20:
179:
475:. McBain’s research on maximising the application of wetting solutions have an important role in enabling a range of options to both manufacturers and consumers and improving product performance in the respective areas of application, such as modifying the stability of pharmaceuticals, delivery of drugs, effectiveness of cleansing products and water retention in soils.
492:. Non-ionic wetting solutions are found to have a wider usage and are more efficient in reducing surface tension compared to ionic wetting solutions which have higher toxicity and CMC value in general. To ensure the safety, efficacy and quality of the preparations, toxicity and interaction profiles of the choice of wetting solutions are carefully investigated.
129:, the Greek physician, around 200 AD. Over the following centuries, wetting solutions mainly functioned as detergents due to their wetting properties. Despite the extensive use of wetting solutions, the underlying chemical mechanism remained unknown until the emergence of McBain's proposed theory in 1913. Founded on his research on how the
684:
due to its increasing large variety of usage in different fields, for example, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and agriculture. A possible solution is to pretreat the sewage to remove wetting solutions, limiting the amount of wetting solution in contact with the membrane. Other possible solutions to
507:
that contains insoluble solid drug particles. The suspension preparation is ideal if solid particles that have become compacted together during storage can re-disperse throughout the liquid vehicle readily with gentle shaking for a period of time that is sufficient for measuring the required dosage.
89:
The spreading property may be examined by adding a drop of the liquid onto an oily surface. If the liquid is not a wetting solution, the droplet will remain intact. If the liquid is a wetting solution, the droplet will spread uniformly on the oily surface because the formation of the micelles lowers
226:
is reduced. Upon adding more wetting solution, the elevated concentration of wetting solution molecules leads to a further decrease in surface tension and makes the molecules at the surfaces become more crowded. The molecules will be forced to remain in the aqueous phase when there are no more
149:
in 1949 did he described the reason of micelle formation and the existence of finite-shaped micelles. McBain's discovery sparked numerous studies by Hobbs, Ooshika, Reich and Halsey from 1950 to 1956. These scholars intended to correct some of the foundational theories of the description of an
52:
for four thousand plus years, the fundamental chemical mechanism was not fully discovered until 1913 by the pioneer McBain. Since then, diverse studies have been conducted to reveal the underlying mechanism of micelle formation and working principle of wetting solutions, broadening the area of
483:
Specific properties of different wetting solutions are able to alternate drug delivery which is beneficial in improving drug safety and patients' experiences . For example, solulan C-24, a non-ionic wetting solution, forms large bilayers of wetting solution molecules known as
946:
247:
heads. Extra wetting solution molecules will be forced to form micelles instead of adhering to the surface, hence the surface tension remains constant. Due to the minimised surface tension, the droplet can now spread thoroughly and form a thin film on the surface.
587:
Cationic wetting solutions cause more severe skin irritation problems hence are not used in skin cleansing products. They are used in hair conditioners that are only applied to the second half hair length and washed off after a short period of time.
515:
due to the presence of air film coating. A solution to this is using a wetting solution as the liquid vehicle for suspension preparation. Wetting solution increases the dispersal ability of the solid particles by replacing the air film to increase
1718:
Zakharova, Lucia Y.; Pashirova, Tatiana N.; Fernandes, Ana R.; Doktorovova, Slavomira; Martins-Gomes, Carlos; Silva, Amélia M.; Souto, Eliana B. (2018), "Self-assembled quaternary ammonium surfactants for pharmaceuticals and biotechnology",
583:
extracted from plants, in skin cleansing products to produce a consistent liquid formula. However, non-ionic wetting solutions are of higher cost than the other types of wetting solutions hence are less favourable for commercial products.
680:, for example, oil and unwanted chemicals. The filtration efficiency and stability of the membrane can be diminished by wetting. Wetting of the hydrophobic membrane is resulted from the presence of wetting solution in
643:
by reducing surface tension. Wetting-solution-treated soil has shown to retain high water content and an even distribution of nutrients in the root zone that are in deep soil areas, benefiting crop yield and improving
2122:
Rezaei, Mohammad; Warsinger, David M.; Lienhard V, John H.; Duke, Mikel C.; Matsuura, Takeshi; Samhaber, Wolfgang M. (August 2018). "Wetting phenomena in membrane distillation: Mechanisms, reversal, and prevention".
1888:
Feng, Ning; Zhang, Bo; Xin, Xia; Li, Hongguang; Zhao, Yonghong (November 2021). "Role of aliphatic alcohol polyoxyethylene ether phosphate in 25 wt% tebuconazole suspension concentrate: Dispersion and wetting".
1655:
231:. The lower the CMC, the more efficient the wetting solution is in reducing surface tension. Any additional wetting solution molecules will undergo self-aggregation into several special structures called
275:. Despite the similar amphiphilic composition, the molecules can be divided into four classes with respect to the nature of the hydrophilic group, namely, non-ionic, anionic, cationic and zwitterionic.
2028:
Song, Enzhan; Schneider, Joseph G.; Anderson, Stephen H.; Goyne, Keith W.; Xiong, Xi (September 2014). "Wetting Agent
Influence on Water Infiltration into Hydrophobic Sand: I. Rewettability".
591:
Anionic and amphoteric wetting solutions are often used as a mixture in body wash and shampoo. The anionic wetting solutions formulated into skin cleansing products have often undergone
552:
Skin cleansing products including facial cleanser, body wash and shampoo consist of wetting solutions. Wetting solutions allow efficient spreading and wetting of the surface of skin and
532:
by increasing the interaction between the two. The instant spreading increases the amount of drug molecules that are exposed to the cornea for absorption and therefore a quicker
2182:
Chamani, Hooman; Woloszyn, Joanne; Matsuura, Takeshi; Rana, Dipak; Lan, Christopher Q. (October 2021). "Pore wetting in membrane distillation: A comprehensive review".
536:. The increased interaction allow the topical ophthalmic solutions to remain on the corneal surface for a longer period of time to maximise the amount of drug that can
278:
The following table shows the composition, special features of the corresponding classes and common examples of various forms of the respective wetting solutions.
1103:
23:
A typical wetting solution molecule consists of a hydrophilic head and long hydrophobic tail. (From top to bottom: non-ionic, anionic, cationic and zwitterionic.)
575:
Non-ionic wetting solutions have a low risk of causing skin irritation and are efficient in reducing surface tension between different ingredients, for example,
697:
modification. These solutions are costly and require further research and development to optimise the durability and efficiency of membrane distillation.
564:
in our skin. An efficient wetting solution penetrates the skin and clears any topical applications, body fluids including sebum secreted via openings of
105:. Albeit a number of practical uses of wetting solutions, the presence of wetting solution can be a hindrance to water purification in industrial
158:
which was overlooked in Debye's prototype. In 1976, the fundamental theory for understanding the mechanism of micelle formation was developed by
1079:
761:
256:
Generally, the wetting solution molecules consist of a hydrophilic head and a long hydrophobic tail. The hydrophobic region usually contains
607:
in skin cells to swell and sometimes cell death. Examples of modified anionic wetting solutions include ammonium laureth sulphate and
166:
elements and explaining the growth of micells, he provided a comprehensive reasoning of why micelles are finite in terms of opposing
1771:
1736:
1700:
731:
2066:
Chang, Baoxin; Wherley, Benjamin; Aitkenhead-Peterson, Jacqueline; Ojeda, Nadezda; Fontanier, Charles; Dwyer, Philip (July 2020).
528:
Wetting solutions lowers the surface tension of topical ophthalmic solutions and induces instant spreading when applied onto the
1845:
Ecanow, Bernard; Wilson, Robert G. (November 1963). "Powdered
Particle Interactions: Suspension Flocculation and Caking II".
421:
228:
994:
Ibrahim, Shaimaa S. (June 2019). "The Role of
Surface Active Agents in Ophthalmic Drug Delivery: A Comprehensive Review".
690:
2228:
1354:
Hobbs, Marcus E. (May 1951). "The Effect of Salts on the
Critical Concentration, Size, and Stability of Soap Micelles".
227:
vacancies for them to stay on the surface. At this point, the surface tension is maximally lowered and is termed as the
86:
In addition, wetting solutions can be further divided into four classes; non-ionic, anionic, cationic and zwitterionic.
121:
for cleansing purposes for thousands of years. The oldest evidence of wetting solution went back to 2800 BC in ancient
2223:
45:, can be classified into five categories, namely, solid-solid, solid-liquid, solid-gas, liquid-liquid and liquid-gas.
405:
624:
425:
159:
1397:
Ooshika, Yuzuru (June 1954). "A theory of critical micelle concentration of colloidal electrolyte solutions".
210:
bulk phase and hydrophobic part in the organic bulk phase respectively. Wetting solution molecules break the
391:
261:
130:
894:"Book review: Physicochemical Principles of Pharmacy: In Manufacture, Formulation and Clinical Use. 6th ed"
500:
485:
387:
243:
tail of wetting solution molecules and are surrounded by a hydrophilic layer arising from the molecules’
186:
tail of wetting solution molecules and are surrounded by a hydrophilic layer arising from the molecules’
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592:
268:
257:
106:
1566:
1511:
1312:
219:
211:
167:
151:
138:
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and minimise interactions between solid particles and resulting in a decreased rate of aggregation.
1754:
Khandoozi, Sabber; Sharifi, Amin; Riazi, Masoud (2022), "Enhanced oil recovery using surfactants",
489:
449:
2164:
2097:
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1336:
1097:
1027:
673:
541:
68:
42:
435:
more than one polar ionic head of opposite charges, the positively charged head group is mostly
2068:"Effect of Wetting Agent on Nutrient and Water Retention and Runoff from Simulated Urban Lawns"
1502:
Tanford, Charles (1978-06-02). "The
Hydrophobic Effect and the Organization of Living Matter".
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2007:
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1019:
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915:
857:
849:
805:
788:
The
Chairman; Ostwald, Wolfgang (1913). "Colloids and their viscosity. A general discussion".
767:
757:
727:
244:
187:
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1997:
1953:
1937:
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1687:, Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, vol. 58, Elsevier, 1991, pp. 727–734,
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923:
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841:
797:
719:
645:
640:
517:
215:
60:
1432:
Reich, Irving (March 1956). "Factors
Responsible for the Stability of Detergent Micelles".
1152:
689:
of the membrane include modification of the membrane material repellent to water and oil,
661:
600:
561:
533:
464:
436:
304:
223:
163:
94:
38:
19:
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30:
are liquids containing active chemical compounds that minimise the distance between two
1958:
1925:
1822:
1795:
1763:
1728:
1555:"Thermodynamics of Micelle Formation: Prediction of Micelle Size and Size Distribution"
1324:
1211:
1176:
928:
893:
636:
608:
576:
203:
155:
67:
spreading property. This property favours the formation of micelles which are specific
34:
1692:
1620:
Tanford, Charles (November 1974). "Theory of micelle formation in aqueous solutions".
1597:
1554:
676:
process that utilises a hydrophobic membrane with pores to separate water vapour from
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2101:
1781:
1410:
1273:
677:
657:
653:
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565:
544:
through tear film, the protective layer of the cornea from the external environment.
311:
134:
1340:
1031:
2168:
1902:
2195:
137:, he raised the possibility of surfactant molecules in the form of self-assembled
2136:
910:
648:. Examples of wetting solutions used in agriculture are modified alkylated
1131:
828:
Cui, Xiaohong; Mao, Shizhen; Liu, Maili; Yuan, Hanzhen; Du, Youru (2008-10-07).
504:
472:
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1941:
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31:
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2011:
1949:
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1588:
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1488:
1453:
1418:
1375:
1332:
1281:
1202:
1177:"Membrane Distillation of Saline Water Contaminated with Oil and Surfactants"
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853:
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809:
771:
632:
537:
468:
411:
amine-containing molecules can only be regarded as wetting agents under low
377:
363:
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351:
240:
183:
98:
64:
49:
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1967:
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1579:
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1383:
1289:
1220:
1023:
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2041:
1606:
723:
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Solid particles have a natural tendency to aggregate and eventually cause
2144:
1812:
1539:
801:
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604:
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333:
83:
surface that can lower the surface tension between two different phases.
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1480:
1445:
1367:
442:
N-alkyl derivatives of amino acids like glycine and aminopropionic acid
2002:
1985:
445:
381:
343:
327:
232:
207:
122:
1260:
Debye, P (August 1948). "Note on light scattering in soap solutions".
1069:
845:
751:
681:
649:
596:
529:
512:
359:
236:
1796:"Systemic side effects of eye drops: a pharmacokinetic perspective"
557:
553:
401:
307:) chain as the hydrophilic region, in the absence of ionic groups
194:
The chemical structure of wetting solution molecules consist of a
177:
126:
18:
753:
Poucher's
Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps : Volume 3 Cosmetics
714:
Kronberg, Bengt; Holmberg, Krister; Lindman, Björn (2014-10-31).
1891:
Colloids and
Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects
125:. The earliest credible reference of soap is in the writings of
118:
1467:
Halsey, G. D. (January 1953). "On the
Structure of Micelles".
619:
Wetting solutions are widely used in Agriculture to increase
1303:
Debye, P. (May 1949). "Light Scattering in Soap Solutions".
439:
while the negative charge is carried by a carboxylate anion
48:
Although wetting solutions have a long history of acting as
1794:
Farkouh, Andre; Frigo, Peter; Czejka, Martin (2016-12-07).
412:
627:
and penetration of water, nutrients and chemicals such as
540:
from the applied topical ophthalmic solution layer to the
1721:
Organic Materials as Smart Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery
639:
of water and nutrients and enhance water infiltration in
63:
droplet leads to the formation of a thin film due to its
41:
to induce optimal spreading. The two phases, known as an
556:
by reducing the surface tension between the hydrophobic
1068:
Rhein, Linda D. Rieger, Martin M. (29 September 2017).
218:
phase and each water molecule in the aqueous phase by
133:of a solution of surfactant molecules changed with
1924:Masterton, Sophia; Ahearne, Mark (December 2018).
1124:"The importance of agriculture in present world"
611:, both reported to exhibit low skin irritation.
376:sodium and potassium ions can be substituted by
1559:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
182:Micelles with a hydrophobic core formed by the
1175:Tomczak, Wirginia; Gryta, Marek (2021-12-17).
1236:"A Short History and Preamble of Surfactants"
716:Surface Chemistry of Surfactants and Polymers
206:allows it to bury its hydrophilic head in an
8:
1685:Introduction to Zeolite Science and Practice
1102:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
222:. Due to the lowered attractive forces, the
830:"Mechanism of Surfactant Micelle Formation"
162:model. Apart from integrating all relevant
154:system, as well as emphasising the role of
1926:"Mechanobiology of the corneal epithelium"
1305:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1243:International Journal of Applied Chemistry
463:Generally, wetting solution is applied in
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2001:
1957:
1821:
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59:The addition of wetting solution to an
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1095:
239:with a hydrophobic core formed by the
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2023:
2021:
1986:"Sulfosuccinates as Mild Surfactants"
1979:
1977:
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7:
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229:critical micelle concentration (CMC)
93:Wetting solutions can be applied in
790:Transactions of the Faraday Society
623:which is affected by the degree of
90:the surface tension of the liquid.
1847:Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
1764:10.1016/b978-0-12-821931-7.00007-9
1729:10.1016/b978-0-12-813663-8.00014-2
1325:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1949.tb27293.x
996:Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
652:, mixture of polyether polyol and
548:Cosmetics: Skin cleansing products
488:that have a lower risk of causing
14:
1683:"Appendix I Zeolite Structures",
1622:The Journal of Physical Chemistry
1469:The Journal of Physical Chemistry
1434:The Journal of Physical Chemistry
1356:The Journal of Physical Chemistry
384:ions for higher oil solubility
1903:10.1016/j.colsurfa.2021.127350
1723:, Elsevier, pp. 601–618,
892:Glass, Beverley (2016-10-01).
426:cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC)
422:alkyltrimethylammonium bromide
1:
2196:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2021.100843
2184:Progress in Materials Science
1758:, Elsevier, pp. 95–139,
1693:10.1016/s0167-2991(08)63615-0
1553:Tanford, Charles (May 1974).
388:sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)
214:between each molecule in the
2137:10.1016/j.watres.2018.03.058
1411:10.1016/0095-8522(54)90020-3
1274:10.1016/0095-8522(48)90025-7
911:10.18773/austprescr.2016.065
524:Topical ophthalmic solutions
1132:10.13140/RG.2.2.14008.78080
672:Membrane distillation is a
635:. Wetting solutions reduce
71:consisting of a cluster of
2250:
1942:10.1016/j.exer.2018.08.001
1399:Journal of Colloid Science
1262:Journal of Colloid Science
1008:10.1016/j.xphs.2019.01.016
406:quaternary ammonium cation
358:ionic head accompanied by
117:Wetting agent was used as
1930:Experimental Eye Research
1656:"19.1: Micelle Formation"
1194:10.3390/membranes11120988
2085:10.21273/hortsci14982-20
1122:Sunkad, Gayatri (2020).
1071:Surfactants in cosmetics
756:. Springer Netherlands.
609:modified sulfosuccinates
496:Dosage form: Suspensions
490:systemic adverse effects
1990:Journal of Oleo Science
332:alkylphenolethocylate,
145:published his original
131:electrical conductivity
1859:10.1002/jps.2600521104
1800:Clinical Ophthalmology
1580:10.1073/pnas.71.5.1811
1524:10.1126/science.653353
1147:Cite journal requires
750:Butler, Hilda (2001).
595:as they often contain
568:, dead skin cells and
501:Suspension preparation
392:alkylbenzene sulfonate
191:
24:
2042:10.2134/agronj14.0152
1234:Joshi, Tejas (2017).
898:Australian Prescriber
724:10.1002/9781118695968
693:and membrane surface
593:chemical modification
212:intermolecular forces
181:
160:Tanford's free energy
107:membrane distillation
75:molecules that has a
22:
1984:TYAGI, V.K. (2006).
1813:10.2147/OPTH.S118409
1660:Chemistry LibreTexts
951:Chemistry LibreTexts
802:10.1039/tf9130900034
656:and mixture of
641:water repelling soil
2229:Chemical substances
1634:10.1021/j100617a012
1571:1974PNAS...71.1811T
1516:1978Sci...200.1012T
1510:(4345): 1012–1018.
1481:10.1021/j150502a018
1446:10.1021/j150537a001
1368:10.1021/j150488a006
1317:1949NYASA..51..575D
840:(19): 10771–10775.
668:Industrial concerns
450:phosphatidylcholine
370:to enhance aqueous
310:Synthetic forms of
282:
202:tail. Its distinct
69:chemical structures
2224:Chemical compounds
2003:10.5650/jos.55.429
674:water purification
542:corneal epithelium
408:as the head group
281:
269:heterocyclic rings
192:
25:
1853:(11): 1031–1038.
1628:(24): 2469–2479.
1081:978-1-351-41248-3
846:10.1021/la801705y
763:978-94-011-1482-0
456:
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292:Special features
286:Wetting solution
141:. Not until
28:Wetting solutions
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2078:(7): 1005–1013.
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2036:(5): 1873–1878.
2030:Agronomy Journal
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1002:(6): 1923–1933.
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947:"Wetting Agents"
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646:water efficiency
560:secreted by the
518:steric hindrance
295:Common examples
283:
198:head and a long
37:by lowering the
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599:which triggers
562:sebaceous gland
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534:onset of action
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481:
479:Pharmaceuticals
465:pharmaceuticals
461:
437:ammonium cation
254:
235:. Micelles are
224:surface tension
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164:physicochemical
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39:surface tension
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1664:. Retrieved
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953:. 2013-10-02
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678:contaminants
671:
654:glycol ether
625:infiltration
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551:
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510:
503:is a liquid
499:
482:
462:
459:Applications
452:(lecithin)
324:alkylphenols
320:fatty amines
289:Composition
277:
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220:displacement
193:
116:
92:
88:
85:
58:
54:
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27:
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2131:: 329–352.
2072:HortScience
1936:: 122–129.
1187:(12): 988.
629:fertilisers
615:Agriculture
603:by causing
505:dosage form
473:agriculture
417:protonation
404:or charged
368:counterions
348:carboxylate
316:fatty acids
305:oxyethylene
265:hydrocarbon
262:unsaturated
200:hydrophobic
196:hydrophilic
152:equilibrium
103:agriculture
81:hydrophilic
79:core and a
77:hydrophobic
2218:Categories
2190:: 100843.
1897:: 127350.
1666:2022-04-02
1249:: 283–292.
1090:1017979590
957:2022-04-02
904:(5): 178.
701:References
687:durability
658:poloxalene
633:pesticides
621:crop yield
486:discosomes
372:solubility
300:Non-ionic
147:hypothesis
139:aggregates
73:surfactant
50:detergents
32:immiscible
2204:0079-6425
2153:0043-1354
2102:219454261
2094:0018-5345
2050:0002-1962
2012:1345-8957
1950:0014-4835
1911:0927-7757
1867:0022-3549
1782:244892080
1642:0022-3654
1589:0027-8424
1532:0036-8075
1489:0022-3654
1454:0022-3654
1419:0095-8522
1376:0022-3654
1333:0077-8923
1282:0095-8522
1203:2077-0375
1181:Membranes
1098:cite book
1016:0022-3549
920:1839-3942
854:0743-7463
810:0014-7672
772:958540716
685:lengthen
577:fragrance
469:cosmetics
398:Cationic
378:magnesium
364:potassium
356:phosphate
352:sulfonate
258:saturated
241:non-polar
184:non-polar
174:Mechanism
99:cosmetics
65:intrinsic
43:interface
2161:29660622
1968:30086260
1875:14079627
1832:27994437
1384:14832757
1341:37071742
1290:18877004
1221:34940489
1032:59291264
1024:30684539
862:18729337
834:Langmuir
695:geometry
605:collagen
570:microbes
344:sulphate
340:Anionic
334:Tween 80
328:polymers
267:chains,
233:micelles
170:forces.
16:Chemical
2234:Liquids
2169:4902941
1959:6280025
1823:5153265
1607:4525294
1567:Bibcode
1512:Bibcode
1504:Science
1313:Bibcode
1212:8708787
929:5079779
597:sulphur
538:diffuse
382:calcium
303:apoly (
237:spheres
216:organic
208:aqueous
123:Babylon
113:History
61:aqueous
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682:sewage
650:polyol
530:cornea
513:caking
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360:sodium
190:heads.
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35:phases
2165:S2CID
2098:S2CID
1778:S2CID
1337:S2CID
1239:(PDF)
1028:S2CID
558:sebum
554:scalp
402:amine
245:polar
188:polar
143:Debye
127:Galen
2200:ISSN
2157:PMID
2149:ISSN
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2008:ISSN
1964:PMID
1946:ISSN
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1153:help
1104:link
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