
2374:"The largest waterfall that ever existed"
1720:
1621:
1611:
1398:
1380:
1370:
239:can lead to the formation of waterfalls.
153:, where a stream or river flowing into a
2618:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
851:
722:Waterfalls are included on thirty-eight
652:things must be physically carried around
320:
3254:International scale of river difficulty
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2020:
2008:
1996:
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441:Water descends a series of rock steps.
85:before falling onto softer rock, which
2195:
1984:
1575:from the original on 13 September 2019
1298:
962:
937:that imitate a natural waterfall. The
2455:Hudson, Brian J. (15 February 2013).
2351:. Penguin. 7 April 2015. p. 59.
2246:. Scarecrow Press. pp. 195ā196.
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1811:from the original on 20 December 2016
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1407:from the original on 21 February 2019
1280:from the original on 18 November 2020
1270:"Where is Earth's Largest Waterfall?"
1263:
1261:
1259:
1149:Robert L Bates, Julia A Jackson, ed.
593:Niagara Falls, from the American Side
7:
1785:from the original on 3 February 2021
1755:from the original on 7 February 2021
979:
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97:as tourist destinations, sources of
2384:from the original on 27 August 2021
2297:from the original on 26 August 2021
1959:from the original on 28 August 2021
1745:"Waterfalls and Biodiversity in BC"
1516:from the original on 26 August 2021
1437:from the original on 25 August 2017
1208:from the original on 1 January 2023
1178:from the original on 1 January 2023
1131:from the original on 28 August 2021
1101:from the original on 28 August 2021
1071:from the original on 28 August 2021
1024:from the original on 26 August 2021
2415:from the original on 18 March 2017
2281:10.1016/B978-0-444-63787-1.00008-1
2074:from the original on 27 March 2023
2060:Hendrix, Steve (15 October 2006).
70:drops over the edge of a tabular
25:
2600:
2405:"Vrtiglavica Cave and Waterfall"
1707:Offem, B.O.; Ikpi, G.U. (2012).
1010:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2012.00780.x
3411:Flooded grasslands and savannas
2461:. Reaktion Books. p. 222.
1238:Carreck, Rosalind, ed. (1982).
844:List of waterfalls by flow rate
2403:Pavils, Gatis (7 March 2013).
2163:10.1080/00167487.2006.12094145
877:tallest waterfall in the world
1:
2534:Journal of Cultural Geography
2458:Waterfall: Nature and Culture
1890:https://www.terragalleria.com
1322:Fuller, John (16 June 2008).
1155:American Geological Institute
771:Artists such as those of the
596:(Frederic Edwin Church, 1867)
471:A large, powerful waterfall.
3577:Universal Soil Loss Equation
3527:Hydrological transport model
3421:Storm Water Management Model
2546:10.1080/08873631.2013.828482
1909:https://www.kidsdiscover.com
446:Tiered/Multi-step/Staircase
1510:National Geographic Society
1463:. ClassZone. Archived from
786:One of the versions of the
93:living in and around them.
3922:
3081:Antecedent drainage stream
986:"The Naming of Waterfalls"
848:List of waterfalls by type
837:
658:. In 1885, the geographer
536:
503:A waterfall in a glacier.
317:List of waterfalls by type
314:
105:Definition and terminology
33:Waterfall (disambiguation)
26:
3845:
3817:River valley civilization
3700:Riparian-zone restoration
2437:, Berg Publishers, 2002,
1928:https://www.wncwaterfalls
1867:10.1007/3-540-31060-6_155
1613:10.1007/s10750-016-2975-4
1431:Dr. Gregory B. Pasternack
984:Hudson, Brian J. (2013).
790:purification ceremony of
219:in the gorge downstream.
3880:Countries without rivers
3855:Rivers by discharge rate
3567:Runoff model (reservoir)
3532:Infiltration (hydrology)
2516:10.2478/quageo-2020-0005
2495:Quaestiones Geographicae
2267:Sarmiento, F.O. (2016).
1933:10 November 2017 at the
1895:10 November 2017 at the
1359:Water Resources Research
1091:"Definition of Cataract"
887:are the widest, and the
763:titled his study of the
138:Formation of a waterfall
3552:River Continuum Concept
3317:Agricultural wastewater
1121:"Definition of Cascade"
917:Denmark Strait cataract
667:Development and tourism
3875:River name etymologies
3802:Hydraulic civilization
3660:Floodplain restoration
3436:Point source pollution
3211:Sedimentary structures
2596:
2576:Listen to this article
2099:Douglas & McIntyre
1274:National Ocean Service
863:
745:
597:
583:Exploration and naming
576:
558:Alexander von Humboldt
518:
272:
256:
139:
51:
31:. For other uses, see
3487:Discharge (hydrology)
3449:Industrial wastewater
2930:Sedimentary processes
2595:
1807:. 11 September 2015.
1805:"Worldwaterfalls.com"
1324:"How Waterfalls Work"
990:Geographical Research
939:Cascata delle Marmore
927:Artificial waterfalls
855:
737:
630:Industrial Revolution
590:
533:Humans and waterfalls
512:
305:white-throated dipper
262:
250:
137:
46:
3592:Volumetric flow rate
3176:Riffle-pool sequence
2627:More spoken articles
2093:Derek Hayes (2006).
1914:18 July 2019 at the
1781:. 13 November 2014.
1722:10.1051/kmae/2012004
1561:10.1029/2007jf000873
1382:10.1029/2006wr005774
1334:on 21 September 2010
1204:. 10 December 2022.
1174:. 20 December 2022.
881:Khone Phapheng Falls
724:World Heritage Sites
602:Christopher Columbus
563:William Morris Davis
29:Artificial waterfall
3766:Whitewater kayaking
3761:Whitewater canoeing
3562:Runoff curve number
3406:Flood pulse concept
2507:2020QGeo...39a..59G
2240:Picken, Stuart D. B
2067:The Washington Post
1663:2013ACMFE..23..171R
1553:2008JGRF..113.3003W
1372:2007WRR....43.7449P
1002:2013GeoRs..51...85H
773:Hudson River School
622:Saint Anthony Falls
322:
251:Ulaan tsutgalan in
3792:Aquatic toxicology
3705:Stream restoration
3670:Infiltration basin
3522:Hydrological model
3038:Sediment transport
2861:Estavelle/Inversac
2739:Subterranean river
2597:
1833:The Big Earth Book
864:
840:List of waterfalls
746:
598:
519:
321:
282:Agbokim Waterfalls
273:
257:
215:, creating a deep
140:
58:is any point in a
52:
3906:Fluvial landforms
3888:
3887:
3865:Whitewater rivers
3771:Whitewater slalom
3602:River engineering
3502:Groundwater model
3463:River measurement
3391:Flood forecasting
3206:Sedimentary basin
3063:Fluvial landforms
2968:Bed material load
2744:River bifurcation
2593:
2489:(31 March 2020).
2487:Goudie, Andrew S.
2468:978-1-86189-956-9
2358:978-1-4654-4252-9
2332:978-3-8365-1448-4
2290:978-0-444-63787-1
2253:978-0-8108-7172-4
2108:978-1-55365-077-5
1876:978-3-540-31060-0
1843:978-1-78701-083-3
1836:. Lonely Planet.
1512:. 28 March 2013.
1249:978-0-7112-0225-2
921:undersea overflow
802:, India, and the
738:A man practicing
507:
506:
16:(Redirected from
3913:
3850:Rivers by length
3685:River morphology
3587:Wetted perimeter
3492:Drainage density
3003:Headward erosion
2832:Perennial stream
2704:Blackwater river
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2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1969:
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1937:Bird Rock Falls.
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1749:ibis.geog.ubc.ca
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1671:10.1002/aqc.2304
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1341:
1339:
1330:. Archived from
1319:
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1029:
981:
966:
960:
909:Vrtoglavica Cave
895:are the biggest
781:John Sell Cotman
765:Jivaroan peoples
757:Papua New Guinea
713:hydroelectricity
567:Oscar von Engeln
539:Hydroelectricity
500:
483:
468:
453:
438:
409:
394:
379:
344:
337:Ledge waterfall
323:
195:Often, the rock
21:
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3912:
3911:
3910:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3860:Drainage basins
3841:
3775:
3714:
3690:Retention basin
3650:Erosion control
3645:Detention basin
3596:
3512:Hjulstrƶm curve
3464:
3458:
3430:
3374:Non-water flood
3331:
3303:
3249:Helicoidal flow
3235:
3136:Fluvial terrace
3131:Floating island
3057:
2932:
2924:
2915:Rhythmic spring
2849:
2841:
2822:Stream gradient
2763:
2749:River ecosystem
2714:Channel pattern
2682:
2674:
2661:
2631:
2630:
2619:
2613:
2611:
2608:This audio file
2605:
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2178:
2148:
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2109:
2101:. p. 210.
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2027:
2019:
2015:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1972:
1962:
1960:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1935:Wayback Machine
1926:
1922:
1916:Wayback Machine
1907:
1903:
1897:Wayback Machine
1888:
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1480:
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1468:
1461:Exploring Earth
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1125:Merriam Webster
1119:
1118:
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1104:
1102:
1095:Merriam Webster
1089:
1088:
1084:
1074:
1072:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1046:
1037:
1027:
1025:
983:
982:
969:
961:
952:
947:
857:Shaki Waterfall
850:
838:Main articles:
836:
777:J. M. W. Turner
732:
669:
660:George Chisholm
656:a railway built
645:Gocta Cataracts
585:
552:The geographer
550:
545:
535:
529:and in oceans.
319:
313:
271:on 31 July 1972
245:
178:
163:Yosemite Valley
132:
107:
39:
36:
23:
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15:
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3753:
3751:Stone skipping
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3657:
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3647:
3642:
3637:
3635:Drop structure
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3615:Balancing lake
3612:
3606:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3542:Playfair's law
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3497:Exner equation
3494:
3489:
3484:
3482:Bradshaw model
3479:
3474:
3468:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3451:
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3440:
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3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3377:
3376:
3371:
3369:Urban flooding
3361:
3356:
3354:Crevasse splay
3351:
3349:100-year flood
3345:
3343:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3313:
3311:
3309:Surface runoff
3305:
3304:
3302:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3289:Stream capture
3286:
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3261:
3256:
3251:
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3243:
3237:
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3208:
3203:
3201:Rock-cut basin
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3055:
3050:
3045:
3043:Suspended load
3040:
3035:
3033:Secondary flow
3030:
3025:
3023:Retrogradation
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2988:Dissolved load
2985:
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2937:
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2920:Spring horizon
2917:
2912:
2907:
2905:Mineral spring
2902:
2901:
2900:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2886:list in the US
2883:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2857:
2855:
2843:
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2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
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2814:
2812:Stream channel
2809:
2804:
2799:
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2773:
2771:
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2761:
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2736:
2734:Drainage basin
2731:
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2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2694:Alluvial river
2690:
2688:
2676:
2675:
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2660:
2659:
2652:
2645:
2637:
2620:
2606:
2599:
2587:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:External links
2568:
2567:
2566:
2540:(3): 356ā379.
2529:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2474:
2467:
2447:
2426:
2395:
2364:
2357:
2338:
2331:
2325:. p. 48.
2308:
2289:
2259:
2252:
2231:
2229:, p. 363.
2219:
2217:, p. 361.
2200:
2188:
2186:, p. 360.
2176:
2136:
2134:, p. 359.
2124:
2107:
2085:
2052:
2050:, p. 362.
2040:
2038:, p. 358.
2025:
2023:, p. 373.
2013:
2011:, p. 357.
2001:
1999:, p. 365.
1989:
1970:
1953:newyorkupstate
1939:
1920:
1901:
1882:
1875:
1849:
1842:
1822:
1796:
1766:
1736:
1696:
1657:(1): 171ā178.
1637:
1606:(1): 307ā322.
1586:
1547:(F3): F03003.
1527:
1478:
1467:on 17 May 2015
1448:
1418:
1345:
1303:
1291:
1255:
1248:
1219:
1189:
1159:
1142:
1112:
1082:
1052:
1050:, p. 372.
1035:
967:
949:
948:
946:
943:
931:water features
835:
832:
828:Chinese dragon
761:Michael Harner
731:
728:
717:Tyssestrengene
715:, such as the
668:
665:
638:Queen Victoria
634:Victoria Falls
614:Louis Hennepin
584:
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224:kinetic energy
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167:hanging valley
151:glacial trough
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3812:Riparian zone
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3470:
3469:
3467:
3465:and modelling
3461:
3455:
3452:
3450:
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3442:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3433:
3427:
3426:Return period
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3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
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3386:Flood control
3384:
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3381:Flood barrier
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3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
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3179:
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3172:
3169:
3167:
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3132:
3129:
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3124:
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3119:
3117:
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3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
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3099:
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3084:
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3079:
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3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3013:Palaeochannel
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2973:Granular flow
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
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2936:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2918:
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2899:
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2864:
2862:
2859:
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2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
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2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
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2790:
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2780:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2770:
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2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2719:Channel types
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2699:Braided river
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2653:
2651:
2646:
2644:
2639:
2638:
2635:
2628:
2624:
2609:
2569:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2470:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2443:1-85973-540-1
2440:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2396:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2372:Frank, Zack.
2368:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2350:
2349:
2342:
2339:
2334:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2312:
2309:
2296:
2292:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2260:
2255:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2198:, p. 60.
2197:
2192:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2110:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2086:
2073:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1990:
1987:, p. 59.
1986:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1929:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1859:Geomorphology
1853:
1850:
1845:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1826:
1823:
1810:
1806:
1800:
1797:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1775:"Black Swift"
1770:
1767:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1740:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1600:Hydrobiologia
1597:
1590:
1587:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1531:
1528:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1452:
1449:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1365:(7): W07449.
1364:
1360:
1356:
1349:
1346:
1333:
1329:
1328:Howstuffworks
1325:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1301:, p. 63.
1300:
1295:
1292:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1245:
1241:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1220:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1190:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1083:
1070:
1066:
1065:heald.nga.gov
1062:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
980:
978:
976:
974:
972:
968:
965:, p. 61.
964:
959:
957:
955:
951:
944:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
862:
858:
854:
849:
845:
841:
833:
831:
829:
825:
821:
817:
812:
809:
806:, Haiti. The
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
753:Kaluli people
749:
743:
742:
736:
729:
727:
725:
720:
718:
714:
710:
706:
701:
699:
695:
691:
687:
686:rock climbing
683:
679:
675:
666:
664:
661:
657:
653:
648:
646:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
618:Niagara Falls
615:
611:
607:
603:
595:
594:
589:
582:
580:
575:
570:
568:
564:
559:
555:
554:Andrew Goudie
547:
544:
540:
532:
530:
528:
524:
516:
515:Chagrin River
511:
502:
499:
495:
493:
490:
489:
485:
482:
478:
475:
474:
470:
467:
463:
460:
459:
455:
452:
448:
445:
444:
440:
437:
433:
430:
429:
423:
420:
417:
414:
413:
411:
408:
404:
401:
400:
396:
393:
389:
386:
385:
381:
378:
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371:
370:
364:
361:
358:
355:
352:
349:
348:
346:
343:
339:
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335:
331:
328:
325:
324:
318:
310:
308:
306:
302:
297:
295:
291:
285:
283:
278:
270:
266:
261:
254:
249:
242:
240:
238:
234:
230:
225:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
193:
190:
185:
183:
176:Caprock model
175:
173:
170:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
143:
136:
129:
127:
125:
119:
117:
113:
104:
102:
100:
94:
92:
88:
84:
79:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
49:
45:
41:
34:
30:
19:
3870:Flash floods
3822:River cruise
3719:River sports
3572:Stream gauge
3557:Rouse number
3547:Relief ratio
3396:Flood-meadow
3327:Urban runoff
3293:
3241:Fluvial flow
3226:River valley
3196:River island
3161:Meander scar
3076:Alluvial fan
3018:Progradation
2893:Karst spring
2837:Winterbourne
2792:Chalk stream
2754:River source
2729:Distributary
2537:
2533:
2501:(1): 59ā77.
2498:
2494:
2480:Bibliography
2457:
2450:
2434:
2429:
2417:. Retrieved
2408:
2398:
2386:. Retrieved
2377:
2367:
2347:
2341:
2318:
2311:
2299:. Retrieved
2272:
2262:
2243:
2234:
2227:Hudson 2013b
2222:
2215:Hudson 2013b
2191:
2184:Hudson 2013b
2179:
2154:
2150:
2132:Hudson 2013b
2127:
2119:
2112:. Retrieved
2088:
2076:. Retrieved
2065:
2055:
2048:Hudson 2013b
2043:
2036:Hudson 2013b
2021:Hudson 2013b
2016:
2009:Hudson 2013b
2004:
1997:Hudson 2013b
1992:
1961:. Retrieved
1952:
1942:
1923:
1904:
1885:
1858:
1852:
1832:
1825:
1813:. Retrieved
1799:
1787:. Retrieved
1778:
1769:
1757:. Retrieved
1748:
1739:
1712:
1687:. Retrieved
1654:
1650:
1640:
1603:
1599:
1589:
1577:. Retrieved
1544:
1540:
1530:
1518:. Retrieved
1509:
1469:. Retrieved
1465:the original
1460:
1451:
1439:. Retrieved
1430:
1421:
1409:. Retrieved
1362:
1358:
1348:
1336:. Retrieved
1332:the original
1327:
1294:
1282:. Retrieved
1273:
1239:
1210:. Retrieved
1201:
1192:
1180:. Retrieved
1171:
1162:
1150:
1145:
1133:. Retrieved
1124:
1115:
1103:. Retrieved
1094:
1085:
1073:. Retrieved
1064:
1055:
1048:Hudson 2013b
1026:. Retrieved
996:(1): 85ā93.
993:
989:
925:
899:, while the
897:by flow rate
865:
813:
785:
768:
750:
747:
739:
721:
705:GuaĆra Falls
702:
694:Ancient Rome
690:ice climbing
670:
649:
642:
606:Carbet Falls
599:
591:
579:waterfalls.
577:
572:
551:
522:
520:
421:
415:
362:
356:
350:
298:
286:
274:
221:
201:rock shelter
194:
186:
179:
171:
144:
141:
120:
108:
95:
80:
55:
53:
40:
3731:Fly fishing
3655:Fish ladder
3640:Daylighting
3359:Flash flood
3322:First flush
3269:Plunge pool
2993:Downcutting
2978:Debris flow
2953:Aggradation
2827:Stream pool
2409:Wondermondo
2196:Goudie 2020
2157:(1): 3ā12.
1985:Goudie 2020
1815:10 November
1715:(404): 10.
1623:10871/37922
1506:"waterfall"
1471:10 November
1338:10 November
1299:Goudie 2020
963:Goudie 2020
893:Congo River
869:Angel Falls
796:Nachi Falls
767:of Ecuador
709:Ripon Falls
626:Romanticism
527:underground
351:Block/Sheet
301:black swift
229:earthquakes
217:plunge pool
205:outcropping
124:stream pool
112:plunge pool
3901:Waterfalls
3895:Categories
3837:Wild river
3517:Hydrograph
3507:Hack's law
3472:Baer's law
3416:Inundation
3401:Floodplain
3341:stormwater
3299:Whitewater
3171:Oxbow lake
3008:Knickpoint
2983:Deposition
2876:Hot spring
2817:Streamflow
2807:Stream bed
2724:Confluence
2623:Audio help
2614:2019-09-25
2445:, page 122
1789:3 February
1759:3 February
1689:3 February
1579:26 January
1411:26 January
1202:Wiktionary
1172:Wiktionary
1153:, p. 391,
945:References
905:Washington
889:Inga Falls
826:, and the
804:Saut-d'Eau
730:In culture
610:Guadeloupe
543:Hydropower
537:See also:
476:Segmented
402:Horsetail
387:Punchbowl
315:See also:
294:liverworts
233:landslides
189:whirlpools
147:fault line
99:hydropower
18:Waterfalls
3807:Limnology
3756:Triathlon
3726:Canyoning
3695:Revetment
3625:Check dam
3537:Main stem
3294:Waterfall
3181:Point bar
3166:Mouth bar
3106:Billabong
3053:Water gap
3048:Wash load
3028:Saltation
2948:Anabranch
2871:Holy well
2759:Tributary
2562:109727400
2554:0887-3631
2525:214798339
2388:27 August
2301:26 August
2171:0016-7487
2151:Geography
2078:26 August
1963:28 August
1731:1961-9502
1679:1099-0755
1632:1573-5117
1569:2156-2202
1520:27 August
1391:1944-7973
1284:28 August
1212:1 January
1182:1 January
1135:28 August
1105:28 August
1075:28 August
1028:26 August
1018:1745-5871
935:fountains
901:Dry Falls
873:Venezuela
682:abseiling
678:canyoning
523:Ephemeral
461:Cataract
357:Classical
265:Dettifoss
237:volcanoes
209:attrition
130:Formation
76:ice shelf
68:meltwater
56:waterfall
3610:Aqueduct
3477:Baseflow
3444:Effluent
3121:Cut bank
3086:Avulsion
2963:Bed load
2943:Abrasion
2625: Ā·
2413:Archived
2382:Archived
2321:. Kƶln:
2295:Archived
2242:(2011).
2114:23 March
2072:Archived
1957:Archived
1931:Archived
1912:Archived
1893:Archived
1809:Archived
1783:Archived
1753:Archived
1683:Archived
1573:Archived
1514:Archived
1435:Archived
1405:Archived
1400:64365663
1278:Archived
1206:Archived
1176:Archived
1129:Archived
1099:Archived
1069:Archived
1022:Archived
913:Slovenia
808:Otavalos
800:Tirupati
744:in Japan
620:and the
548:Research
431:Cascade
253:Mongolia
213:abrasion
48:Dynjandi
3787:Aquifer
3780:Related
3736:Rafting
3264:Meander
3259:Log jam
3221:Thalweg
3126:Estuary
2998:Erosion
2935:erosion
2847:Springs
2802:Current
2769:Streams
2709:Channel
2672:springs
2668:streams
2612: (
2583:minutes
2503:Bibcode
2419:4 April
2323:Taschen
1779:Audubon
1659:Bibcode
1549:Bibcode
1441:11 June
1367:Bibcode
1198:"force"
998:Bibcode
891:on the
875:is the
861:Armenia
816:Chinese
741:sÄdhanÄ
674:rafting
372:Plunge
363:Curtain
269:Iceland
243:Ecology
197:stratum
182:bedrock
159:glacier
155:glacier
91:species
83:bedrock
72:iceberg
3582:WAFLEX
3454:Sewage
3337:Floods
3279:Riffle
3274:Rapids
3216:Strath
3186:Ravine
3111:Canyon
2866:Geyser
2797:Coulee
2782:Bourne
2777:Arroyo
2680:Rivers
2664:Rivers
2560:
2552:
2523:
2465:
2441:
2355:
2329:
2287:
2250:
2169:
2105:
1873:
1840:
1729:
1677:
1630:
1567:
1397:
1389:
1246:
1168:"foss"
1157:(1984)
1016:
919:is an
915:. The
879:, the
846:, and
820:autumn
792:misogi
788:Shinto
688:, and
636:after
604:noted
492:Moulin
332:Notes
329:Image
290:mosses
116:rapids
87:erodes
64:stream
3680:Levee
3665:Flume
3620:Canal
3364:Flood
3284:Shoal
3151:Gully
3146:Gulch
3116:Chine
3101:Bayou
2958:Armor
2910:Ponor
2685:lists
2558:S2CID
2521:S2CID
1395:S2CID
698:China
416:Chute
326:Type
311:Types
277:lotic
60:river
3710:Weir
3675:Leat
3339:and
3231:Wadi
3191:Rill
3156:Glen
3141:Gill
3091:Bank
2933:and
2898:list
2881:list
2852:list
2787:Burn
2670:and
2550:ISSN
2463:ISBN
2439:ISBN
2421:2017
2390:2021
2353:ISBN
2327:ISBN
2303:2021
2285:ISBN
2248:ISBN
2167:ISSN
2116:2013
2103:ISBN
2080:2021
1965:2021
1871:ISBN
1838:ISBN
1817:2016
1791:2021
1761:2021
1727:ISSN
1691:2021
1675:ISSN
1628:ISSN
1581:2019
1565:ISSN
1522:2021
1473:2016
1443:2017
1413:2019
1387:ISSN
1340:2016
1286:2021
1244:ISBN
1214:2023
1184:2023
1137:2021
1107:2021
1077:2021
1030:2021
1014:ISSN
929:are
885:Laos
834:List
814:"In
779:and
775:and
696:and
541:and
303:and
292:and
263:The
3630:Dam
3096:Bar
3071:Ait
2542:doi
2511:doi
2378:BBC
2277:doi
2159:doi
1863:doi
1717:doi
1667:doi
1618:hdl
1608:doi
1604:787
1557:doi
1545:113
1377:doi
1006:doi
933:or
911:in
903:in
883:in
871:in
859:in
824:yin
755:in
654:or
608:in
422:Fan
267:in
235:or
231:or
74:or
62:or
3897::
2666:,
2581:12
2556:.
2548:.
2538:30
2536:.
2519:.
2509:.
2499:39
2497:.
2493:.
2411:.
2407:.
2380:.
2376:.
2293:.
2283:.
2271:.
2203:^
2165:.
2155:91
2153:.
2139:^
2118:.
2097:.
2070:.
2064:.
2028:^
1973:^
1955:.
1951:.
1869:.
1777:.
1751:.
1747:.
1725:.
1711:.
1699:^
1681:.
1673:.
1665:.
1655:23
1653:.
1649:.
1626:.
1616:.
1602:.
1598:.
1571:.
1563:.
1555:.
1543:.
1539:.
1508:.
1481:^
1459:.
1433:.
1429:.
1403:.
1393:.
1385:.
1375:.
1363:43
1361:.
1357:.
1326:.
1306:^
1276:.
1272:.
1258:^
1222:^
1200:.
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