549:(typically femtosecond) laser pulses are used, and focused with a high NA microscope objective. By translating the focal spot through a bulk transparent material the waveguides can be directly written. A variation of this method uses a low NA microscope objective and translates the focal spot along the beam axis. This improves the overlap between the focused laser beam and the photorefractive material, thus reducing power needed from the laser. When transparent material is exposed to an unfocused laser beam of sufficient brightness to initiate photorefractive effect, the waveguides may start forming on their own as a result of an accumulated
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553:. The formation of such waveguides leads to a breakup of the laser beam. Continued exposure results in a buildup of the refractive index towards the centerline of each waveguide, and collapse of the mode field diameter of the propagating light. Such waveguides remain permanently in the glass and can be photographed off-line (see the picture on the right).
537:. Configuring the waveguides in 3D space provides integration between electronic components on a chip and optical fibers. Such waveguides may be designed for a single mode propagation of infrared light at telecommunication wavelengths, and configured to deliver optical signal between input and output locations with very low loss.
548:
One of the methods for constructing such waveguides utilizes photorefractive effect in transparent materials. An increase in the refractive index of a material may be induced by nonlinear absorption of pulsed laser light. In order to maximize the increase of the refractive index, a very short
524:
Optical waveguides typically maintain a constant cross-section along their direction of propagation. This is for example the case for strip and of rib waveguides. However, waveguides can also have periodic changes in their cross-section while still allowing lossless transmission of light via
515:
is a waveguide in which the guiding layer basically consists of the slab with a strip (or several strips) superimposed onto it. Rib waveguides also provide confinement of the wave in two dimensions and near-unity confinement is possible in multi-layer rib structures.
541:
160:). Take, for example, light passing from air into glass. Similarly, light traveling in the opposite direction (from glass into air) takes the same path, bending away from the normal. This is a consequence of
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The slab waveguide consists of three layers of materials with different dielectric constants, extending infinitely in the directions parallel to their interfaces. Light is confined in the middle layer by
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so-called Bloch modes. Such waveguides are referred to as segmented waveguides (with a 1D patterning along the direction of propagation) or as photonic crystal waveguides (with a 2D or 3D patterning).
544:
Optical waveguides formed in pure silica glass as a result of an accumulated self-focusing effect with 193 nm laser irradiation. Pictured using transmission microscopy with collimated illumination.
201:). The red rays bounce off both the top and bottom surface of the high index medium. They're guided even if the slab curves or bends, so long as it bends slowly. This is the basic principle behind
1106:
827:
Westerveld, W. J., Leinders, S. M., van Dongen, K. W. A., Urbach, H. P. and
Yousefi, M (2012). "Extension of Marcatili's Analytical Approach for Rectangular Silicon Optical Waveguides".
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in the plane of the slab. Guided modes constructively interfere on one complete roundtrip in the slab. At each frequency, one or more modes can be found giving a set of eigenvalues
168:. There's a one-to-one correspondence. But because of refraction, some of the rays in the glass are left out (red). The remaining rays are trapped in the glass by a process called
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by injecting it with a lens in the plane of the slab. Alternatively a coupling element may be used to couple light into the waveguide, such as a grating coupler or prism coupler.
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on a circuit board to the user interface surface. In buildings, light pipes are used to transfer illumination from outside the building to where it is needed inside.
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13. Yao Zhou, Jufan Zhang, Fengzhou Fang. Design of a dual-focal geometrical waveguide near-eye see-through display. Optics and Laser
Technology, 2022, Volume 156,
460:, which is formed when the guiding layer of the slab waveguide is restricted in both transverse directions rather than just one. Rectangular waveguides are used in
567:
Light pipes are tubes or cylinders of solid material used to guide light a short distance. In electronics, plastic light pipes are used to guide light from
1257:
14. Yao Zhou, Jufan Zhang, Fengzhou Fang. Design of a large field-of-view two-dimensional geometrical waveguide. Results in Optics, Volume 5, 2021, 100147,
484:
are frequently constructed as rectangular optical waveguides. Optical waveguides with rectangular geometry are produced by a variety of means, usually by a
1128:
Streltsov, AM; Borrelli, NF (1 January 2001). "Fabrication and analysis of a directional coupler written in glass by nanojoule femtosecond laser pulses".
187:
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decay away from the slab. The plane wave in domain II bounces between the top and bottom interfaces at some angle typically specified by the
894:
Kumar, A., K. Thyagarajan and A. K. Ghatak. (1983). "Analysis of rectangular-core dielectric waveguides—An accurate perturbation approach".
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Because guided modes are trapped in the slab, they cannot be excited by light incident on the top or bottom interfaces. Light can be
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The slab waveguide is essentially a one-dimensional waveguide. It traps light only normal to the dielectric interfaces. For guided
953:"Single-mode porous silicon waveguide interferometers with unity confinement factors for ultra-sensitive surface adlayer sensing"
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The field distribution in a rectangular waveguide cannot be solved analytically, however approximate solution methods, such as
259:
306:. Owing to their simplicity, slab waveguides are often used as toy models but also find application in on-chip devices like
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Optical waveguides can be classified according to their geometry (planar, strip, or fiber waveguides), mode structure (
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Marcatili, E. A. J. (1969). "Dielectric rectangular waveguide and directional coupler for integrated optics".
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Khrapko, Rostislav; Lai, Changyi; Casey, Julie; Wood, William A.; Borrelli, Nicholas F. (15 December 2014).
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1214:"Leaky Surface Plasmon Polariton Modes at an Interface Between Metal and Uniaxially Anisotropic Materials"
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can be solved by analytical or numerical methods for a full-field description of a dielectric waveguide.
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1107:"Optical Manufacturing: Femtosecond-laser direct-written waveguides produce quantum circuits in glass"
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1060:"Demonstration of highly efficient waveguiding in a photonic crystal slab at the 1.5-μm wavelength"
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A dielectric slab waveguide consists of three dielectric layers with different refractive indices.
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109:. Some rays in the higher index medium are left out of the pairing (red) and are trapped by
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Talukdar, Tahmid H.; Allen, Gabriel D.; Kravchenko, Ivan; Ryckman, Judson D. (2019-08-05).
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is basically a strip of the layer confined between cladding layers. The simplest case is a
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164:. Each ray in air (black) can be mapped to a ray in the glass (blue), as shown in Figure
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The basic principles behind optical waveguides can be described using the concepts of
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Xiong, Jianghao; Hsiang, En-Lin; He, Ziqian; Zhan, Tao; Wu, Shin-Tson (2021-10-25).
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Using total internal reflection, we can trap and guide the light in a dielectric
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M. Hochberg; T. Baehr-Jones; C. Walker; J. Witzens; C. Gunn; A. Scherer (2005).
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There are 2 technologies: diffractive waveguides and reflective waveguides.
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AdvR nonlinear waveguides in rubidium-doped potassium titanyl phosphate
262: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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made of plastic and glass, liquid light guides, and liquid waveguides.
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174:. They are incident on the glass-air interface at an angle above the
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468:. They are commonly used as the basis of such optical components as
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of the middle layer is larger than that of the surrounding layers.
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1173:"Accumulated self-focusing of ultraviolet light in silica glass"
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material surrounded by another dielectric material with a lower
105:, establishing a correspondence between rays in the two media,
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S. Y. Lin; E. Chow; S. G. Johnson; J. D. Joannopoulos (2000).
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231:
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Ray optics only gives a rough picture of how waveguides work.
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The propagation of light through a multi-mode optical fiber.
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Optical waveguides find their most important application in
790:"Silicon Photonics", by Graham T. Reed, Andrew P. Knights
298:
Perhaps the simplest optical waveguide is the dielectric
777:
Ramo, Simon, John R. Whinnery, and
Theodore van Duzer,
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347:
77:
distribution (step or gradient index), and material (
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or as the transmission medium in local and long-haul
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Optical fiber is typically a circular cross-section
1018:"Segmented Waveguides in Thin Silicon-on-Insulator"
520:Segmented waveguide and photonic crystal waveguide
407:
362:
205:in which light is guided along a high index glass
129:in which light is guided along a high index glass
613:materials are used for certain applications and
1252:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2022.108546
779:Fields and Waves in Communications Electronics
117:This mechanism can be used to trap light in a
781:, 2 ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1984.
617:can be used for short-distance applications.
605:. Optical fibers are most commonly made from
46:Optical waveguides are used as components in
8:
936:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
879:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1025:Journal of the Optical Society of America B
186:in more-advanced formulations based on the
180:. These extra rays correspond to a higher
152:bends toward the normal by the process of
101:Light refracts at a dielectric interface,
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408:{\displaystyle (\omega ,{\vec {\beta }})}
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148:Light passing into a medium with higher
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16:Physical structure guiding light waves
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312:acousto-optic filters and modulators
260:adding citations to reliable sources
23:is a physical structure that guides
125:This is the basic principle behind
814:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1969.tb01166.x
54:systems. They can also be used in
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727:Light: Science & Applications
415:which can be used to construct a
337:. The field in domains I and III
145:, as illustrated in the diagram.
657:Erbium-doped waveguide amplifier
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829:Journal of Lightwave Technology
363:{\displaystyle {\vec {\beta }}}
247:needs additional citations for
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652:Equilibrium mode distribution
56:optical head-mounted displays
470:Mach–Zehnder interferometers
692:Waveguide (radio frequency)
497:Extended Marcatili's method
462:integrated optical circuits
48:integrated optical circuits
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739:10.1038/s41377-021-00658-8
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31:. Common types of optical
647:Electromagnetic radiation
642:Digital planar holography
529:Laser-inscribed waveguide
437:Two-dimensional waveguide
428:end-fire or butte coupled
320:total internal reflection
228:Dielectric slab waveguide
171:total internal reflection
143:geometrical or ray optics
111:total internal reflection
93:Total internal reflection
859:10.1109/JLT.2012.2199464
39:waveguides, transparent
1177:Applied Physics Letters
1045:10.1364/JOSAB.22.001493
575:Optical fiber waveguide
209:in a lower index glass
133:in a lower index glass
1218:IEEE Photonics Journal
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677:Photonic-crystal fiber
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978:10.1364/OE.27.022485
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256:improve this article
1230:2013IPhoJ...500806L
1189:2014ApPhL.105x4110K
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963:(16): 22485–22498.
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702:Zero-mode waveguide
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637:Dielectric constant
421:dispersion relation
222:Maxwell's equations
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802:Bell Syst. Tech. J
667:Lightguide display
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1285:Categories
842:1504.02963
708:References
662:Leaky mode
599:dielectric
563:Light tube
557:Light pipe
441:See also:
335:plane wave
154:refraction
71:multi-mode
33:waveguides
1296:Photonics
987:1094-4087
896:Opt. Lett
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697:Waveguide
535:photonics
397:→
394:β
385:ω
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119:waveguide
1158:18033501
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924:19714136
867:23182579
765:34697292
621:See also
478:cavities
213:(Figure
211:cladding
197:(Figure
156:(Figure
135:cladding
35:include
1226:Bibcode
1185:Bibcode
1138:Bibcode
1072:Bibcode
1033:Bibcode
995:1546510
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756:8546092
464:and in
322:if the
83:polymer
27:in the
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1021:(PDF)
863:S2CID
837:arXiv
733:(1).
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331:modes
79:glass
1154:PMID
1117:(7).
1088:PMID
999:PMID
991:OSTI
983:ISSN
938:link
920:PMID
881:link
761:PMID
743:ISSN
569:LEDs
499:and
472:and
310:and
207:core
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