391:. The laws are primarily concerned with religious affairs; only the last four of its twenty-eight chapters do not deal with ecclesiastical affairs. The first clause of the code gives the Church freedom from taxation. Subsequent clauses specify penalties for irregular marriages, heathen worship, work on the sabbath, and breaking fasts, among other things; and also define how members of each class of society—such as the king, bishops, priests, ceorls, and esnes—can clear themselves by giving an oath. In addition to the focus of the laws themselves, the introduction makes clear the importance of the Church in the legislative process. Bertwald, the Archbishop of Canterbury, was present at the assembly which devised the decrees, and so was
399:
has led one historian to describe the Church's power, less than a century after the original Roman mission landed in Kent, as "all but co-ordinate with the king himself in the
Kentish state", and it has also been described as presupposing "a frightening degree of royal power". However, the presence of clauses that provide penalties for any of Wihtred's subjects who "sacrifice to devils" makes it clear that although Christianity was dominant, the older pagan beliefs of the population had by no means died out completely.
185:
262:
343:
253:, the king of Essex), who had been a king in Kent for a year or two, remained. There is clear evidence that both Swæfheard and Oswine were kings at the same time, as each witnessed the other's charters. It seems that Oswine was king of east Kent, which was usually the position of the dominant king, while Swæfheard was king of west Kent.
282:
of July 690 to July 691. The overlap in date ranges gives April to July 691 as the likely date of his accession. Another estimate of the date of
Wihtred's accession can be made from the duration of his reign, given by Bede as thirty four and a half years. He died on 23 April 725, which would imply an accession date in late 690.
782:
The law is chapter 20 in Ine's code, and chapter 28 in
Wihtred's. Ine's version reads "If a man from a distance or a foreigner goes through the wood off the track, and does not shout nor blow a horn, he is to be assumed to be a thief, to be either killed or redeemed." Wihtred's version is "If a man
398:
The privileges given to the Church are notable: in addition to the freedom from taxation, the oath of a bishop is "incontrovertible", which places it at the same level as the oath of a king, and the Church receives the same level of compensation for violence done to dependents as does the king. This
298:
was a junior king in west Kent during
Wihtred's reign. Wihtred is thought to have had three wives. His first was called Cynegyth, but a charter of 696 names Æthelburh as the royal consort and co-donor of an estate: the former spouse must have died or been dismissed after a short time. Near the end
281:
Two charters provide evidence of
Wihtred's date of accession. One, dated April 697, indicates Wihtred was then in the sixth year of his rule, so his accession can be dated to some time between April 691 and April 692. Another, dated 17 July 694, is in his fourth regnal year, giving a possible range
371:
The dating of
Wihtred's and Ine's laws is somewhat uncertain, but there is reason to believe that Wihtred's laws were issued on 6 September 695, while Ine's laws were written in 694 or shortly before. Ine had recently agreed peaceful terms with Wihtred over compensation for the death of Mul, and
402:
Clause 21 of the code specifies that a ceorl must find three men of his own class to be his "oath-helpers". An oath-helper would swear an oath on behalf of an accused man, to clear him from the suspicion of the crime. The laws of Ine were more stringent than this, requiring that a high-ranking
273:
Wihtred emerged from this disarray and became king in the early 690s. Bede describes his accession by saying that he was the "rightful" king, and that he "freed the nation from foreign invasion by his devotion and diligence". Oswine was also of the royal family, and arguably had a claim to the
164:. The laws pay a great deal of attention to the rights of the Church (of the time period), including punishment for irregular marriages and for pagan worship. Wihtred's long reign had few incidents recorded in the annals of the day. He was succeeded in 725 by his sons,
372:
there are indications that the two rulers collaborated to some degree in producing their laws. In addition to the coincidence of timing, there is one clause that appears in almost identical form in both codes. Another sign of collaboration is that
Wihtred's laws use
423:. The chronology of the reigns following Wihtred is unclear, although there is evidence of both an Æthelbert and at least one Eadbert in the following years. After Wihtred's death, and the departure of Ine of Wessex for Rome the following year,
403:
person must be found to be an oath-helper for everyone, no matter what class they were from. The two laws taken together imply a significant weakening of an earlier state in which a man's kin were legally responsible for him.
216:, Ecgberht's brother, became king of Kent, but not until about a year later, in 674, and it may be that Wulfhere opposed the accession of Hlothhere and was the effective ruler of Kent during this year-long interregnum.
293:
in July 692 mentions that Swæfheard and
Wihtred were the kings of Kent, but Swæfheard is not heard of after this date. It appears that by 694 Wihtred was the sole ruler of Kent, though it may also be that his son
274:
throne; hence it has been suggested that Bede's comments here are strongly partisan. Bede's correspondent on
Kentish affairs was Albinus, abbot of the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul (subsequently renamed
314:
as king, but the
Kentishmen had subsequently revolted and burned Mul. Wihtred agreed compensation for the killing, but the amount paid to Ine is uncertain. Most manuscripts of the
783:
from a distance or a foreigner goes off the track, and he neither shouts nor blows a horn, he is to be assumed to be a thief, to be either killed or redeemed." See Whitelock,
219:
Eadric raised an army against his uncle and Hlothhere died of wounds sustained in battle in February 685 or possibly 686. Eadric died the following year, and according to
328:—that is, the legal valuation of a man's life, according to his rank. It seems likely that Wihtred ceded some border territory to Ine as part of this settlement.
932:
225:
265:
Family tree showing the descendants of Eadbald. Wihtred, through his father Egbert, is of Eorcenberht's line. Oswine's descent was probably through one of
380:. It is possible that Ine and Wihtred issued the law codes as an act of prestige, to re-establish authority after periods of disruption in both kingdoms.
208:
and Wihtred, were probably little more than infants, two or three years old, when their father died; Wulfhere was their uncle by virtue of his marriage to
1244:
1512:
1507:
1157:
237:
as king there; Cædwalla may have ruled Kent directly for a period when Mul was killed in 687. When Cædwalla departed for Rome in 688,
1137:
1115:
1093:
1039:
1009:
968:
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1437:
154:, though not through the same line as Wihtred. Shortly after the start of his reign, Wihtred issued a code of laws—the
395:, the Bishop of Rochester; and "every order of the Church of that nation spoke in unanimity with the loyal people".
383:
Wihtred's laws were issued at "Berghamstyde"; it is not known for certain where this was, but the best candidate is
1019:
142:. Wihtred ascended to the throne after a confused period in the 680s, which included a brief conquest of Kent by
1502:
1230:
1253:
1188:
628:
Note that Kirby uses S18 in his argument for Wihtred's accession date, whereas Whitelock uses S15. See Kirby,
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278:) in Canterbury, and these views can almost certainly be ascribed to the Church establishment there.
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record "thirty thousand", and some specify thirty thousand pounds. If the pounds are equal to
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The earliest Anglo-Saxon law code to survive, which may date from 602 or 603, is that of
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342:
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is one of the primary sources for this period, the kingdom fell apart into disorder.
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200:, who reigned from the late 650s to 675. The king of Kent for much of this time was
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360:, whose reign ended in 616. In the 670s or 680s, a code was issued in the names of
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Initially Wihtred ruled alongside Swæfheard. Bede's report of the election of
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682:, is regarded as spurious, but is thought to have used genuine witness lists.
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of his reign, a new wife, Wærburh, attested with her husband and son, Alric.
1023:
388:
310:. Ine's predecessor, Cædwalla, had invaded Kent and installed his brother
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286:
392:
325:
17:
303:
146:, and subsequent dynastic conflicts. His immediate predecessor was
1222:
1269:
341:
321:
260:
183:
853:
Wormald, Patrick, "The Age of Bede and Aethelbald", in Campbell,
352:, which contains the oldest surviving copy of Wihtred's law code.
192:
The dominant force in late-seventh-century politics south of the
927:
368:. The next kings to issue laws were Ine of Wessex and Wihtred.
220:
1226:
346:
The first page of the twelfth-century manuscript known as the
245:, took the throne for a time. Oswine lost power in 690, but
376:, a West Saxon term for noble, in place of the Kentish term
134:
from about 690 or 691 until his death. He was a son of
158:—that has been preserved in a manuscript known as the
302:
It was also in 694 that Wihtred made peace with the
427:became the dominant power in the south of England.
411:On his death, Wihtred left Kent to his three sons:
188:
The kingdoms of Britain in the late seventh-century
100:
80:
72:
64:
60:
46:
39:
34:
1002:The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England
706:The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England
1463:Also monarch of Wessex, Essex, Sussex and Mercia
810:
808:
806:
1130:Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England
1238:
8:
983:English Historical Documents v.l. c.500–1042
933:Ecclesiastical History of the English People
644:
642:
480:
478:
324:, then this amount is the equal of a king's
226:Ecclesiastical History of the English People
515:
513:
511:
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233:invaded in 686 and established his brother
1245:
1231:
1223:
1162:
945:, ed. D.H. Farmer. London: Penguin, 1990.
31:
269:'s siblings, but which one is not known.
1055:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
678:. The charter of 716, which recorded a
448:
1460:Also monarch of East Anglia and Mercia
704:Lapidge, Michael (ed.), "Wergild", in
204:, who died in 673. Ecgberht's sons,
7:
1158:Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England
985:. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.
150:, who was probably descended from
130: – 23 April 725) was king of
25:
1051:"Wihtred (d. 725), king of Kent"
1004:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
241:, who was probably supported by
180:Kent in the late seventh century
632:, p. 123; and Whitelock,
1:
1193:c. 690 – 23 April 725
124:
50:
1513:8th-century English monarchs
1508:7th-century English monarchs
1077:UK public library membership
816:English Historical Documents
785:English Historical Documents
758:English Historical Documents
745:English Historical Documents
732:English Historical Documents
634:English Historical Documents
1110:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
1057:. Oxford University Press.
27:King of Kent from 670 – 725
1529:
1086:The Earliest English Kings
652:, V. 23, pp. 322–325.
335:
1450:Existence uncertain (See
1446:
1260:
1203:
1186:
1170:
1165:
1034:. London: Penguin Books.
961:The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
680:Synod at Bapchild in Kent
76:23 April 725 (aged 54–55)
608:"Anglo-Saxons.net: S 15"
586:"Anglo-Saxons.net: S 18"
437:List of monarchs of Kent
291:Archbishop of Canterbury
963:. New York: Routledge.
1466:Also monarch of Wessex
1457:Also monarch of Mercia
1063:10.1093/ref:odnb/29381
907:Earliest English Kings
829:Earliest English Kings
798:Earliest English Kings
719:Earliest English Kings
650:Ecclesiastical History
630:Earliest English Kings
547:Earliest English Kings
521:Earliest English Kings
499:Earliest English Kings
488:, IV. 26, p. 255.
486:Ecclesiastical History
470:Earliest English Kings
457:Earliest English Kings
353:
270:
212:, Ecgberht's sister.
189:
120:
1088:. London: Routledge.
1084:Kirby, D. P. (1992).
1049:Kelly, S. E. (2004).
693:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
345:
317:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
264:
187:
1498:Anglo-Saxon warriors
407:Death and succession
56: – 23 April 725
1108:Anglo-Saxon England
881:Anglo-Saxon England
868:Anglo-Saxon England
842:Anglo-Saxon England
818:, pp. 362–364.
771:Anglo-Saxon England
560:Anglo-Saxon England
523:, pp. 122–123.
501:, pp. 120–121.
425:Æthelbald of Mercia
257:Accession and reign
979:Whitelock, Dorothy
894:Kings and Kingdoms
663:Kings and Kingdoms
573:Kings and Kingdoms
534:Kings and Kingdoms
358:Æthelberht of Kent
354:
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243:Æthelred of Mercia
231:Cædwalla of Wessex
198:Wulfhere of Mercia
190:
144:Cædwalla of Wessex
1473:
1472:
1403:Eadberht III Præn
1221:
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1204:Succeeded by
1132:. London: Seaby.
1104:Stenton, Frank M.
1075:(subscription or
991:Secondary sources
939:Leo Sherley-Price
896:, pp. 30–31.
138:and a brother of
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883:, pp. 316–317.
872:
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800:, p. 125.
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610:. Sean Miller
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418:
414:
413:Æthelberht II
406:
404:
400:
396:
394:
390:
386:
381:
379:
375:
369:
367:
363:
359:
351:
350:
344:
339:
331:
329:
327:
323:
319:
318:
313:
309:
305:
300:
297:
292:
288:
283:
279:
277:
268:
263:
256:
254:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
227:
222:
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
186:
179:
177:
175:
171:
167:
166:Æthelberht II
163:
162:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
122:
118:
114:
106:
103:
99:
96:
92:
88:
87:Æthelberht II
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
49:
45:
42:
38:
33:
30:
19:
1475:
1363:Æthelbert II
1347:
1290:Æthelberht I
1211:Æthelbert II
1200:(to c. 694)
1196:
1189:King of Kent
1187:
1129:
1107:
1085:
1066:. Retrieved
1054:
1031:
1001:
990:
989:
982:
960:
931:
921:
920:
906:
901:
893:
888:
880:
875:
867:
862:
857:, p. 99
854:
849:
844:, p. 62
841:
836:
831:, p. 2.
828:
823:
815:
797:
792:
784:
778:
770:
765:
757:
752:
744:
739:
731:
726:
718:
713:
705:
700:
692:
687:
675:
670:
662:
657:
649:
633:
629:
624:
612:. Retrieved
602:
590:. Retrieved
580:
572:
567:
559:
554:
546:
541:
533:
528:
520:
498:
493:
485:
469:
464:
456:
451:
410:
401:
397:
382:
377:
373:
370:
355:
347:
315:
301:
284:
280:
272:
224:
218:
194:River Humber
191:
159:
112:
111:
41:King of Kent
29:
1488:670s births
1393:Ecgberht II
1373:Eadberht II
1303:Eorcenberht
1068:27 November
943:R.E. Latham
814:Whitelock,
756:Whitelock,
743:Whitelock,
730:Whitelock,
1493:725 deaths
1482:Categories
1438:Æthelberht
1418:Ceolwulf I
1358:Eadbert I
1313:Ecgberht I
1024:John, Eric
941:, revised
917:References
614:14 October
592:14 October
417:Eadberht I
304:West Saxon
296:Æthelberht
287:Beorhtwald
267:Domne Eafe
210:Eormenhild
170:Eadberht I
136:Ecgberht I
128: 670
91:Eadberht I
54: 690
1433:Æthelstan
1428:Æthelwulf
1338:Swæfberht
1333:Swæfheard
1318:Hlothhere
1308:Eormenred
1299:Æðelwald
1285:Eormenric
1215:Eadbert I
1198:Swæfheard
1182:Swæfheard
1178:Swæfberht
1154:Wihtred 1
1079:required)
909:, p. 131.
879:Stenton,
866:Stenton,
840:Stenton,
769:Stenton,
760:, p. 361.
734:, p. 357.
708:, p. 469.
691:Swanton,
558:Stenton,
389:Maidstone
362:Hlothhere
247:Swæfheard
214:Hlothhere
121:Wihtredus
1413:Coenwulf
1398:Ealhmund
1388:Heaberht
1368:Eardwulf
1128:(1990).
1106:(1971).
1030:(1991).
1000:(1999).
981:(1968).
959:(1996).
575:, p. 25.
549:, p. 53.
431:See also
385:Bearsted
378:eorlcund
322:sceattas
249:(son of
223:, whose
202:Ecgberht
105:Ecgberht
1452:Eadbald
1423:Baldred
1408:Cuthred
1383:Eanmund
1378:Sigered
1348:Wihtred
1295:Eadbald
1265:Hengest
905:Kirby,
892:Yorke,
827:Kirby,
796:Kirby,
717:Kirby,
676:Wihtred
674:Kelly,
661:Yorke,
571:Yorke,
545:Kirby,
532:Yorke,
519:Kirby,
497:Kirby,
468:Kirby,
455:Kirby,
393:Gefmund
387:, near
326:wergild
152:Eadbald
113:Wihtred
35:Wihtred
18:Wihtred
1343:Oswine
1323:Eadric
1195:With:
1174:Oswine
1136:
1114:
1092:
1038:
1026:&
1008:
967:
949:
648:Bede,
484:Bede,
419:, and
374:gesith
239:Oswine
206:Eadric
172:, and
148:Oswine
140:Eadric
101:Father
93:, and
68:c. 670
1353:Alric
1270:Horsa
1207:Alric
443:Notes
421:Alric
306:king
251:Sebbi
174:Alric
117:Latin
95:Alric
82:Issue
47:Reign
1280:Octa
1275:Oisc
1134:ISBN
1112:ISBN
1090:ISBN
1070:2012
1036:ISBN
1006:ISBN
965:ISBN
947:ISBN
928:Bede
616:2007
594:2007
364:and
332:Laws
221:Bede
196:was
132:Kent
73:Died
65:Born
1328:Mul
1156:at
1059:doi
312:Mul
308:Ine
289:as
235:Mul
123:) (
1484::
1053:.
1022:;
930:,
805:^
641:^
506:^
477:^
415:,
176:.
168:,
125:c.
119::
89:,
51:c.
1454:)
1246:e
1239:t
1232:v
1142:.
1120:.
1098:.
1072:.
1061::
1044:.
1014:.
973:.
935:.
618:.
596:.
115:(
20:)
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