Wilderness - Knowledge (XXG)

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areas of the world. India is more densely populated and has been settled for a long time. There are complex relationships between agricultural communities and the wilderness. An example of this is the Project Tiger parks in India. By claiming areas as no longer used by humans, the land moves from the hands of poor people to rich people. Having designated tiger reserves is only possible by displacing poor people, who were not involved in the planning of the areas. This situation places the ideal of wilderness above the already existing relationships between people and the land they live on. By placing an imperialistic ideal of nature onto a different country, the desire to reestablish wilderness is being put above the lives of those who live by working the land.

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colonists came in and forced them off their lands in order to create the national parks. The concept glorifies the idea that before settlers came, the US was an uninhabited landscape. This erases the reality of Native Americans, and their relationship with the land and the role they had in shaping the landscape. Such erasure suggests there were areas of the US which were historically unoccupied, once again erasing the existence of Native Americans and their relationship to the land. In the case of Yellowstone, the Grand Canyon, and Yosemite, the 'preservation' of these lands by the US government was what caused the Native Americans who lived in the areas to be systematically removed.

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Islands, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Finland, French Guiana, Greenland, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Norway, Northern Mariana Islands, Portugal, Seychelles, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Tanzania, United States of America, and Zimbabwe. At publication, there are 2,992 marine and terrestrial wilderness areas registered with the IUCN as solely Category 1b sites.

324:. The relationship between Native Americans and the land was something colonists did not understand and did not try to understand. This mutually beneficial relationship was different from how colonists viewed the land only in relation to how it could benefit themselves by waging a constant battle to beat the land and other living organisms into submission. The belief colonists had of the land being only something to be used was based in Christian ideas. If the earth and animals and plants were created by a Christian God for human use, then the cultivation by colonists was their God-given goal. 783:. They are intended both to preserve the wilderness character of the areas and further the traditional livelihood of the Sami people. This means e.g. that reindeer husbandry, hunting and taking wood for use in the household is permitted. As population is very sparse, this is generally no big threat to the nature. Large scale reindeer husbandry has influence on the ecosystem, but no change is introduced by the act on wilderness areas. The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) classifies the areas as "VI Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources". 747:

national parks (IUCN Category II) as wilderness areas. The government counts the whole area of the 16 national parks as wilderness. This means, also the managed parts are included in the "existing" 0,6%. There is no doubt, that Germany will miss its own time-dependent quantitative goals, but there are also some critics, that point a bad designation practice: Findings of disturbance ecology, according to which process-based nature conservation and the 2% target could be further qualified by more targeted area designation, pre-treatment and introduction of

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relationship with the land in a more holistic view, they were eventually subjected to European property systems. Colonists from Europe saw the American landscape as wild, savage, dark, and thus needed to be tamed in order for it to be safe and habitable. Once cleared and settled, these areas were depicted as "Eden itself". Yet the native peoples of those lands saw "wilderness" as that when the connection between humans and nature is broken. For native communities, human intervention was a part of their ecological practices.

1373:, argues that the racist ideas of many early conservationists created a narrative of wilderness that has led to "fortress conservation" policies that have driven Native Americans off of their land. Kashwan has proposed conservation practices that would allow Indigenous people to continue using the land as a more just and more effective alternative to fortress conservation. The idea that the natural world is primarily made up of remote wilderness areas has also been criticized as classist, with environmental sociologist 1080:(IUCN) plays a critical role in defining legal and management guidelines for wilderness at the international level and is also a clearing-house for information on wilderness issues. The IUCN Protected Areas Classification System defines wilderness as "A large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition ( 766: 3743: 666: 1472: 846: 493: 1365:, another important figure in the early conservation movement, referred to African-Americans as "making a great deal of noise and doing little work", and compared Native Americans to unclean animals who did not belong in the wilderness. Environmental history professor Miles A. Powell of Nanyang Technological University has argued that much of the early conservation movement was deeply tied to and inspired by a desire to preserve the 44: 978: 5481: 4382: 1242: 59: 1430: 1093: 1027: 77: 1458: 738:

countries contain protected areas with multiple management categories including Category 1b. They are: Argentina, Bhutan, Brazil, Chile, Honduras, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nepal, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Venezuela, and Zambia.

508: 1486: 553:, which was signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant on 1 March 1872. The Act of Dedication declared Yellowstone a land "hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." 1153:(5.4%). Such areas remain relatively untouched by humans. Of course, there are large tracts of lands in national parks and other protected areas that would also qualify as wilderness. However, many protected areas have some degree of human modification or activity, so a definitive estimate of true wilderness is difficult. 1053:

many international groups who still look to the World Wilderness Congress as the international venue for wilderness and to The WILD Foundation network for wilderness tools and action. The WILD Foundation also publishes the standard references for wilderness professionals and others involved in the issues:

1131:, 46% of the world's land mass is wilderness. For purposes of this report, "wilderness" was defined as an area that "has 70% or more of its original vegetation intact, covers at least 10,000 square kilometers (3,900 sq mi) and must have fewer than five people per square kilometer." However, an 1052:

and its network of sister and partner organizations around the globe. The pioneer World Wilderness Congress in 1977 introduced the wilderness concept as an issue of international importance, and began the process of defining the term in biological and social contexts. Today, this work is continued by

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of 1975 extended the protection of the NWPS to areas in the eastern states that were not initially considered for inclusion in the Wilderness Act. This act allowed lands that did not meet the constraints of size, roadlessness, or human impact to be designated as wilderness areas under the belief that

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of 1964. The Wilderness Act is an important part of wilderness designation because it created the legal definition of wilderness and established the National Wilderness Preservation System. The Wilderness Act defines wilderness as "an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by

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Then in the 1950s, Integral Biological Reserves (Réserves Biologiques Intégrales, RBI) are dedicated to man free ecosystem evolution, on the contrary of Managed Biological reserves (Réserves Biologiques Dirigées, RBD) where a specific management is applied to conserve vulnerable species or threatened

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The German National Strategy on Biological Diversity aims to establish wilderness areas on 2% of its terrestrial territory by 2020 (7,140 km). However, protected wilderness areas in Germany currently only cover 0.6% of the total terrestrial area. In absence of pristine landscapes, Germany counts

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The United States philosophy around wilderness preservation through National Parks has been attempted in other countries. However, people living in those countries have different ideas surrounding wilderness than people in the United States, thus, the US concept of wilderness can be damaging in other

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using a number of indicators, the absence of which indicate wildness: human population density, human access via roads and rivers, human infrastructure for agriculture and settlements and the presence of industrial power (lights visible from space). The society estimates that 26% of the Earth's land

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Approximately 107,500,000 acres (435,000 km) are designated as wilderness in the United States. This accounts for 4.82% of the country's total land area; however, 54% of that amount is found in Alaska (recreation and development in Alaskan wilderness is often less restrictive), while only 2.58%

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Put another way, conservation sought to regulate human use while preservation sought to eliminate human impact altogether. The management of US public lands during the years 1960s and 70s reflected these dual visions, with conservationists dominating the Forest Service, and preservationists the Park

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When national parks were established in an area, the Native Americans that had been living there were forcibly removed so visitors to the park could see nature without humans present. National parks are seen as areas untouched by humans, when in reality, humans existed in these spaces, until settler

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However, the idea that what European colonists saw upon arriving in North America was pristine and devoid of humans is untrue due to the existence of Native Americans. The land was shaped by Native Americans through practices such as fires. Burning happened frequently and in a controlled manner. The

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There is a historical belief that wilderness must not only be tamed to be protected but that humans also need to be outside of it. In order to clear certain areas for conservation, such as national parks, involved the removal of native communities from their land. Some authors have come to describe

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Another source of criticism is that the criteria for wilderness designation is vague and open to interpretation. For example, the Wilderness Act states that wilderness must be roadless. The definition given for roadless is "the absences of roads which have been improved and maintained by mechanical

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have continued to result in human modification of relatively untouched areas. Such human activity often negatively impacts native flora and fauna. As such, to better protect critical habitats and preserve low-impact recreational opportunities, legal concepts of "wilderness" were established in many

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However, in European cultures, throughout the Middle Ages, wilderness generally was not regarded worth protecting but rather judged strongly negative as a dangerous place and as a moral counter-world to the realm of culture and godly life. "While archaic nature religions oriented themselves towards

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and, in 1968, it was given wilderness status. Properties in the swamp had been acquired by a small group of residents of the area, who donated the assembled properties to the federal government as a park for perpetual protection. Today the refuge amounts to 7,600 acres (31 km) that are within

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In Western Australia, a wilderness area is an area that has a wilderness quality rating of 12 or greater and meets a minimum size threshold of 80 km in temperate areas or 200 km in arid and tropical areas. A wilderness area is gazetted under section 62(1)(a) of the Conservation and Land

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Forty-eight countries have wilderness areas established via legislative designation as IUCN protected area management Category 1b sites that do not overlap with any other IUCN designation. They are: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Canada, Cayman

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Historian Mark David Spence has shown that the case of Glacier National Park and the Blackfeet people who live there is a perfect example of such erasure. The Blackfeet people had specifically designated rights to the area, but the 1910 Glacier National Park act made void those rights. The act of

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Locke, H.; Ghosh, S.; Carver, S.; McDonald, T.; Sloan, S.S.; Merculieff, I.; Hendee, J.; Dawson, C.; Moore, S.; Newsome, D.; McCool, S.; Semler, R.; Martin, S.; Dvorak, R.; Armatas, C.; Swain, R.; Barr, B.; Krause, D.; Whittington-Evans, N.; Hamilton, L.S.; Holtrop, J.; Tricker, J.; Landres, P.;

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The most recent efforts to map wilderness show that less than one quarter (~23%) of the world's wilderness area now remains, and that there have been catastrophic declines in wilderness extent over the last two decades. Over 3 million square kilometers (10 percent) of wilderness was converted to

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was being built. The creation of this and other parks showed a growing appreciation of wild nature, but also an economic reality. The railways wanted to entice people to travel west. Parks such as Banff and Yellowstone gained favor as the railroads advertised travel to "the great wild spaces" of

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writes that what he calls a wilderness ethic or cult may "teach us to be dismissive or even contemptuous of such humble places and experiences", and that "wilderness tends to privilege some parts of nature at the expense of others", using as an example "the mighty canyon more inspiring than the

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Twenty-two other countries have wilderness areas. These wilderness areas are established via administrative designation or wilderness zones within protected areas. Whereas the above listing contains countries with wilderness exclusively designated as Category 1b sites, some of the below-listed

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Two different groups had emerged within the US environmental movement by the early 20th century: the conservationists and the preservationists. The initial consensus among conservationists was split into "utilitarian conservationists" later to be referred to as conservationists, and "aesthetic

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in many other countries. Unlike most other countries, in England and Wales, designation as a national park may include substantial settlements and human land uses which are often integral parts of the landscape, and land within a national park remains largely in private ownership. Each park is

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Early conservationists advocated the creation of a legal mechanism by which boundaries could be set on human activities in order to preserve natural and unique lands for the enjoyment and use of future generations. This profound shift in wilderness thought reached a pinnacle in the US with the

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movement argues against conflating "wilderness" with "wilderness reservations", viewing the latter term as an oxymoron that, by allowing the law as a human construct to define nature, unavoidably voids the very freedom and independence of human control that defines wilderness. True wilderness

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Another critique of wilderness is that it perpetuates the human-nature dichotomy. The idea that nature and humans are separate entities can be traced back to European colonial views. To European settlers, land was an inherited right and was to be used to profit. While native groups saw their

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wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness. Nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and the land from villagers gathering firewood. Similar measures were introduced in other European

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Allan, James R.; Kormos, Cyril; Jaeger, Tilman; Venter, Oscar; Bertzky, Bastian; Shi, Yichuan; Mackey, Brendan; van Merm, Remco; Osipova, Elena; Watson, James E.M. (February 2018). "Gaps and opportunities for the World Heritage Convention to contribute to global wilderness conservation".

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Since 1861, the French Waters and Forests Military Agency (Administration des Eaux et Forêts) put a strong protection on what was called the « artistic reserve » in Fontainebleau State Forest. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is known to be the first World nature reserve.

751:, are widely neglected. Since 2019 the government supports bargains of land that will then be designated as wilderness by 10 Mio. Euro annually. The German minimum size for wilderness candidate sites is normally 10 km. In some cases (i.e. swamps) the minimum size is 5 km. 937:. It is typically at least 5,000 acres (about 8 mi or 20 km) in size. Human activities in wilderness areas are restricted to scientific study and non-mechanized recreation; horses are permitted but mechanized vehicles and equipment, such as cars and bicycles, are not. 1395:

this type of conservation as conservation-far, where humans and nature are kept separate. The other end of the conservation spectrum then, would be conservation-near, which would mimic native ecological practices of humans integrated into the care of nature.

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Burnet, Thomas 1719: The Sacred Theory of the Earth. Containing an Account of the Original of the Earth and of all the General Changes which it hath Already Undergone, or is to Undergo, till the Consumation of all Things. The Forth Edition. London, Hooke.

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arguing that this leads to experiencing wilderness becoming a privilege, as working-class people are often unable to afford transportation to wilderness areas. She further argues that, due to poverty and lack of access to transportation caused by

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nature, in medieval Christendom this orientation was replaced by one towards divine law. The divine was no longer to be found in nature; instead, uncultivated nature became a site of the sinister and the demonic. It was considered corrupted by

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based on the German approach were applied in other parts of the world, but with varying degrees of success. Over the course of the 19th century wilderness became viewed not as a place to fear but a place to enjoy and protect; hence came the

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means to insure relatively regular and continuous use". However, there have been added sub-definitions that have, in essence, made this standard unclear and open to interpretation, and some are drawn to narrowly exclude existing roads.

1294:, Pollan writes that "once a landscape is no longer 'virgin' it is typically written off as fallen, lost to nature, irredeemable." Another challenge to the conventional notion of wilderness comes from Robert Winkler in his book, 1120:

human land-uses. The Amazon and Congo rain forests suffered the most loss. Human pressure is extending into almost every corner of the planet. The loss of wilderness could have serious implications for biodiversity conservation.

1298:. "On walks in the unpeopled parts of the suburbs," Winkler writes, "I’ve witnessed the same wild creatures, struggles for survival, and natural beauty that we associate with true wilderness." Attempts have been made, as in the 472:

The 21st century has seen another slight shift in wilderness thought and theory. It is now understood that simply drawing lines around a piece of land and declaring it a wilderness does not necessarily make it a wilderness. All

685:, calling for a "land ethic" and urging wilderness protection. It had become increasingly clear that wild spaces were disappearing rapidly and that decisive action was needed to save them. Wilderness preservation is central to 1302:

Act, to distinguish "wild" from various levels of human influence: in the Act, "wild rivers" are "not impounded", "usually not accessible except by trail", and their watersheds and shorelines are "essentially primitive".

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that fall well within the IUCN definition. Wilderness areas cannot have any human intervention and can only have indigenous species re-introduced into the area if it is compatible with conservation management strategies.

561:'preserving' the land was specifically linked to the exclusion of the Blackfeet people. The continued resistance of the Blackfeet people has provided documentation of the importance of the area to many different tribes. 1323:

and scholar on wilderness Layla Abdel-Rahim argues that it is necessary to understand the principles that govern the economies of mutual aid and diversification in wilderness from a non-anthropocentric perspective.

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represent a further 7% of the world's land base. Estimates of the Earth's remaining wilderness underscore the rate at which these lands are being developed, with dramatic declines in biodiversity as a consequence.

244:, the greater part of Earth's terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated on settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire and Chinese Empire. 489:. The national park has miles of "wilderness" but the air is filled with pollution from the valley. This gives rise to the paradox of what a wilderness really is; a key issue in 21st century wilderness thought. 3010:

Venter, Oscar; Sanderson, Eric W.; Magrach, Ainhoa; Allan, James R.; Beher, Jutta; Jones, Kendall R.; Possingham, Hugh P.; Laurance, William F.; Wood, Peter; Fekete, Balázs M.; Levy, Marc A. (23 August 2016).

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Jones, Kendall R.; Klein, Carissa J.; Halpern, Benjamin S.; Venter, Oscar; Grantham, Hedley; Kuempel, Caitlin D.; Shumway, Nicole; Friedlander, Alan M.; Possingham, Hugh P.; Watson, James E. M. (August 2018).

803:. In such reserves, all harvests coupe are forbidden excepted exotic species elimination or track safety works to avoid fallen tree risk to visitors (already existing tracks in or on the edge of the reserve). 955:, then a ranking member of the U.S. Forest Service, proposed a new management strategy for the Gila National Forest. His proposal was adopted in 1924, and 750,000 acres of the Gila National Forest became the 1992:

Kirchhoff, Thomas/ Vicenzotti, Vera 2014: A historical and systematic survey of European perceptions of wilderness. Environmental Values 23 (4): pp.443–464, here p. 446, doi:(10.3197/096327114X13947900181590

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While wilderness designations were originally granted by an Act of Congress for Federal land that retained a "primeval character", meaning that it had not suffered from human habitation or development, the

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humble marsh." This is most clearly visible with the fact that nearly all U.S. National Parks preserve spectacular canyons and mountains, and it was not until the 1940s that a swamp became a national park—

152:, but also to promote and advance a natural expression and development. These can be set up in preserves, conservation preserves, national forests, national parks and even in urban areas along rivers, 1331:, ignoring Native American perspectives on the natural environment and excluding people of color from narratives about human interactions with the environment. Many early conservationists, such as 4511: 2512:

Brackhane, Sebastian; Schoof, Nicolas; Reif, Albert; Schmitt, Christine B. (2019). "A new wilderness for Central Europe? – the potential for large strictly protected forest reserves in Germany".

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By the 1920s, travel across North America by train to experience the "wilderness" (often viewing it only through windows) had become very popular. This led to the commercialization of some of

309:' society. Wilderness was considered to be the root of the colonists' problems, so to make the problems go away, wilderness needed to be destroyed. One of the first steps in doing this, is to 449:. The Framework calls for conservation of 50 percent of the 6,000,000 square kilometres of boreal forest in Canada's north. In addition to the World Wildlife Fund, organizations such as the 904:

prevents any access by vehicles and livestock, the construction of tracks and buildings, and all indigenous natural resources are protected. They are generally over 400 km in size.

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North America. When outdoorsman Teddy Roosevelt became president of the United States, he began to enlarge the U.S. National Parks system, and established the National Forest system.

137:. Recent maps of wilderness suggest it covers roughly one-quarter of Earth's terrestrial surface, but is being rapidly degraded by human activity. Even less wilderness remains in the 730:

There have been recent calls for the World Heritage Convention to better protect wilderness and to include the word wilderness in their selection criteria for Natural Heritage Sites

359:'s poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture. 285:), becoming a vale of tears in which humans were doomed to live out their existence. Thus, for example, mountains were interpreted as ruins of a once flat earth destroyed by the 806:

At the end of 2014, there were 60 Integral Biological Reserves in French State Forests for a total area of 111,082 hectares and 10 in City Forests for a total of 2,835 hectares.

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Wilderness designation helps preserve the natural state of the land and protects flora and fauna by prohibiting development and providing for non-mechanized recreation only.

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could be used to maintain food, cords, and baskets. One of the main roles of frequent fires was to prevent the out of control fires which are becoming more and more common.

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By the late 19th century, it had become clear that in many countries wild areas had either disappeared or were in danger of disappearing. This realization gave rise to the

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turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Prior to that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings.

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Watson, James E. M.; Shanahan, Danielle F.; Di Marco, Moreno; Allan, James; Laurance, William F.; Sanderson, Eric W.; Mackey, Brendan; Venter, Oscar (7 November 2016).

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in the latter half of the 19th century. Rivers were rafted and mountains were climbed solely for the sake of recreation, not to determine their geographical context.

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Watson, James E.M.; Shanahan, Danielle F.; Di Marco, Moreno; Allan, James; Laurance, William F.; Sanderson, Eric W.; Mackey, Brendan; Venter, Oscar (November 2016).

5959: 5914: 5904: 237:… as if seen through the eyes of a bird". In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting "scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature". 2849: 1077: 5944: 5768: 5572: 1002: 929:

The Great Swamp of New Jersey, donated for federal protection by concerned residents, was designated as the first wilderness refuge in the United States in 1960

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In Greece there are some parks called "ethniki drimoi" (εθνικοί δρυμοί, national forests) that are under protection of the Greek government. Such parks include

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Stewart, O. C., Lewis, H. T., & Anderson, K. (2002). Forgotten fires: Native Americans and the transient wilderness. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

418:. Nevertheless, this led to growing recognition in the 1950s and the early 1960s of the need to protect large spaces for wildlife conservation worldwide. The 5999: 5702: 5510: 305:

view of wilderness meant that in order for colonists to be able to live in North America, they had to destroy the wilderness in order to make way for their '

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in order to clear the land. Military metaphors describing the wilderness as the "enemy" were used, and settler expansion was phrased as " the wilderness".

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Martti Pärssinen; Denise Schaan & Alceu Ranzi (2009). "Pre-Columbian geometric earthworks in the upper Purús: a complex society in western Amazonia".

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was the first formally designated wilderness refuge in the United States. It was declared a wildlife refuge on 3 November 1960. In 1966 it was declared a

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Kirchhoff, Thomas/ Vicenzotti, Vera 2014: A historical and systematic survey of European perceptions of wilderness. Environmental Values 23 (4): 443–464.

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claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as

1284:... to the extent that we live in an urban-industrial civilization but at the same time pretend to ourselves that our real home is in the wilderness". 5924: 5894: 5607: 2604:

Opitz, Stefaie; Reppin, Nicole; Schoof, Nicolas; Drobnik, Juliane; Riecken, Uwe; Mengel, Andreas; Reif, Albert; Rosenthal, Gert; Finck, Peter (2015).

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Nash, Roderick Frazier 2014: Wilderness and the American Mind. Fifth Edition. New Haven & London, Yale University Press / Yale Nota Bene, p. 9

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1995 & 1998 National Forests Office internal instructions in application of the last paragraph of article L. 212-2 of the French Forest Act

2393: 1228:. Of the last natural wilderness areas, the taiga—which is mostly wilderness—represents 11% of the total land mass in the Northern Hemisphere. 466: 3831:

Nash, Roderick Frazier 2014: Wilderness and the American Mind. Fifth Edition. New Haven & London, Yale University Press / Yale Nota Bene.

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From a visual arts perspective, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of

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In 1861, following an intense lobbying by artists (painters), the French Waters and Forests Military Agency set an "artistic reserve" in

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Most scientists and conservationists agree that no place on earth is completely untouched by humanity, either due to past occupation by

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Oelschlaeger, Max 1991: The Idea of Wilderness. From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology. New Haven & London, Yale University Press.

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Kantor, I. (2007). Ethnic Cleansing and America's Creation of National Parks. Public Land & Resources Law Review, 28, 41-64.

1715: 1369:. Prakash Kashwan, a political science professor at the University of Connecticut who specializes in environmental policies and 6519: 6471: 6408: 6333: 5874: 5829: 5763: 5697: 5592: 4411: 2161: 1209: 1105: 115: 20: 6448: 5816: 5745: 5526: 1954: 268:

initiated one of the world's first conscious efforts to protect natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to

6398: 6074: 3444: 3944: 2557:"Biodiversität fördern mit Wilden Weiden in der Vision "Wildnisgebiete" der Nationalen Strategie zur biologischen Vielfalt" 6476: 6238: 6220: 6049: 5884: 5637: 4475: 3217: 1595: 1349: 1157: 769: 670: 450: 362:

By the mid-19th century, in Germany, "Scientific Conservation", as it was called, advocated "the efficient utilization of

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Schoof, Nicolas; Luick, Rainer; Nickel, Herbert; Reif, Albert; Förschler, Marc; Westrich, Paul; Reisinger, Edgar (2018).

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The idea of protecting nature for nature's sake began to gain more recognition in the 1930s with American writers like

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are intricately connected and what happens outside a wilderness certainly affects what happens inside it. For example,

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through conservation initiatives. There are also large-scale projects to conserve wilderness regions, such as Canada's

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Nevertheless, initiatives for wilderness conservation continue to increase. There are a growing number of projects to

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Guha, Ramachandra. ""Radical American Environmentalism and Wilderness Preservation: A Third World Critique" (1997)."

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has argued that the wilderness ethic leads people to dismiss areas whose wildness is less than absolute. In his book

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Management Act 1984 by the Minister on any land that is vested in the Conservation Commission of Western Australia.

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The first administratively protected wilderness area in the United States was the Gila National Forest. In 1922,

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Kammer, Sean. "Coming to terms with wilderness: The Wilderness Act and the problem of wildlife restoration."

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Integral Biological Reserves occurs in French State Forests or City Forests and are therefore managed by the

529:, beginning in the 19th century, preserved some especially attractive and notable areas, but the pursuits of 6486: 6363: 6343: 6308: 6278: 6253: 6210: 6124: 6114: 6089: 6084: 5617: 5567: 5552: 5059: 4948: 4270: 3791:(2016). Wilderness Protected Areas: Management Guidelines for IUCN Category 1b (wilderness) Protected Areas 1570: 1545: 620: 387: 6328: 6303: 5562: 5462: 5305: 5177: 1657: 1637: 993: 940:

The United States was one of the first countries to officially designate land as "wilderness" through the

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or otherwise undeveloped areas. Often these areas are considered important for the survival of certain

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Children's Literature, Domestication, and Social Foundation: Narratives of Civilization and Wilderness

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Struggle over Utah's San Rafael Swell: Wilderness, National Conservation Areas, and National Monuments

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landscapes seen in the US today are very different from the way things looked before colonists came.

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at 5 acres (20,000 m) to Alaska's Wrangell-Saint Elias at 9,078,675 acres (36,740.09 km).

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report published in 2003, found that only 10.9% of the world's land mass is currently a Category 1

765: 604: 600: 584: 565: 419: 165: 107: 3964: 1353:, a book on eugenics that was later praised by Adolf Hitler. Grant is also known to have featured 6509: 6192: 5602: 5458: 5443: 5373: 5329: 5219: 4805: 4710: 4465: 3722: 3603: 3169: 2537: 2477: 2287: 2279: 1683: 1477: 1340: 1165:

mass falls into the category of "Last of the wild." The wildest regions of the world include the

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The percentage of land area designated wilderness does not necessarily reflect a measure of its

1977: 665: 422:(WWF), founded in 1961, grew to be one of the largest conservation organizations in the world. 6348: 5712: 5430: 4894: 4800: 4773: 4620: 4570: 4506: 4460: 3809: 3792: 3779: 3763: 3712: 3674: 3641: 3631: 3595: 3556: 3546: 3521: 3518:

The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection

3474: 3424: 3396: 3368: 3340: 3312: 3281: 3260: 3058: 3040: 2992: 2984: 2935: 2917: 2830: 2469: 2423: 2389: 2364: 2358: 2103: 2045: 1919: 1867: 1816: 1647: 1642: 1632: 1515: 1399: 1336: 1204: 1180: 1101: 908: 611: 375: 363: 80: 2765: 2579:"Deutschland wird wilder: Neues Förderinstrument Wildnisfonds startet – BMU-Pressemitteilung" 6228: 5380: 5339: 5322: 5209: 5107: 4639: 4543: 4427: 4185: 4074: 4044: 3704: 3666: 3587: 3388: 3161: 3048: 3032: 2974: 2925: 2909: 2529: 2461: 2415: 2271: 2095: 1909: 1857: 1806: 1798: 1585: 1505: 1471: 1277: 1260:

The American concept of wilderness has been criticized by some nature writers. For example,

1214: 1097: 780: 542: 265: 257: 222: 214: 134: 51: 3751: 3543:

The nation-state and global order : a historical introduction to contemporary politics

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Cronon also believes the passion to save wilderness "poses a serious threat to responsible

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Vanishing America : Species Extinction, Racial Peril, and the Origins of Conservation

3297:

Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Act (P.L. 1277, Act No. 283 as amended by Act 110, May 7, 1982)

3243: 3221: 2852:

Policy Statement No 62, Identification and management of Wilderness and surrounding areas.

2837: 2313: 2198: 2185: 2165: 2077:

Dunbar-Ortiz, R. (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press

1958: 1892: 1840: 1749: 1379: 1328: 1203:

have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, leading to claims about

1184: 1069:

are the backbone of information and management tools for international wilderness issues.

1045: 1030: 956: 911:: Adams Wilderness Area, Hooker/Landsborough Wilderness Area and Paparoa Wilderness Area. 864: 825: 694: 454: 415: 411: 352: 340: 253: 181: 3495:"American environmentalism's racist roots have shaped global thinking about conservation" 1001:

of the lower continental United States is designated as wilderness. As of 2023 there are

301:

Wilderness was viewed by colonists as being evil in its resistance to their control. The

3421:

Defending the Master Race : Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant

3028: 2970: 2905: 2525: 2457: 2214: 1905: 1853: 1794: 1753: 6586: 6560: 6514: 6494: 5438: 5385: 5295: 5214: 5199: 5194: 5146: 5034: 4830: 4778: 4761: 4595: 3053: 3012: 2930: 2889: 2795: 2745: 1811: 1776: 1677: 1667: 1662: 1590: 1560: 1463: 1435: 1415: 1403: 1374: 1320: 1287: 1266: 1261: 1140: 941: 656: 644: 427: 403: 391: 348: 177: 149: 103: 3100: 2412:

Wilderness protected areas: Management guidelines for IUCN category 1b protected areas

2410:

Mejicano, E.; Gilbert, T.; MacKey, B.; Aykroyd, T.; Zimmerman, B.; Thomas, J. (2016).

977: 414:

there. As before, this interest in conservation had an economic motive: in this case,

6611: 6499: 6200: 5402: 5239: 5129: 5086: 4867: 4744: 4630: 4580: 4444: 4069: 3959: 3849: 3726: 3607: 2890:"Temporally inter-comparable maps of terrestrial wilderness and the Last of the Wild" 2605: 2556: 2541: 2291: 2259: 2003: 1777:"Temporally inter-comparable maps of terrestrial wilderness and the Last of the Wild" 1723: 1693: 1652: 1535: 1491: 1332: 1253: 1109: 1038: 821: 640: 615: 526: 478: 241: 210: 129:

cultivation. The term has traditionally referred to terrestrial environments, though

84: 66: 3173: 2481: 2158: 1241: 293:

was early man's greatest good, wilderness, as its antipode, was his greatest evil."

58: 43: 6576: 6288: 5801: 5622: 5204: 5162: 4938: 4889: 4825: 4681: 4585: 4293: 4279: 2419: 2065:

Hogan, L. (1994). Department of the Interior. In P. Foster (Ed.), Minding the Body.

1672: 1500: 1311: 1270: 1225: 952: 933:

In the United States, a Wilderness Area is an area of federal land set aside by an

686: 682: 648: 310: 161: 119: 2744:

United States National Park Service – Wilderness – Fort Pulaski National Monument

2699: 1951: 693:

conservationists" or preservationists. The main representative for the former was

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wilderness areas are remote blocks of land that have high natural character. The

5300: 5244: 5066: 5044: 5039: 4906: 4783: 4749: 4737: 4625: 4548: 4252: 4127: 3801: 3771: 3214: 2955:"Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets" 1836:"Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets" 1366: 1218: 1092: 1026: 897: 550: 519: 482: 278: 261: 126: 76: 1429: 5224: 5182: 5124: 5093: 4732: 4664: 4602: 4575: 4538: 4344: 3788: 3755: 3165: 2979: 2954: 1914: 1887: 1862: 1835: 1520: 1425: 1316: 1049: 985: 538: 371: 193: 169: 3599: 3560: 3044: 2988: 2921: 2178: 2049: 1888:"The Location and Protection Status of Earth's Diminishing Marine Wilderness" 6313: 5290: 5172: 4980: 4975: 4953: 4842: 4835: 4654: 4649: 4556: 4533: 4303: 4265: 4220: 4210: 4150: 3759: 3645: 3187: 3121:

State of the Wild 2006: A Global Portrait of Wildlife, Wildlands and Oceans.

2817: 2650: 2099: 1407: 1362: 1354: 1344: 971: 748: 652: 573: 474: 306: 226: 189: 3660: 3201: 3062: 2996: 2939: 2913: 2473: 1923: 1871: 1820: 1802: 1084:)." The WILD Foundation founded the WTF/WCPA in 2002 and remains co-chair. 697:, first Chief of the United States Forest Service, and they focused on the 434:

to be designated as "wilderness preserves". Similar acts, such as the 1975

3698: 3670: 2840:". Western North Carolina's Mountain Treasures. Retrieved on 16 June 2010. 2087: 402:

Global conservation became an issue at the time of the dissolution of the

225:

and was a significant influence in Asian art. Artists in the tradition of

5417: 4985: 4911: 4852: 4847: 4795: 4705: 4676: 4669: 4659: 4590: 4564: 4560: 4552: 4354: 4298: 4230: 4165: 4051: 4039: 4011: 3708: 3088:

Chape, S., S. Blyth, L. Fish, P. Fox and M. Spalding (compilers) (2003).

1580: 1411: 1200: 1055:

Wilderness Management: Stewardship and Protection of Resources and Values

829: 530: 329: 290: 173: 35: 31: 3823: 3036: 2888:

Allan, James R.; Venter, Oscar; Watson, James E. M. (12 December 2017).

1775:

Allan, James R.; Venter, Oscar; Watson, James E. M. (12 December 2017).

5285: 5081: 5076: 5022: 4928: 4857: 4700: 4501: 4349: 4337: 4275: 4205: 4180: 4140: 4119: 4089: 3575: 3135:"Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World" 2465: 2283: 1555: 1525: 1510: 1485: 1327:

Others have criticized the American concept of wilderness as rooted in

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At the forefront of the international wilderness movement has been The

674: 367: 302: 269: 249: 157: 3901: 3591: 5134: 5099: 4923: 4879: 4727: 4525: 4332: 4325: 4034: 4029: 4003: 3971: 2039: 1565: 1550: 1192: 1169: 1166: 1113: 580: 569: 407: 245: 88: 4396: 3625: 2606:"Wildnis in Deutschland: Nationale Ziele, Status Quo und Potenziale" 2275: 390:. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is known to be the first World 997:

they could be returned to a "primeval" state through preservation.

5167: 5007: 4933: 4720: 4362: 4320: 4313: 4308: 4145: 4099: 4061: 4019: 3741: 2723: 1410:. Activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas, such as 1358: 1240: 1176: 1091: 1025: 976: 924: 884:

There are seven Wilderness Areas in New Zealand as defined by the

764: 664: 506: 491: 286: 153: 138: 111: 75: 57: 42: 3965:

The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature

3952:– Definition and discussion of wilderness as a human construction 3922: 3896: 5112: 4968: 4963: 4943: 4817: 4768: 4612: 4240: 4175: 4170: 4160: 4155: 4024: 3092: 1361:

man from Central Africa, in the Bronx Zoo monkey house exhibit.

1249: 1196: 1136: 1132: 1034: 122: 5499: 4400: 3975: 3077:

Global Analysis Finds Nearly Half The Earth Is Still Wilderness

2498: 5071: 4715: 3913: 839: 643:, partly through the efforts of writers and activists such as 185: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3278:

Going Wild: Adventures with Birds in the Suburban Wilderness

3246:

University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved: 28 January 2007.

2578: 1296:

Going Wild: Adventures with Birds in the Suburban Wilderness

1269:. In the mid-20th century national parks started to protect 907:

Three Wilderness Areas are currently recognised, all on the

3627:

Uncommon ground : rethinking the human place in nature

1310:

Coming from a different direction, some criticism from the

631:

Conservation and preservation in 20th century United States

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man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain."

485:

and the California Central Valley affects Kern Canyon and

546:

countries, beginning with the United States (see below).

469:

and many others are active in such conservation efforts.

3902:

Wilderness Task Force/World Commission on Protect Areas

3885:

Wilderness Articles, Survival Techniques, Edible Plants

3200:

University of Manitoba Taiga Biological Station. 2004.

2304:

New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Service,

1319:

with as little interference from humanity as possible.

3945:

Detailed maps of United States wilderness designations

3918: 2204:

Mapping the National Parks. Retrieved on: 2010-08-12.

1063:

A Handbook on International Wilderness Law and Policy

579:

The U.S. concept of national parks soon caught on in

252:

King, defined the first laws in the world to protect

3445:"Shades of Darkness: Race and Environmental History" 2746:

https://www.nps.gov/fopu/learn/nature/wilderness.htm

2360:

International Encyclopedia of Environmental Politics

2188:. www.borealcanada.ca Retrieved on: 1 December 2007. 1689:

Wilderness Area (Protected Area Management Category)

1005:

in the United States ranging in size from Florida's

141:, with only 13.2% free from intense human activity. 19:

This article is about wildland. For other uses, see

6569: 6538: 6485: 6447: 6219: 6191: 6153: 6133: 6057: 6048: 5815: 5777: 5754: 5711: 5533: 5416: 5274: 5155: 5015: 5006: 4816: 4611: 4524: 4494: 4443: 4434: 4239: 4196: 4118: 4060: 4010: 289:, with the seas as the remains of that Flood." "If 2004:https://archive.org/details/sacredtheoryofea01burn 1988: 1986: 587:in 1885, at the same time as the transcontinental 1696: – International law term for unclaimed land 410:in the late 1940s. The British established great 723:(IUCN) classifies wilderness at two levels, 1a ( 217:(618–907). The tradition of representing nature 3576:"Money, Mortgages, and the Conquest of America" 3423:. Burlington: University Press of New England. 3806:On Nature: Great Writers on the Great Outdoors 3123:Washington, D.C. Island Press. pp. 16 &17. 2850:Department of Conservation and Land Management 2499:"The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA)" 1078:International Union for Conservation of Nature 610:Despite their similar name, national parks in 599:with the building of great hotels such as the 5769:Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre 5511: 4412: 3987: 3541:Opello, Walter C.; Rosow, Stephen J. (2004). 2153: 2151: 1980:BC Spaces for Nature. Retrieved: 20 May 2006. 114:that have not been significantly modified by 8: 3367:. Boston: Shambhala. pp. 323, 323–330. 3339:. Boston: Shambhala. pp. 345, 339–355. 3090:2003 United Nations List of Protected Areas. 2219:Congressional Acts Pertaining to Yellowstone 1418:, also affect the interior of wildernesses. 1382:, this perception is also rooted in racism. 3766:(Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation. 3311:. University of Arizona Press. p. 43. 3095:, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK and 2307:"Parks & Reserves: Royal National Park" 1072:The Wilderness Specialist Group within the 6054: 5518: 5504: 5496: 5278: 5012: 4440: 4419: 4405: 4397: 4245: 3994: 3980: 3972: 3897:Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute 2677:"Conservation Act 1987 Part 4, Section 20" 2168:A Better Earth.org. Retrieved: 1 June 2006 568:, located just 32 km to the south of 144:Some governments establish protection for 3232: 3230: 3052: 2978: 2929: 2388:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 20–21. 2159:"The Wilderness Idea: A Critical Review." 1973: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1913: 1861: 1810: 775:There are twelve wilderness areas in the 2705:Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand 2347:. New Haven: Yale UP, 2017. 409-32. Web. 1339:. Grant, who worked alongside President 1315:requires the ability of life to undergo 845: 701:whereas the preservationists sought the 3862:IUCN Category 1a: Strict Nature Reserve 3473:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2792:Prominent Figures in Wilderness History 1961:Asia-art.net Retrieved on: 20 May 2006. 1707: 1616:National Wilderness Preservation System 921:National Wilderness Preservation System 2357:John Barry; E. Gene Frankland (2002). 1402:, or through global processes such as 1067:Protecting Wild Nature on Native Lands 564:The world's second national park, the 467:The Wilderness Society (United States) 3692: 3690: 3619: 3617: 3257:Second Nature: A Gardener's Education 3119:Wildlife Conservation Society. 2005. 2493: 2491: 2339: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2073: 2071: 2061: 2059: 2033: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2021: 1125:Wilderness: Earth's Last Wild Places, 669:Cook Lake in the Bridger Wilderness, 184:that may be difficult to recreate in 7: 2818:Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge 2199:Yellowstone, the First National Park 2179:Boreal Forest Conservation Framework 1576:John Muir Lifetime Achievement Award 1414:suppression and the interruption of 1335:, were also heavily involved in the 1199:. However, from the 1970s, numerous 447:Boreal Forest Conservation Framework 430:of 1964, which allowed for parts of 176:traits and provide habitat for wild 3928:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1074:World Commission on Protected Areas 1059:International Journal of Wilderness 260:around the 3rd century B.C. In the 3867:IUCN Category 1b: Wilderness Areas 3697:Claus, C. Anne (3 November 2020). 3665:. University of California Press. 3075:Conservation International (2002) 1611:National Outdoor Leadership School 172:. They may also preserve historic 14: 6556:Wainuiomata Water Collection Area 5995:Te Paepae o Aotea (Volkner Rocks) 5910:Moutere Ihupuku / Campbell Island 3914:Campaign for America's Wilderness 3703:. University of Minnesota Press. 3659:Anderson, M. Kat (14 June 2005). 3520:. Durham: Duke University Press. 3365:Deep Ecology for the 21st Century 3337:Deep Ecology for the 21st Century 2710:Ministry for Culture and Heritage 1273:, not simply attractive scenery. 6183:Te Kuri a Paoa/Young Nick's Head 6173:Puhi Kai Iti / Cook Landing Site 6035:Whanganui-A-Hei (Cathedral Cove) 5960:Taumoana (Five Finger Peninsula) 5915:Moutere Mahue / Antipodes Island 5905:Moutere Hauriri / Bounty Islands 5807:Te Kuri a Paoa/Young Nick's Head 5797:Puhi Kai Iti / Cook Landing Site 5731:Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari 5480: 5479: 4381: 4380: 3956:Wilderness and the American Mind 3923:"American Wilderness Philosophy" 3213:Rainforest Foundation US. 2006. 3133:Simon Romero (14 January 2012). 2816:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2258:Spence, Mark David (July 1996). 2041:Wilderness and the American mind 1484: 1470: 1456: 1442: 1428: 844: 5613:Korowai / Torlesse Tussocklands 3335:(1995). George Sessions (ed.). 2675:New Zealand Government (1987). 1123:According to a previous study, 1106:Togiak National Wildlife Refuge 1003:806 designated wilderness areas 497:A view of wilderness in Estonia 316:In relation to the wilderness, 16:Undisturbed natural environment 5945:Taipari Roa (Elizabeth Island) 5527:Protected areas of New Zealand 3880:Wilderness Information Network 3202:Frequently answered questions. 3188:"Unnatural Histories – Amazon" 2420:10.2305/IUCN.CH.2016.PAG.25.en 2386:Introduction to Forest Science 710:Formal wilderness designations 703:protection of nature from use. 335:The idea of wilderness having 1: 6211:Truby King Recreation Reserve 6000:Te Tapuwae o Hua (Long Sound) 1596:List of U.S. Wilderness Areas 1350:The Passing of the Great Race 1158:Wildlife Conservation Society 963:The Great Swamp in New Jersey 770:Tsarmitunturi Wilderness Area 727:) and 1b (Wilderness areas). 671:Bridger-Teton National Forest 451:Wildlife Conservation Society 205:Ancient times and Middle Ages 6520:Pāuatahanui Wildlife Reserve 5764:Pāuatahanui Wildlife Reserve 4445:Pollution / quality 3307:Durrant, Jeffrey O. (2007). 2820:. Retrieved on: 7 June 2008. 2732:Land Information New Zealand 2534:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.06.026 855:appears to contradict itself 549:The first National Park was 443:protect tropical rainforests 436:Eastern Wilderness Areas Act 150:preserve what already exists 5985:Te Hapua (Sutherland Sound) 5980:Te Awaatu Channel (The Gut) 5756:Government purpose reserves 5573:Eyre Mountains/Taka Ra Haka 3237:The Trouble with Wilderness 2700:"Specially protected areas" 2501:. IUCN and UNEP-WCMC. 2016. 2317:. Accessed 6 December 2011. 2177:Canadian Boreal Initiative 1746:"What is a Wilderness Area" 1628:Native American use of fire 761:Wilderness areas of Finland 576:, was established in 1879. 541:combined with increases in 366:through the application of 25:Wilderness (disambiguation) 6651: 6623:Global natural environment 6546:Hutt Water Collection Area 5925:Piopiotahi (Milford Sound) 5895:Moana Uta (Wet Jacket Arm) 3516:Dorceta E. Taylor (2016). 3079:. Retrieved on 6 Nov 2017. 2831:The Wilderness Act of 1964 2384:Young, Raymond A. (1982). 2363:. Routledge. p. 161. 2215:"The Magic of Yellowstone" 2094:. 2017. pp. 145–174. 1622:National Wildlife Magazine 1300:Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers 1129:Conservation International 918: 813: 758: 655:, and politicians such as 463:Conservation International 388:Fontainebleau State Forest 221:became one of the aims of 48:White Goat Wilderness Area 29: 18: 6414:Wainuiomata Regional Park 6020:Ulva Island-Te Wharawhara 5900:Motu Manawa-Pollen Island 5835:Cape Rodney-Okakari Point 5741:Tawharanui Open Sanctuary 5721:Brook Waimārama Sanctuary 5475: 5281: 5016:Types / location 4376: 4289: 4248: 3789:Casson, S. et al. (Ed.s). 3624:William., Cronon (1996). 3276:Winkler, Robert. (2003). 3242:27 September 2011 at the 3215:Commonly asked questions. 3166:10.1017/S0003598X00099373 2980:10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049 2836:23 September 2010 at the 2044:. Yale University Press. 1915:10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.010 1863:10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049 1246:Cedar Mountain Wilderness 1207:civilizations. The BBC's 967:National Natural Landmark 614:are quite different from 516:El Yunque National Forest 63:Stephen Mather Wilderness 6597:Wildlife management area 6324:Mutukaroa / Hamlins Hill 6249:Auckland Botanic Gardens 6206:Otago Central Rail Trail 3630:. W.W. Norton & Co. 3580:Law & Social Inquiry 3255:Pollan, Michael (2003). 2758:"Wilderness Act of 1964" 2679:. New Zealand Government 2585:(in German). 9 July 2019 1720:National Weather Service 1601:List of conservationists 1191:and deserts such as the 816:National parks of Greece 721:World Conservation Union 589:Canadian Pacific Railway 30:Not to be confused with 6314:Motukorea Browns Island 6030:Westhaven (Te Tai Tapu) 5792:Maungauika / North Head 5703:Whirinaki Te Pua-a-Tāne 5608:Ka Whata Tu O Rakihouia 3890:23 October 2020 at the 3395:. New York: Routledge. 2724:"New Zealand Gazetteer" 2514:Biological Conservation 2184:8 December 2007 at the 2100:10.5749/j.ctt1pwt77c.12 2038:Roderick, Nash (1973). 1978:History of Conservation 1571:Intact forest landscape 1546:Environmental education 886:National Parks Act 1980 801:National Forests Office 621:national park authority 597:Canada's National Parks 6005:Te Tapuwae o Rongokako 5880:Kutu Parera (Gaer Arm) 3875:The Wilderness Society 3767: 3224:Retrieved: 2006-07-04. 3220:1 October 2006 at the 3204:Retrieved: 2006-07-04. 2914:10.1038/sdata.2017.187 2312:20 August 2006 at the 2164:30 August 2016 at the 2092:As We Have Always Done 1952:Chinese brush painting 1803:10.1038/sdata.2017.187 1658:Planetary habitability 1638:Nature-based solutions 1386:Human–nature dichotomy 1257: 1116: 1041: 1022:International movement 994:Eastern Wilderness Act 988: 930: 859:on the number of areas 772: 725:strict nature reserves 678: 522: 499: 459:The Nature Conservancy 231:mountain-water-picture 164:, ecological studies, 92: 73: 55: 5890:Long Island-Kokomohua 5736:Orokonui Ecosanctuary 3745: 3671:10.1525/9780520933101 3259:p. 188. Grove Press. 3017:Nature Communications 2264:Environmental History 1531:Conservation movement 1450:Earth sciences portal 1371:environmental justice 1244: 1146:strict nature reserve 1095: 1029: 982:Latir Peak Wilderness 980: 928: 902:Conservation Act 1987 890:Conservation Act 1987 867:for more information. 768: 699:proper use of nature, 668: 637:conservation movement 510: 495: 487:Sequoia National Park 432:U.S. National Forests 381:conservation movement 343:in the 19th century. 79: 61: 46: 6551:Northern Pegasus Bay 6178:Subantarctic Islands 6120:Westland Tai Poutini 6015:Tuhua (Mayor Island) 5935:Poor Knights Islands 5391:remnant natural area 5028:storage and recovery 4694:habitat conservation 4512:Deforestation (REDD) 4261:Evolutionary history 3709:10.5749/j.ctv1bkc3t6 3700:Drawing the Sea Near 3574:Park, K-Sue (2016). 3280:National Geographic 2610:Natur und Landschaft 2561:Natur und Landschaft 2446:Conservation Biology 2345:The Future of Nature 2202:Library of Congress, 1900:(15): 2506–2512.e3. 1541:Ecological footprint 1151:protected wilderness 1143:, that is, either a 619:operated by its own 297:15th to 19th century 125:not under extensive 108:natural environments 6457:Alice Eaves Reserve 6193:Recreation reserves 6163:Hāpūpū / J M Barker 6070:Aoraki / Mount Cook 6025:Waiau Glacier Coast 5860:Kahukura (Gold Arm) 5787:Hāpūpū / J M Barker 5345:Earth Overshoot Day 4919:Marine conservation 4900:non-timber products 4198:Natural environment 3950:What is Wilderness? 3919:The WILD Foundation 3907:15 May 2008 at the 3776:A Walk in the Woods 3108:Library of Congress 3106:1 July 2004 at the 3037:10.1038/ncomms12558 3029:2016NatCo...712558V 2971:2016CBio...26.2929W 2906:2017NatSD...470187A 2798:on 29 December 2011 2768:on 11 December 2011 2655:New Zealand Tramper 2526:2019BCons.237..373B 2458:2018ConBi..32..116A 1957:26 May 2006 at the 1941:. pp. 155–157. 1906:2018CBio...28E2506J 1854:2016CBio...26.2929W 1795:2017NatSD...470187A 1230:Tropical rainforest 1210:Unnatural Histories 605:Chateau Lake Louise 601:Banff Springs Hotel 585:Banff National Park 566:Royal National Park 420:World Wildlife Fund 398:Modern conservation 148:by law to not only 133:is being placed on 6510:Kopuatai Peat Dome 6284:Glenfern Sanctuary 5845:Hawea (Clio Rocks) 5713:Ecological islands 5535:Conservation parks 5330:Ecosystem services 4453:Ambient standards 3967:by William Cronon. 3768: 3762:(baobab) species, 3497:. 2 September 2020 3160:(322): 1084–1095. 3139:The New York Times 2651:"Wilderness Areas" 2639:. 30 October 2018. 2466:10.1111/cobi.12976 2395:978-0-471-06438--1 2157:Akamani, K. (nd). 2088:"Land as Pedagogy" 1937:Botkin, Daniel B. 1756:on 4 December 2012 1684:Wilderness therapy 1478:Environment portal 1341:Theodore Roosevelt 1258: 1117: 1076:(WTF/WCPA) of the 1042: 989: 931: 777:Sami native region 773: 679: 523: 512:El Toro Wilderness 500: 412:wildlife preserves 357:William Wordsworth 93: 74: 56: 6605: 6604: 6409:Waimakariri River 6334:Onekawa Te Mawhai 6155:National reserves 6149: 6148: 6040:Whangarei Harbour 5930:Pohatu / Flea Bay 5779:Historic reserves 5638:North-west Nelson 5493: 5492: 5471: 5470: 5270: 5269: 4949:genetic resources 4885:genetic resources 4520: 4519: 4428:Natural resources 4394: 4393: 4372: 4371: 4045:chemical elements 3820:Environmental Law 3797:978-2-8317-1817-0 3764:Alluaudia procera 3758:features various 3718:978-1-4529-5946-7 3680:978-0-520-93310-1 3592:10.1111/lsi.12222 3545:. Lynne Rienner. 3527:978-0-8223-7397-1 3480:978-0-674-97156-1 3430:978-1-584-65715-6 3402:978-0-415-66110-2 3374:978-1-57062-049-2 3346:978-1-57062-049-2 3318:978-0-8165-2669-7 3286:978-0-7922-6168-1 3265:978-0-8021-4011-1 3099:, Cambridge, UK. 2965:(21): 2929–2934. 2869:. 8 February 2016 1848:(21): 2929–2934. 1648:Outdoor education 1643:Old-growth forest 1633:Natural landscape 1516:Biomass (ecology) 1400:indigenous people 1337:eugenics movement 1181:Amazon rainforest 1102:Togiak Wilderness 1013:Western Australia 882: 881: 612:England and Wales 376:forest management 364:natural resources 135:marine wilderness 131:growing attention 81:Innoko Wilderness 6640: 6628:Wilderness areas 6515:Manawatu Estuary 6472:Peel Forest Park 6419:Waitākere Ranges 6259:Battle Hill Farm 6055: 5875:Kermadec Islands 5830:Auckland Islands 5683:Te Kahui Kaupeka 5520: 5513: 5506: 5497: 5483: 5482: 5434: 5381:Natural heritage 5340:overexploitation 5279: 5013: 4959:herbal medicines 4939:FAO Plant Treaty 4479: 4456: 4441: 4421: 4414: 4407: 4398: 4384: 4383: 4256: 4246: 4186:tropical cyclone 4136: 3996: 3989: 3982: 3973: 3932: 3822:(2013): 83-124. 3731: 3730: 3694: 3685: 3684: 3662:Tending the Wild 3656: 3650: 3649: 3621: 3612: 3611: 3586:(4): 1006–1035. 3571: 3565: 3564: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3491: 3485: 3484: 3463: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3441: 3435: 3434: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3389:Layla AbdelRahim 3385: 3379: 3378: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3304: 3298: 3295: 3289: 3274: 3268: 3253: 3247: 3234: 3225: 3211: 3205: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3184: 3178: 3177: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3130: 3124: 3117: 3111: 3086: 3080: 3073: 3067: 3066: 3056: 3007: 3001: 3000: 2982: 2950: 2944: 2943: 2933: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2827: 2821: 2814: 2808: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2794:. Archived from 2784: 2778: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2764:. Archived from 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2735: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2647: 2641: 2640: 2633: 2627: 2624: 2618: 2617: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2592: 2590: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2552: 2546: 2545: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2495: 2486: 2485: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2406: 2400: 2399: 2381: 2375: 2374: 2354: 2348: 2341: 2318: 2302: 2296: 2295: 2255: 2230: 2229: 2227: 2225: 2211: 2205: 2195: 2189: 2175: 2169: 2155: 2146: 2143: 2132: 2129: 2114: 2113: 2084: 2078: 2075: 2066: 2063: 2054: 2053: 2035: 2016: 2013: 2007: 1999: 1993: 1990: 1981: 1975: 1962: 1949: 1943: 1942: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1917: 1882: 1876: 1875: 1865: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1814: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1752:. Archived from 1742: 1736: 1735: 1733: 1731: 1726:on 15 March 2023 1722:. Archived from 1712: 1586:Last of the Wild 1506:Adventure travel 1494: 1489: 1488: 1480: 1475: 1474: 1466: 1461: 1460: 1459: 1452: 1447: 1446: 1445: 1438: 1433: 1432: 1416:animal migration 1283: 1278:environmentalism 1215:forest gardening 1187:, the Australia 1098:Ahklun Mountains 970:thirty miles of 877: 874: 868: 848: 847: 840: 832:National Parks. 583:, which created 543:human population 525:The creation of 416:big game hunting 318:Native Americans 311:get rid of trees 266:Kings of England 258:Edicts of Ashoka 236: 223:Chinese painting 213:occurred in the 146:wilderness areas 102:(usually in the 52:Canadian Rockies 6650: 6649: 6643: 6642: 6641: 6639: 6638: 6637: 6633:Protected areas 6608: 6607: 6606: 6601: 6592:Wilderness area 6582:Ecological area 6565: 6534: 6525:Wairarapa Moana 6505:Firth of Thames 6481: 6449:Scenic reserves 6443: 6359:Queen Elizabeth 6239:Ashley Rakahuri 6215: 6187: 6145: 6129: 6044: 5817:Marine reserves 5811: 5773: 5750: 5707: 5529: 5524: 5494: 5489: 5467: 5432: 5412: 5398:Systems ecology 5364:Natural capital 5266: 5151: 5140:reclaimed water 5002: 4964:UPOV Convention 4812: 4607: 4516: 4490: 4486:Ozone depletion 4477: 4454: 4430: 4425: 4395: 4390: 4368: 4285: 4254: 4235: 4192: 4134: 4114: 4105:Gaia hypothesis 4095:Plate tectonics 4056: 4006: 4000: 3970: 3940: 3935: 3921: 3909:Wayback Machine 3892:Wayback Machine 3858: 3841: 3802:Gutkind, L (Ed) 3740: 3738:Further reading 3735: 3734: 3719: 3696: 3695: 3688: 3681: 3658: 3657: 3653: 3638: 3623: 3622: 3615: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3553: 3540: 3539: 3535: 3528: 3515: 3514: 3510: 3500: 3498: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3481: 3467:Miles A. Powell 3465: 3464: 3460: 3450: 3448: 3447:. 11 April 2005 3443: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3415: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3375: 3361:George Sessions 3359: 3358: 3354: 3347: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3319: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3275: 3271: 3254: 3250: 3244:Wayback Machine 3235: 3228: 3222:Wayback Machine 3212: 3208: 3199: 3195: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3132: 3131: 3127: 3118: 3114: 3087: 3083: 3074: 3070: 3009: 3008: 3004: 2959:Current Biology 2952: 2951: 2947: 2894:Scientific Data 2887: 2886: 2882: 2872: 2870: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2838:Wayback Machine 2828: 2824: 2815: 2811: 2801: 2799: 2786: 2785: 2781: 2771: 2769: 2756: 2755: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2722: 2721: 2717: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2682: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2659: 2657: 2649: 2648: 2644: 2635: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2603: 2602: 2598: 2588: 2586: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2554: 2553: 2549: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2497: 2496: 2489: 2442: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2371: 2356: 2355: 2351: 2342: 2321: 2314:Wayback Machine 2303: 2299: 2276:10.2307/3985155 2257: 2256: 2233: 2223: 2221: 2213: 2212: 2208: 2196: 2192: 2186:Wayback Machine 2176: 2172: 2166:Wayback Machine 2156: 2149: 2144: 2135: 2130: 2117: 2110: 2086: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2069: 2064: 2057: 2037: 2036: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1984: 1976: 1965: 1959:Wayback Machine 1950: 1946: 1939:No Man's Garden 1936: 1935: 1931: 1893:Current Biology 1884: 1883: 1879: 1841:Current Biology 1833: 1832: 1828: 1782:Scientific Data 1774: 1773: 1769: 1759: 1757: 1750:WILD Foundation 1744: 1743: 1739: 1729: 1727: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1490: 1483: 1476: 1469: 1462: 1457: 1455: 1448: 1443: 1441: 1434: 1427: 1424: 1388: 1380:systemic racism 1329:white supremacy 1281: 1239: 1185:Tibetan Plateau 1162:human footprint 1127:carried out by 1090: 1046:WILD Foundation 1031:Monument Valley 1024: 1015: 957:Gila Wilderness 935:act of Congress 923: 917: 878: 872: 869: 863:Please see the 862: 849: 838: 818: 812: 789: 781:Finnish Lapland 763: 757: 744: 717: 712: 695:Gifford Pinchot 660:Teddy Roosevelt 633: 505: 498: 455:WILD Foundation 426:passage of the 400: 374:". Concepts of 353:J. M. W. Turner 339:emerged in the 337:intrinsic value 320:were viewed as 299: 254:flora and fauna 234: 207: 202: 168:, solitude and 39: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6648: 6647: 6644: 6636: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6610: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6587:Sanctuary area 6584: 6579: 6573: 6571: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6542: 6540: 6536: 6535: 6533: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6495:Awarua Wetland 6491: 6489: 6483: 6482: 6480: 6479: 6477:Waro Limestone 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6453: 6451: 6445: 6444: 6442: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6225: 6223: 6221:Regional parks 6217: 6216: 6214: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6197: 6195: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6159: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6147: 6146: 6144: 6143: 6137: 6135: 6131: 6130: 6128: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6095:Mount Aspiring 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6061: 6059: 6052: 6050:National parks 6046: 6045: 6043: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5885:Long Bay-Okura 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5821: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5783: 5781: 5775: 5774: 5772: 5771: 5766: 5760: 5758: 5752: 5751: 5749: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5717: 5715: 5709: 5708: 5706: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5628:Mount Richmond 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5539: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5523: 5522: 5515: 5508: 5500: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5487: 5476: 5473: 5472: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5433:(perpetuation) 5428: 5422: 5420: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5386:Nature reserve 5383: 5378: 5377: 5376: 5371: 5361: 5360: 5359: 5349: 5348: 5347: 5342: 5332: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5310: 5309: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5282: 5276: 5272: 5271: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5257: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5159: 5157: 5153: 5152: 5150: 5149: 5144: 5143: 5142: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5121: 5120: 5110: 5105: 5104: 5103: 5091: 5090: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5069: 5064: 5063: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5019: 5017: 5010: 5004: 5003: 5001: 5000: 4999: 4998: 4993: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4972: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4877: 4876: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4863:climate change 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4831:Bioprospecting 4828: 4822: 4820: 4814: 4813: 4811: 4810: 4809: 4808: 4803: 4793: 4792: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4766: 4765: 4764: 4759: 4758: 4757: 4752: 4742: 4741: 4740: 4735: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4713: 4708: 4698: 4697: 4696: 4686: 4685: 4684: 4674: 4673: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4634: 4633: 4617: 4615: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4593: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4530: 4528: 4522: 4521: 4518: 4517: 4515: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4498: 4496: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4488: 4483: 4482: 4481: 4476:Clean Air Act 4468: 4463: 4458: 4449: 4447: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4426: 4424: 4423: 4416: 4409: 4401: 4392: 4391: 4389: 4388: 4377: 4374: 4373: 4370: 4369: 4367: 4366: 4359: 4358: 4357: 4352: 4342: 4341: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4329: 4328: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4301: 4296: 4290: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4283: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4249: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4202: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4190: 4189: 4188: 4183: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4130: 4124: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4113: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4072: 4066: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4054: 4049: 4048: 4047: 4042: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4016: 4014: 4008: 4007: 4001: 3999: 3998: 3991: 3984: 3976: 3969: 3968: 3962: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3933: 3916: 3911: 3899: 3894: 3882: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3869: 3864: 3857: 3856:External links 3854: 3853: 3852: 3840: 3837: 3836: 3835: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3816: 3799: 3786: 3739: 3736: 3733: 3732: 3717: 3686: 3679: 3651: 3636: 3613: 3566: 3551: 3533: 3526: 3508: 3486: 3479: 3458: 3436: 3429: 3417:Jonathan Spiro 3408: 3401: 3380: 3373: 3352: 3345: 3324: 3317: 3299: 3290: 3269: 3248: 3226: 3206: 3193: 3179: 3144: 3125: 3112: 3081: 3068: 3002: 2945: 2880: 2854: 2842: 2822: 2809: 2788:"Aldo Leopold" 2779: 2762:Wilderness.net 2749: 2737: 2715: 2690: 2667: 2642: 2628: 2619: 2596: 2570: 2547: 2504: 2487: 2452:(1): 116–126. 2435: 2428: 2401: 2394: 2376: 2369: 2349: 2319: 2297: 2231: 2206: 2190: 2170: 2147: 2133: 2115: 2108: 2079: 2067: 2055: 2017: 2008: 1994: 1982: 1963: 1944: 1929: 1877: 1826: 1767: 1737: 1706: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1697: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1678:Wilderness Act 1675: 1670: 1668:Wild fisheries 1665: 1663:Protected area 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1603: 1598: 1593: 1591:Leave no trace 1588: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1563: 1561:Global warming 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1497: 1496: 1495: 1481: 1467: 1464:Ecology portal 1453: 1439: 1436:Biology portal 1423: 1420: 1404:climate change 1387: 1384: 1375:Dorceta Taylor 1343:to create the 1321:Anthropologist 1288:Michael Pollan 1267:the Everglades 1262:William Cronon 1238: 1235: 1141:Protected Area 1089: 1086: 1048:, its founder 1023: 1020: 1014: 1011: 1007:Pelican Island 942:Wilderness Act 919:Main article: 916: 913: 880: 879: 852: 850: 843: 837: 834: 814:Main article: 811: 808: 788: 785: 759:Main article: 756: 753: 749:megaherbivores 743: 740: 716: 713: 711: 708: 657:U.S. President 645:John Burroughs 632: 629: 616:national parks 527:national parks 504: 503:National parks 501: 496: 428:Wilderness Act 404:British Empire 399: 396: 392:nature reserve 349:John Constable 298: 295: 206: 203: 201: 198: 116:human activity 21:The Wilderness 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6646: 6645: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6615: 6613: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6572: 6568: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6537: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6500:Farewell Spit 6498: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6488: 6484: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6454: 6452: 6450: 6446: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6399:Te Rau Pūriri 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6354:Papamoa Hills 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6222: 6218: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6201:Bastion Point 6199: 6198: 6196: 6194: 6190: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6160: 6158: 6156: 6152: 6142: 6139: 6138: 6136: 6132: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6075:Arthur's Pass 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6047: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5818: 5814: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5757: 5753: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5698:Whakarewarewa 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5593:Kaimai Mamaku 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5540: 5538: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5521: 5516: 5514: 5509: 5507: 5502: 5501: 5498: 5486: 5478: 5477: 5474: 5464: 5463:Non-renewable 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5415: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5403:Urban ecology 5401: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5365: 5362: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5353: 5350: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5337: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5311: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5283: 5280: 5277: 5273: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5235:Privatization 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5154: 5148: 5145: 5141: 5138: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5130:Surface water 5128: 5126: 5123: 5119: 5116: 5115: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5102: 5101: 5097: 5096: 5095: 5092: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5047: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5005: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4913: 4910: 4909: 4908: 4905: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4882: 4881: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4860: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4798: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4771: 4770: 4767: 4763: 4760: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4743: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4730: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4703: 4702: 4699: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4690: 4687: 4683: 4680: 4679: 4678: 4675: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4652: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4632: 4631:peak farmland 4629: 4628: 4627: 4624: 4623: 4622: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4604: 4601: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4527: 4523: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4493: 4487: 4484: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4422: 4417: 4415: 4410: 4408: 4403: 4402: 4399: 4387: 4379: 4378: 4375: 4365: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4347: 4346: 4343: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4322: 4319: 4315: 4312: 4311: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4291: 4288: 4281: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4255:(abiogenesis) 4251: 4250: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4238: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4195: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4117: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4070:Earth science 4068: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4037: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3997: 3992: 3990: 3985: 3983: 3978: 3977: 3974: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3960:Roderick Nash 3957: 3954: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3937: 3930: 3929: 3924: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3906: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3889: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3872: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3850:David Cebulla 3847: 3843: 3842: 3839:Documentaries 3838: 3833: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3815: 3814:1-58542-173-1 3811: 3807: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3784:0-7679-0251-3 3781: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3744: 3737: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3701: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3663: 3655: 3652: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3637:0-393-31511-8 3633: 3629: 3628: 3620: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3552:1-58826-289-8 3548: 3544: 3537: 3534: 3529: 3523: 3519: 3512: 3509: 3496: 3490: 3487: 3482: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3462: 3459: 3446: 3440: 3437: 3432: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3412: 3409: 3404: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3381: 3376: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3356: 3353: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3328: 3325: 3320: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3300: 3294: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3273: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3238: 3233: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3216: 3210: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3194: 3189: 3183: 3180: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3148: 3145: 3140: 3136: 3129: 3126: 3122: 3116: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3091: 3085: 3082: 3078: 3072: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3006: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2981: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2949: 2946: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2900:(1): 170187. 2899: 2895: 2891: 2884: 2881: 2868: 2864: 2858: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2832: 2826: 2823: 2819: 2813: 2810: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2783: 2780: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2750: 2747: 2741: 2738: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2719: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2706: 2701: 2698:Molloy, Les. 2694: 2691: 2678: 2671: 2668: 2656: 2652: 2646: 2643: 2638: 2632: 2629: 2623: 2620: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2600: 2597: 2584: 2580: 2574: 2571: 2567:(7): 314–322. 2566: 2562: 2558: 2551: 2548: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2508: 2505: 2500: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2439: 2436: 2431: 2429:9782831718170 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2405: 2402: 2397: 2391: 2387: 2380: 2377: 2372: 2370:9780415202855 2366: 2362: 2361: 2353: 2350: 2346: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2301: 2298: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2207: 2203: 2200: 2194: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2180: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2134: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2111: 2109:9781452956008 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2083: 2080: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2042: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2012: 2009: 2005: 1998: 1995: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1953: 1948: 1945: 1940: 1933: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1894: 1889: 1881: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1830: 1827: 1822: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1789:(1): 170187. 1788: 1784: 1783: 1778: 1771: 1768: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1741: 1738: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1711: 1708: 1701: 1695: 1694:Terra nullius 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1653:Permaforestry 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1623: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1602: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1536:Deforestation 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1493: 1492:Plants portal 1487: 1482: 1479: 1473: 1468: 1465: 1454: 1451: 1440: 1437: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1392: 1385: 1383: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1351: 1347:, also wrote 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1333:Madison Grant 1330: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1304: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1292:Second Nature 1289: 1285: 1279: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1255: 1254:United States 1251: 1247: 1243: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1227: 1222: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1205:Pre-Columbian 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1175: 1171: 1168: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1147: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1121: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1094: 1087: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1051: 1047: 1040: 1039:United States 1036: 1032: 1028: 1021: 1019: 1012: 1010: 1008: 1004: 998: 995: 987: 983: 979: 975: 973: 968: 964: 960: 958: 954: 949: 946: 943: 938: 936: 927: 922: 915:United States 914: 912: 910: 905: 903: 899: 894: 891: 887: 876: 866: 860: 856: 853:This section 851: 842: 841: 835: 833: 831: 827: 823: 817: 809: 807: 804: 802: 797: 793: 786: 784: 782: 778: 771: 767: 762: 754: 752: 750: 741: 739: 735: 731: 728: 726: 722: 715:International 714: 709: 707: 704: 700: 696: 690: 688: 684: 676: 672: 667: 663: 661: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 641:United States 638: 630: 628: 624: 622: 617: 613: 608: 606: 602: 598: 593: 590: 586: 582: 577: 575: 571: 567: 562: 558: 554: 552: 547: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 521: 517: 513: 509: 502: 494: 490: 488: 484: 480: 479:air pollution 476: 470: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 439: 437: 433: 429: 423: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 397: 395: 393: 389: 384: 382: 377: 373: 369: 365: 360: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 341:Western world 338: 333: 331: 325: 323: 319: 314: 312: 308: 304: 296: 294: 292: 288: 284: 280: 274: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 242:human history 238: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 211:landscape art 204: 199: 197: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 142: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 91:in the summer 90: 86: 82: 78: 72: 68: 64: 60: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 26: 22: 6591: 6577:Amenity area 6530:Whangamarino 6289:Hunua Ranges 6274:East Harbour 6100:Nelson Lakes 6010:Tonga Island 5802:Stony Batter 5623:Mavora Lakes 5461: / 5407: 5335:Exploitation 5220:Conservation 5163:Desalination 5098: 4991:conservation 4826:Biodiversity 4774:conservation 4621:Agricultural 4549:Fossil fuels 4361: 4294:Biodiversity 4280:astrobiology 4225: 4002:Elements of 3926: 3846:Wild Forests 3845: 3819: 3805: 3775: 3748:spiny forest 3699: 3661: 3654: 3626: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3542: 3536: 3517: 3511: 3499:. Retrieved 3489: 3470: 3461: 3449:. Retrieved 3439: 3420: 3411: 3392: 3383: 3364: 3355: 3336: 3333:Thomas Birch 3327: 3308: 3302: 3293: 3277: 3272: 3256: 3251: 3209: 3196: 3182: 3157: 3153: 3147: 3138: 3128: 3120: 3115: 3110:Web Archives 3089: 3084: 3071: 3023:(1): 12558. 3020: 3016: 3005: 2962: 2958: 2948: 2897: 2893: 2883: 2871:. Retrieved 2866: 2863:"Wilderness" 2857: 2845: 2825: 2812: 2800:. Retrieved 2796:the original 2791: 2782: 2770:. Retrieved 2766:the original 2761: 2752: 2740: 2728:linz.govt.nz 2727: 2718: 2703: 2693: 2681:. Retrieved 2670: 2658:. Retrieved 2654: 2645: 2631: 2622: 2613: 2609: 2599: 2587:. Retrieved 2582: 2573: 2564: 2560: 2550: 2517: 2513: 2507: 2449: 2445: 2438: 2411: 2404: 2385: 2379: 2359: 2352: 2344: 2305: 2300: 2270:(3): 29–49. 2267: 2263: 2222:. Retrieved 2218: 2209: 2201: 2193: 2173: 2091: 2082: 2040: 2011: 1997: 1947: 1938: 1932: 1897: 1891: 1880: 1845: 1839: 1829: 1786: 1780: 1770: 1758:. Retrieved 1754:the original 1740: 1728:. Retrieved 1724:the original 1710: 1673:Wildcrafting 1620: 1606:Bob Marshall 1501:Aldo Leopold 1397: 1393: 1389: 1348: 1326: 1312:Deep Ecology 1309: 1305: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1275: 1271:biodiversity 1259: 1248:in northern 1226:biodiversity 1223: 1208: 1161: 1160:generated a 1155: 1150: 1144: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1071: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1043: 1016: 999: 990: 961: 953:Aldo Leopold 950: 947: 939: 932: 906: 895: 883: 870: 858: 854: 819: 805: 798: 794: 790: 779:in northern 774: 745: 736: 732: 729: 718: 702: 698: 691: 687:deep ecology 683:Aldo Leopold 680: 649:Aldo Leopold 634: 625: 609: 594: 578: 563: 559: 555: 548: 524: 471: 440: 438:, followed. 424: 401: 385: 361: 334: 326: 315: 300: 283:natura lapsa 282: 275: 248:, the Great 240:For most of 239: 230: 218: 215:Tang Dynasty 208: 194:laboratories 166:conservation 162:biodiversity 145: 143: 127:agricultural 120:nonurbanized 99: 95: 94: 40: 6539:Other areas 6467:Goldie Bush 6384:Tawhitokino 6374:Tāpapakanga 6339:Orere Point 6299:Lake Tekapo 6065:Abel Tasman 5975:Te Angiangi 5965:Tauparikākā 5955:Taputeranga 5618:Lake Sumner 5568:Craigieburn 5454:Nationalism 5426:Common-pool 5067:Hydrosphere 5060:remediation 5045:Groundwater 4640:Degradation 4345:Prokaryotes 4133:Atmosphere 4128:Meteorology 3938:Definitions 3190:. BBC Four. 2660:28 November 2520:: 373–382. 2197:Mangan, E. 1760:20 February 1730:28 December 1367:Nordic race 1219:terra preta 1104:within the 1082:Category 1b 898:New Zealand 836:New Zealand 551:Yellowstone 520:Puerto Rico 514:within the 483:Los Angeles 303:puritanical 273:countries. 262:Middle Ages 6618:Wilderness 6612:Categories 6462:Bruce Park 6439:Whakatīwai 6434:Whakanewha 6429:Wenderholm 6379:Tāwharanui 6369:Shakespear 6349:Pakuratahi 6244:Ātiu Creek 6168:Lewis Pass 6141:Te Urewera 5970:Tāwharanui 5920:Parininihi 5855:Horoirangi 5726:Bushy Park 5688:Te Papanui 5673:Ruataniwha 5563:Coromandel 5449:Extraction 5408:Wilderness 5369:accounting 5352:Management 5318:ecological 5306:tragedy of 5225:Peak water 5210:Efficiency 5183:Sanitation 5125:Stormwater 5118:harvesting 5094:Irrigation 4996:management 4954:gene banks 4895:management 4873:management 4789:resilience 4755:phosphorus 4711:industrial 4689:Management 4665:soundscape 4571:Geothermal 4226:Wilderness 4079:geological 3804:. 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