Wind turbine - Knowledge

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done. Common materials such as cast iron, steel and concrete would increase by 2%–3% compared to 2008. Between 110,000 and 115,000 metric tons of fiber glass would be required per year, a 14% increase. Rare-earth metal use would not increase much compared to available supply, however rare-earth metals that are also used for other technologies such as batteries which are increasing its global demand need to be taken into account. Land required would be 50,000 square kilometers onshore and 11,000 offshore. This would not be a problem in the US due to its vast area and because the same land can be used for farming. A greater challenge would be the variability and transmission to areas of high demand.

883:(or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance. However, these designs produce much less energy averaged over time, which is a major drawback. 806: 771: 1212: 1017: 1485: 1032: 948: 1127: 44: 1422: 746: 304: 795: 1181: 239: 231: 1044: 840:, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a yaw system. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator. Some turbines use a different type of generator suited to slower rotational speed input. These don't need a gearbox and are called direct-drive, meaning they couple the rotor directly to the generator with no gearbox in between. While 1360:(Dy). Systems that use magnetic direct drive turbines require greater amounts of rare-earth metals. Therefore, an increase in wind turbine manufacture would increase the demand for these resources. By 2035, the demand for Nd is estimated to increase by 4,000 to 18,000 tons and for Dy by 200 to 1,200 tons. These values are a quarter to half of current production. However, these estimates are very uncertain because technologies are developing rapidly. 1302: 1069: 1325:, and it would require 14% by 2020. Globally, the main exporting countries are South Africa, Mexico, and China. This is similar with other critical and valuable materials required for energy systems such as magnesium, silver and indium. The levels of recycling of these materials are very low, and focusing on that could alleviate supply. Because most of these valuable materials are also used in other emerging technologies, like 6328: 6352: 1387: 1077: 6316: 1681: 1286:

may grow if fatigue and strength properties can be improved. Pre-stressed concrete has been increasingly used for the material of the tower, but still requires much reinforcing steel to meet the strength requirement of the turbine. Additionally, step-up gearboxes are being increasingly replaced with variable speed generators, which requires magnetic materials.

6340: 894:, the 360-degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype. 1371:

Glass fiber is the most common material for reinforcement. Its demand has grown due to growth in construction, transportation and wind turbines. Its global market might reach US$ 17.4 billion by 2024, compared to US$ 8.5 billion in 2014. In 2014, Asia Pacific produced more than 45% of the market; now

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generated. The material consumption and stock at that time was compared to input materials for various onshore system sizes. In all EU countries, the estimates for 2020 doubled the values consumed in 2009. These countries would need to expand their resources to meet the estimated demand for 2020. For

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For the wind turbine blades, while the material cost is much higher for hybrid glass/carbon fiber blades than all-glass fiber blades, labor costs can be lower. Using carbon fiber allows simpler designs that use less raw material. The chief manufacturing process in blade fabrication is the layering of

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or nanoclay) in the polymer matrix of composites, fiber sizing or inter-laminar layers can improve fatigue resistance, shear or compressive strength, and fracture toughness of the composites by 30% to 80%. Research has also shown that incorporating small amounts of carbon nanotubes (CNT) can increase

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are used to measure dynamics of wind turbine blades. These methods usually measure displacement and strain to identify location of defects. Dynamic characteristics of non-rotating wind turbines have been measured using digital image correlation and photogrammetry. Three dimensional point tracking has

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As technology needed for wind turbines continued to improve, the prices decreased as well. In addition, there is currently no competitive market for wind energy (though there may be in the future), because wind is a freely available natural resource, most of which is untapped. The main cost of small

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A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing them on public display, either with visitor centers around their bases, or with viewing areas farther away. The wind turbines are generally of conventional horizontal-axis, three-bladed design and generate power

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A 2011 study by the United States Geological Survey estimated resources required to fulfill the US commitment to supplying 20% of its electricity from wind power by 2030. It did not consider requirements for small turbines or offshore turbines because those were not common in 2008 when the study was

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requires the energy given to the turbine from incoming wind to be equal to that of the combination of the energy in the outgoing wind and the energy converted to electrical energy. Since outgoing wind will still possess some kinetic energy, there must be a maximum proportion of the input energy that

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An onshore wind turbine that is newly built today produces around nine grams of CO2 for every kilowatt hour (kWh) it generates ... a new offshore plant in the sea emits seven grams of CO2 per kWh ... solar power plants emit 33 grams CO2 for every kWh generated ... natural gas produces 442 grams CO2

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Wind turbines provide a clean energy source, use little water, emitting no greenhouse gases and no waste products during operation. Over 1,400 tonnes (1,500 short tons) of carbon dioxide per year can be eliminated by using a one-megawatt turbine instead of one megawatt of energy from a fossil fuel.

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Instead of making wind turbine blade reinforcements from pure glass or pure carbon, hybrid designs trade weight for cost. For example, for an 8-metre (26 ft) blade, a full replacement by carbon fiber would save 80% of weight but increase costs by 150%, while a 30% replacement would save 50% of

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Most horizontal axis turbines have their rotors upwind of the supporting tower. Downwind machines have been built, because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind. In high winds, downwind blades can also be designed to bend more than upwind ones, which reduces

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In general, more stable and constant weather conditions (most notably wind speed) result in an average of 15% greater efficiency than that of a wind turbine in unstable weather conditions, thus allowing up to a 7% increase in wind speed under stable conditions. This is due to a faster recovery wake

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was able to build the first automatically operated wind turbine after consulting local University professors and his colleagues Jacob S. Gibbs and Brinsley Coleberd and successfully getting the blueprints peer-reviewed for electricity production. Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical

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These work .. by blowing hot air into the rotor blades so that the ice melts, or by using heating cables on the front edge of the rotor blades where the ice sticks. No chemicals are added to the water, in contrast to aircraft de-icing, which often involves extensive use of chemicals. The price tag

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for components has risked expense and price volatility as China has been main producer of rare earth minerals (96% in 2009) and was reducing its export quotas. However, in recent years, other producers have increased production and China has increased export quotas, leading to higher supply, lower

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Wind turbine parts other than the rotor blades (including the rotor hub, gearbox, frame, and tower) are largely made of steel. Smaller turbines (as well as megawatt-scale Enercon turbines) have begun using aluminum alloys for these components to make turbines lighter and more efficient. This trend

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When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of a rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height it is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind

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The stiffness of composites is determined by the stiffness of fibers and their volume content. Typically, E-glass fibers are used as main reinforcement in the composites. Typically, the glass/epoxy composites for wind turbine blades contain up to 75% glass by weight. This increases the stiffness,

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and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades, which results in

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has developed technology that can separate the fibers from the resin, allowing for reuse. In Germany, wind turbine blades are commercially recycled as part of an alternative fuel mix for a cement factory. In the United Kingdom, a project will trial cutting blades into strips for use as rebar in

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are responsible for about 5.2 fatalities per GWh. In comparison, conventional coal-fired generators contribute significantly more to bird mortality. A study on recorded bird populations in the United States from 2000 to 2020 found the presence of wind turbines had no significant effect on bird

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Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other purposes that require energy where there is no electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small wind

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turbines are sometimes preferred over gearbox generators because they "eliminate the gear-speed increaser, which is susceptible to significant accumulated fatigue torque loading, related reliability issues, and maintenance costs". There is also the pseudo direct drive mechanism, which has some

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On most horizontal wind turbine farms, a spacing of about 6–10 times the rotor diameter is often upheld. However, for large wind farms, distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economical, taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has been reached by

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The air velocity is the major contributor to the turbine efficiency. This is the reason for the importance of choosing the right location. The wind velocity will be high near the shore because of the temperature difference between the land and the ocean. Another option is to place turbines on

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despite declines in the industry. Organizing owners into associations and co-operatives led to the lobbying of the government and utilities and provided incentives for larger turbines throughout the 1980s and later. Local activists in Germany, nascent turbine manufacturers in Spain, and large

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Carbon fiber has more tensile strength, higher stiffness and lower density than glass fiber. An ideal candidate for these properties is the spar cap, a structural element of a blade that experiences high tensile loading. A 100-metre (330 ft) glass fiber blade could weigh up to 50 tonnes

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Generally, efficiency increases along with turbine blade lengths. The blades must be stiff, strong, durable, light and resistant to fatigue. Materials with these properties include composites such as polyester and epoxy, while glass fiber and carbon fiber have been used for the reinforcing.

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today and have a blade length up to 80 meters (260 ft). Designs with 10 to 12 MW were in preparation in 2018, and a "15 MW+" prototype with three 118-metre (387 ft) blades is planned to be constructed in 2022. The average hub height of horizontal axis wind turbines is 90 meters.

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includes effect on wildlife, but can be mitigated if proper strategies are implemented. Thousands of birds, including rare species, have been killed by the blades of wind turbines, though wind turbines contribute relatively insignificantly to anthropogenic avian mortality. Wind farms and

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These are offshore wind turbines that are supported by a floating platform. By having them float, they are able to be installed in deeper water allowing more of them. This also allows them to be further out of sight from land and therefore less public concern about the visual appeal.

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Lundstrom, Troy; Baqersad, Javad; Niezrecki, Christopher; Avitabile, Peter (4 November 2012). "Using High-Speed Stereophotogrammetry Techniques to Extract Shape Information from Wind Turbine/Rotor Operating Data". In Allemang, R.; De Clerck, J.; Niezrecki, C.; Blough, J.R. (eds.).

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Recent research by John Dabiri of Caltech suggests that vertical wind turbines may be placed much more closely together so long as an alternating pattern of rotation is created allowing blades of neighbouring turbines to move in the same direction as they approach one another.

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A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting. The advantages of variable pitch are high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a higher

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their swept area and thus their wind resistance, mitigating risk during gales. Despite these advantages, upwind designs are preferred, because the pulsing change in loading from the wind as each blade passes behind the supporting tower can cause damage to the turbine.

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Different materials have varying effects on the efficiency of wind turbines. In an Ege University experiment, three wind turbines, each with three blades with a diameter of one meter, were constructed with blades made of different materials: A glass and glass/carbon

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per kWh, power from hard coal 864 grams, and power from lignite, or brown coal, 1034 grams ... nuclear energy accounts for about 117 grams of CO2 per kWh, considering the emissions caused by uranium mining and the construction and operation of nuclear reactors.

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weight and increase costs by 90%. Hybrid reinforcement materials include E-glass/carbon, E-glass/aramid. The current longest blade by LM Wind Power is made of carbon/glass hybrid composites. More research is needed about the optimal composition of materials

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of Johns Hopkins University and Johan Meyers of Leuven University in Belgium, based on computer simulations that take into account the detailed interactions among wind turbines (wakes) as well as with the entire turbulent atmospheric boundary layer.

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China is the largest producer. The industry receives subsidies from the Chinese government allowing it to export cheaper to the US and Europe. However, price wars have led to anti-dumping measures such as tariffs on Chinese glass fiber.

397:. However, this perspective has been critically dismissed for failing to relay how most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for the expanded production of these minerals. 761:

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and more common. They can also include blades or be bladeless. Household-size vertical designs produce less power and are less common.

1509:. In the best case turbines are available to generate energy 98% of the time. Ice accretion on turbine blades has also been found to greatly reduce the efficiency of wind turbines, which is a common challenge in cold climates where 668: 1546:

Installation of new wind turbines can be controversial. An alternative is repowering, where existing wind turbines are replaced with bigger, more powerful ones, sometimes in smaller numbers while keeping or increasing capacity.

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and greater flow entrainment that occur in conditions of higher atmospheric stability. However, wind turbine wakes have been found to recover faster under unstable atmospheric conditions as opposed to a stable environment.

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Airborne wind turbines consist of wings or a small aircraft tethered to the ground. They are useful for reaching faster winds above which traditional turbines can operate. There are prototypes in operation in east Africa.

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Buchholz, Peter; Brandenburg, Torsten (1 January 2018). "Demand, Supply, and Price Trends for Mineral Raw Materials Relevant to the Renewable Energy Transition Wind Energy, Solar Photovoltaic Energy, and Energy Storage".

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tensile and compression strength. A promising composite material is glass fiber with modified compositions like S-glass, R-glass etc. Other glass fibers developed by Owens Corning are ECRGLAS, Advantex and WindStrand.

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use. Hybrid solar- and wind-powered units are increasingly being used for traffic signage, particularly in rural locations, since they avoid the need to lay long cables from the nearest mains connection point. The

276:. The batteries powered various electrical tools and lamps, as well as a threshing machine. Friedländer's windmill and its accessories were prominently installed at the north entrance to the main exhibition hall (" 323:(MW). The largest machines were on 24-metre (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23-metre (75 ft) diameter rotors. By 1908, there were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in the United States from 5 3193: 1643:

Energy harnessed by wind turbines is variable, and is not a "dispatchable" source of power; its availability is based on whether the wind is blowing, not whether electricity is needed. Turbines can be placed on

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wind turbines is the purchase and installation process, which averages between $ 48,000 and $ 65,000 per installation. Usually, the total amount of energy harvested amount to more than the cost of the turbines.

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turbulence. While wind speeds within the built environment are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites, noise may be a concern and an existing structure may not adequately resist the additional stress.

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to maximize the access of wind they have, but this also limits the locations where they can be placed. In this way, wind energy is not a particularly reliable source of energy. However, it can form part of the

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times the rate at which kinetic energy of the air arrives at the effective disk area of the machine. If the effective area of the disk is A, and the wind velocity v, the maximum theoretical power output P is:

701:, generator, and converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. To protect components from undue wear, extracted power is held constant above the rated operating speed as theoretical power 705:

of wind speed, further reducing theoretical efficiency. In 2001, commercial utility-connected turbines delivered 75% to 80% of the Betz limit of power extractable from the wind, at rated operating speed.

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Interest in recycling blades varies in different markets and depends on the waste legislation and local economics. A challenge in recycling blades is related to the composite material, which is made of

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Baqersad, Javad; Niezrecki, Christopher; Avitabile, Peter (2015). "Full-field dynamic strain prediction on a wind turbine using displacements of optical targets measured by stereophotogrammetry".

1141:) wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United States has a tower 80 meters (260 ft) high. The rotor assembly (blades and hub) measures about 80 meters (260 ft) in diameter. The 1316:

A 2015 study of the material consumption trends and requirements for wind energy in Europe found that bigger turbines have a higher consumption of precious metals but lower material input per

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Kim, Junbeum; Guillaume, Bertrand; Chung, Jinwook; Hwang, Yongwoo (1 February 2015). "Critical and precious materials consumption and requirement in wind energy system in the EU 27".

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Vertical turbine designs have much lower efficiency than standard horizontal designs. The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher

4564: 729:, glass/carbon, and glass/polyester. When tested, the results showed that the materials with higher overall masses had a greater friction moment and thus a lower power coefficient. 105:. One study claimed that, as of 2009, wind had the "lowest relative greenhouse gas emissions, the least water consumption demands and the most favorable social impacts" compared to 5566: 2227:"Die internationale elektrische Ausstellung Wien 1883 : unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Organisation, sowie der baulichen und maschinellen Anlagen / von E. R. Leonhardt" 1624:

Wind turbines can be very large, reaching over 260 m (850 ft) tall with blades 110 m (360 ft) long, and people have often complained about their visual impact.

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The first automatically operated wind turbine, built in Cleveland in 1887 by Charles F. Brush. It was 60 feet (18 m) tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6 metric tonnes) and powered a 12

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Efficiency can decrease slightly over time, one of the main reasons being dust and insect carcasses on the blades, which alter the aerodynamic profile and essentially reduce the

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Han, Xingxing; Liu, Deyou; Xu, Chang; Shen, Wen Zhong (2018). "Atmospheric stability and topography effects on wind turbine performance and wake properties in complex terrain".

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that warn aircraft, to avoid collisions. Residents living near windfarms, especially those in rural areas, have complained that the blinking lights are a bothersome form of

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and remote devices such as traffic warning signs. Larger turbines can contribute to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the

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vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops.

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Wind Energy in the United States and Materials Required for the Land-Based Wind Turbine Industry from 2010 through 2030 (Scientific Investigations Report 2011-5036)

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Frost and Sullivan, 2009, cited in Wind Generator Technology, by Eclareon S.L., Madrid, May 2012; www.eclareon.com; Available at Leonardo Energy – Ask an Expert;

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Wind turbines are classified by the wind speed they are designed for, from class I to class III, with A to C referring to the turbulence intensity of the wind.

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for hoisting maintenance tools and minor components. However, large, heavy components like generators, gearboxes, blades, and so on are rarely replaced, and a

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Dabiri, John O. (1 July 2011). "Potential order-of-magnitude enhancement of wind farm power density via counter-rotating vertical-axis wind turbine arrays".

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of wind turbines is usually performed using several accelerometers and strain gages attached to the nacelle to monitor the gearbox and equipment. Currently,

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Barber, S.; Wang, Y.; Jafari, S.; Chokani, N.; Abhari, R. S. (28 January 2011). "The Impact of Ice Formation on Wind Turbine Performance and Aerodynamics".

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It has been argued that expanding the use of wind power will lead to increasing geopolitical competition over critical materials for wind turbines, such as

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Wind farm waste is less toxic than other garbage. Wind turbine blades represent only a fraction of overall waste in the US, according to the wind-industry

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Twisted Savonius is a modified savonius, with long helical scoops to provide smooth torque. This is often used as a rooftop wind turbine and has even been

160: 5666: 176:(10–70 CE) marks one of the first recorded instances of wind powering a machine. However, the first known practical wind power plants were built in 4839: 327:(kW) to 25 kW. Around the time of World War I, American windmill makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-pumping. 1594:. Used wind turbine blades have been recycled by incorporating them as part of the support structures within pedestrian bridges in Poland and Ireland. 1189:

Construction may involve manual layup or injection molding. Retrofitting existing turbines with larger blades reduces the task and risks of redesign.

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Wind turbines convert wind energy to electrical energy for distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components:

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for generators and cables and such. As of 2018, global production of wind turbines use 450,000 tonnes (990 million pounds) of copper per year.

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plies. Thinner blades allow reducing the number of layers and thus the labor and in some cases, equate to the cost of labor for glass fiber blades.

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or repowered. 85% of turbine materials are easily reused or recycled, but the blades, made of a composite material, are more difficult to process.

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only ran for about five years before one of the blades snapped off. The unit was not repaired, because of a shortage of materials during the war.

915:"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus. They have good efficiency, but produce large 5213: 234:

Illustration of the wind turbine for power generation erected by Josef Friedlaender at the International Electrical Exhibition in Vienna in 1883

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The rotor, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low-speed rotational energy.

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by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30

5853: 5839: 5811: 5797: 5783: 5768: 5753: 5725: 4675: 4292: 4268: 4090: 4012: 3169: 2874: 2722: 2697: 2580: 2157: 2095: 2032: 5908: 2839: 2348: 1668:. A light mitigation approach involves Aircraft Detection Lighting Systems (ADLSs) by which the lights are turned on, only when the ADLS's 1451: 5562: 4574: 2436: 2128: 1270:, though this figure varies by location; for example, such numbers ranged from a half million in South America to $ 1.7 million in Asia. 1952:

Evans, Annette; Strezov, Vladimir; Evans, Tim (June 2009). "Assessment of sustainability indicators for renewable energy technologies".

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in the United Kingdom, electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries with widely scattered populations.

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Parisé, J.; Walker, T. R. (2017). "Industrial wind turbine post-construction bird and bat monitoring: A policy framework for Canada".

1925:"World wind capacity at 650,8 GW, Corona crisis will slow down markets in 2020, renewables to be core of economic stimulus programmes" 1627: 1498: 1116: 345:

generator on a 30-meter (98 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to have an annual

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to feed electrical grids, but they also serve the unconventional roles of technology demonstration, public relations, and education.

5825: 4964: 1864: 1454:(NREL) defines small wind turbines as those smaller than or equal to 100 kilowatts. Small units often have direct-drive generators, 4730: 3853: 3275: 828:

blades facing the incoming wind) produce the overwhelming majority of wind power in the world today. These turbines have the main

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taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190. By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the

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investors in the United States in the early 1990s then lobbied for policies that stimulated the industry in those countries.

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wind turbine being set. This particular turbine was prefabricated in Germany, before being shipped to the U.S. for assembly.

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This article is about wind-powered electrical generators. For wind-powered machinery used to grind grain or pump water, see

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Several utilities, startup companies, and researchers are developing methods for reusing or recycling blades. Manufacturer

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The surrounding structure, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.

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covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the

6222: 3407: 2411: 1661: 947: 264:. Friedländer's 6.6 m (22 ft) diameter Halladay “wind motor” was supplied by U.S. Wind Engine & Pump Co. of 6073: 4332: 1889: 1426: 1160: 1043: 1022: 1005: 207:. The first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th and 12th centuries; there are reports of German 4510: 4355: 4067: 1211: 374:

In the early 1970s, however, anti-nuclear protests in Denmark spurred artisan mechanics to develop microturbines of 22

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are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, with either horizontal or vertical axes, though horizontal is most common.

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component for converting the low-speed incoming rotation to high-speed rotation suitable for generating electricity.

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is mainly performed by internal heating or in some cases, by helicopters spraying clean warm water on the blades.

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Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into position

3999:. Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series. Springer New York. pp. 269–275. 3130:

Bywaters, G.; Mattila; Costin; Stowell; John; Hoskins; Lynch; Cole; Cate; C. Badger; B. Freeman (October 2007).

6299: 5901: 3777:""Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model", Technical Report NREL/TP-500-40566, December, 2006, page 35, 36" 3519: 1154: 5459: 4597: 3913: 3334: 4850: 3309: 6394: 6358: 5387: 1502: 1484: 364: 272:. The 3.7 kW (5 hp) windmill drove a dynamo at ground level that fed electricity into a series of 2738: 6414: 6294: 6289: 6053: 5022: 4036: 1884: 1429: 1334: 1142: 1130: 1112: 844: 799: 547: 415: 288: 242: 47: 6344: 3584: 555:

gives the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine, known as Betz's coefficient, as

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of power, with 60 GW added each year. Wind turbines are an increasingly important source of intermittent

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Wind energy in the 21st century: economics, policy, technology and the changing electricity industry

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Hau, E., Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics. Springer. Germany. 2006

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In the autumn of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized to a utility grid in

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are responsible for between 0.3 and 0.4 bird deaths per gigawatt-hour (GWh) of electricity while

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greater solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by the blade area divided by the rotor area.

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mountain ridges. The higher the wind turbine will be, the higher the wind velocity on average. A

710: 383: 173: 3053: 2846: 1180: 836:

at the top of a tower and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple

238: 230: 5333: 2087: 2081: 6320: 5975: 5876: 5849: 5835: 5821: 5807: 5793: 5779: 5764: 5749: 5721: 5505: 5426: 4914: 4671: 4545: 4491: 4424: 4264: 4008: 3679: 3558: 3492: 3401: 3249: 3165: 2940: 2870: 2791: 2718: 2693: 2684:. Wind Resource Assessment and Micro-siting, Science and Engineering. 2015. pp. 269–270. 2641: 2576: 2533: 2513: 2153: 2125: 2091: 2028: 1977: 1823: 1649: 1571: 1510: 1108: 963: 265: 185: 82: 4623: 2763: 2514:"Visible winds: The production of new visibilities of wind energy in West Germany, 1973–1991" 821:

Large three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) with the blades upwind of the tower (

6164: 5859: 5497: 5418: 4906: 4812: 4773: 4712: 4569: 4537: 4483: 4416: 4256: 4000: 3976: 3814: 3669: 3661: 3550: 3482: 3239: 3157: 2987: 2932: 2783: 2685: 2631: 2568: 2525: 2290: 1969: 1879: 1689: 1468: 1301: 1250: 794: 783: 296: 273: 132: 114: 110: 98: 1145:, which contains the generator, is 15.24 meters (50.0 ft) and weighs around 300 tons. 1068: 6274: 6269: 6227: 5738: 4941: 4651: 3444: 2132: 2073: 1665: 1521: 829: 546:

requires that the mass of air entering and exiting a turbine must be equal. Likewise, the

346: 216: 136: 5188:"New HS2 pilot project swaps steel for retired wind turbine blades to reinforce concrete" 3640:

Cherubini, Antonello; Papini, Andrea; Vertechy, Rocco; Fontana, Marco (1 November 2015).

2764:"The Maximum of the Theoretically Possible Exploitation of Wind by Means of a Wind Motor" 1761: 1458:

output, aeroelastic blades, and lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind.

5444:

Hosansky, David (1 April 2011). "Wind Power: Is wind energy good for the environment?".

5414: 4769: 4708: 4412: 3972: 3657: 3478: 3235: 2983: 2928: 2779: 2627: 1965: 6249: 6237: 6186: 5486:"Quantifying the Effects of Energy Infrastructure on Bird Populations and Biodiversity" 4951:

for de-icing a wind turbine is equivalent to the value of two days' turbine production.

4446: 3857: 2565:

The Wind Power Story: A Century of Innovation that Reshaped the Global Energy Landscape

1774: 1455: 1446: 1330: 1168: 702: 690: 74: 4840:"Reliability, Availability and Maintenance aspects of large-scale offshore wind farms" 2487: 663:{\displaystyle P={\frac {16}{27}}{\frac {1}{2}}\rho v^{3}A={\frac {8}{27}}\rho v^{3}A} 6378: 6363: 6217: 6058: 5517: 5307: 4969: 4753: 4692: 4278: 4178: 3570: 3504: 3365: 3280: 3261: 2952: 2896: 2590: 2545: 1924: 916: 864: 863:

for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed. These have low

552: 193: 4824: 4253:

2019 Advances in Science and Engineering Technology International Conferences (ASET)

3220:"Comparison between upwind and downwind designs of a 10 MW wind turbine rotor" 3179: 1567:

with carbon fibers in epoxy resin, which cannot be remolded to form new composites.

1192:

As of 2021, the longest blade was 115.5 m (379 ft), producing 15 MW.

955:

These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers,

6259: 5485: 4754:"Large eddy simulation study of fully developed wind-turbine array boundary layers" 4420: 4229: 1591: 1525: 1349: 1263: 1084:

Wind turbine design is a careful balance of cost, energy output, and fatigue life.

565:(59.3%) of the rate at which the kinetic energy of the air arrives at the turbine. 390: 106: 5860:

Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State

5422: 3219: 2302: 1386: 5531: 5362: 4004: 2968:"Numerical Comparison of the Effect of Blade Material on Wind Turbine Efficiency" 2936: 2864: 2322: 1099:

The generator, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the

6100: 4260: 3980: 3161: 2294: 1608: 1395: 1344:

Permanent magnets for wind turbine generators contain rare-earth metals such as

810: 679: 363:

The first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by

204: 189: 102: 4541: 4248: 3665: 3487: 3462: 3149: 3131: 2992: 2967: 2787: 2689: 2636: 2611: 2572: 2560: 2345:"Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas" 1973: 1607:

Wind turbines is one of the lowest-cost sources of renewable energy along with

1076: 6264: 6095: 5925: 5917: 5882:

Harvesting the Wind (45 lectures about wind turbines by professor Magdi Ragheb

3819: 3802: 3776: 3461:

Möllerström, Erik; Gipe, Paul; Beurskens, Jos; Ottermo, Fredric (1 May 2019).

2200: 1806: 1654: 1564: 1541: 1357: 847:

generators can be more costly due to the rare earth materials required, these

406: 394: 118: 101:, and are used in many countries to lower energy costs and reduce reliance on 70: 5588: 4918: 4549: 4495: 4428: 3803:"A Review on the Development of the Wind Turbine Generators across the World" 3748:"The US has just started building floating wind turbines – how do they work?" 3683: 3562: 3496: 3253: 2944: 2795: 2645: 2537: 1981: 1368:

cost, and greater viability of large-scale use of variable-speed generators.

1195:

Blades usually last around 20 years, the typical lifespan of a wind turbine.

6105: 5987: 5501: 5237: 4359: 4091:"Wind developers are retrofitting newer projects with bigger, better blades" 3154:

2016 International Conference of Asian Union of Magnetics Societies (ICAUMS)

2529: 1894: 1874: 1556: 1399: 1391: 1345: 1322: 1220: 860: 837: 734: 386: 324: 320: 197: 90: 55: 17: 6315: 5509: 5430: 4487: 3463:"A historical review of vertical axis wind turbines rated 100 kW and above" 3244: 3218:

Bortolotti, Pietro; Kapila, Abhinav; Bottasso, Carlo L. (31 January 2019).

3008: 2462:"Marching Activists: Transnational Lessons for Danish Anti-Nuclear Protest" 2437:"Tiny Islands, Big Energy: How Orkney, Scotland Is Fighting Climate Change" 1680: 5214:"Anmet installs first recycled wind turbine blade-based pedestrian bridge" 5110:"Wind Turbine Blades Can't Be Recycled, So They're Piling Up in Landfills" 3030: 6171: 5970: 5818:

Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine Engineering

3836:"A Review of the Development of Wind Turbine Generators Across the World" 1904: 1899: 1747: 1587: 1317: 1138: 868: 686: 375: 342: 337:

A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service at

308: 292: 269: 208: 94: 35: 31: 5563:"A new wind farm in Kansas trailblazes with light-mitigating technology" 4654:, U.S. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory website 3674: 3296:"World's biggest wind turbine shows the disproportionate power of scale" 2201:"Sensation: Österreicher baute bereits vor 140 Jahren das erste Windrad" 1528:

is needed in those cases. If the turbine has a difficult access road, a

6181: 6158: 6153: 4293:"IntelStor expects wind turbine prices to recover 5% in next two years" 3554: 3422: 2817: 1514: 1433: 1353: 1104: 714: 698: 353: 330:

By the 1930s, use of wind turbines in rural areas was declining as the

316: 277: 250: 143: 59: 51: 5731: 4910: 4816: 4778: 4693:"Optimal turbine spacing in fully developed wind farm boundary layers" 4644: 3881:"Active Drivetrain Control to Improve Energy Capture of Wind Turbines" 3840:

ASME 2012 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition

2894:[11 years of wind data shows surprising production decrease]. 2739:"The Physics of Wind Turbines Kira Grogg Carleton College, 2005, p. 8" 1436:, England. Measuring 3 m in diameter and 5 m high, it has a 6196: 6191: 6176: 6063: 5846:

Introduction to wind energy systems. Basics, technology and operation

4965:"Dansk firma sætter prisbelønnet selvhejsende kran i serieproduktion" 3538: 1937:

Wind power capacity worldwide reaches 650,8 GW, 59,7 GW added in 2019

1844: 1839: 1751: 1734: 1729: 1582: 1529: 1305: 887: 368: 281: 261: 181: 177: 165: 5163:"End of wind power waste? Vestas unveils blade recycling technology" 3523: 2659: 2612:"The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths" 2226: 2174:"Austrian was First with Wind-Electric Turbine Not Byth or de Goyon" 2049:"Heron's Inventions includes Holy Water Dispenser and the Aeolipile" 1249:

Additions of small amount (0.5 weight %) of nanoreinforcement (

1203:

Materials commonly used in wind turbine blades are described below.

5746:

Wind power plants. Fundamentals, design, construction and operation

4716: 3194:"Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 2660:"NREL: Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools – Wind Maps" 1532:

can be lifted up by the internal crane to provide heavier lifting.

249:

The first electricity-generating wind turbine was installed by the

5282:"Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy – Clean Energy Ideas" 5253:"Renewable Power Remains Cost-Competitive amid Fossil Fuel Crisis" 5233:"Engineers are building bridges with recycled wind turbine blades" 4807: 3879:

Gardner, John; Haro, Nathaniel & Haynes, Todd (October 2011).

2148:

Morthorst, Poul Erik; Redlinger, Robert Y.; Andersen, Per (2002).

1679: 1669: 1645: 1483: 1420: 1385: 1300: 1210: 1125: 1075: 1067: 814: 804: 793: 777: 769: 744: 726: 694: 338: 302: 291:

installed a battery-charging machine to light his holiday home in

237: 229: 215:

delta. Advanced wind turbines were described by Croatian inventor

212: 159: 42: 5761:

Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics

5136:"Turbines Tossed Into Dump Stirs Debate on Wind's Dirty Downside" 4876:"Iberwind builds on 98% availability with fresh yaw, blade gains" 3335:"Vertical Axis Wind Turbine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 3698:"After a Shaky Start, Airborne Wind Energy Is Slowly Taking Off" 2840:"Enercon E-family, 330 kW to 7.5 MW, Wind Turbine Specification" 1452:

U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory

551:

is available to be converted to electrical energy. Accordingly,

411: 78: 5890: 4598:"Despite perception as eyesore, wind turbine tourism takes off" 4247:

Panduranga, Raghu; Alamoudi, Yasser; Ferrah, Azzeddine (2019).

3361:"Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: Great In 1890, Also-rans In 2014" 1445:

turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or

890:

and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower

568:

The maximum theoretical power output of a wind machine is thus

4731:"New study yields better turbine spacing for large wind farms" 4382:"Fast pace of growth in wind energy driving demand for copper" 3423:"Windspeed in the city – reality versus the DTI database" 2118: 1172:

also been used to measure rotating dynamics of wind turbines.

1080:

Inside view of a wind turbine tower, showing the tendon cables

349:

of 32 percent, not much different from current wind machines.

5886: 5611:"MBB Messerschmitt Monopteros M50 - 640,00 kW - Wind turbine" 3389:

Michael C Brower; Nicholas M Robinson; Erik Hale (May 2010).

3276:"MHI Vestas Launches World's First* 10 Megawatt Wind Turbine" 3150:"Design of a Pseudo Direct Drive for Wind Power Applications" 3076:"News & Articles on Household-Size (Small) Wind Turbines" 1672:

detects aircraft within thresholds of altitude and distance.

852:

advantages over the permanent magnet direct drive mechanism.

5460:"How Harmful is Renewable Energy to Birds? | Article | EESI" 4249:"Nanoengineered Composite Materials for Wind Turbine Blades" 3642:"Airborne Wind Energy Systems: A review of the technologies" 3585:"Savonius Wind Turbine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 3148:

Neves, C. G. C.; Flores Filho, A. F.; Dorrel, D. G. (2016).

2863:

Burton, Tony; Sharpe; Jenkins; Bossanyi (12 December 2001).

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Alternative Energy Technologies: Opportunities and Markets

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Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi:

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of a wind turbine was around $ 1 million per megawatt of

1184:

Development in size and power of wind turbines, 1990–2016

4026: 4024: 188:" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical 27:

Machine that converts wind energy into electrical energy

5084:"Wind Turbine Blades Don't Have To End Up In Landfills" 4312:"The Use of Carbon Fibers in Wind Turbine Blade Design" 4310:

Ong, Cheng-Huat & Tsai, Stephen W. (1 March 2000).

3611:"Derecktor converting boat into hybrid passenger ferry" 3539:"Stresses in turbine-blade tenons subjected to bending" 3914:"GE General Electric GE 1.5s - 1,50 MW - Wind turbine" 2113:, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", 1277:

Offshore has significantly higher installation costs.

737:

can also increase the wind velocity near the turbine.

418:

includes the effect of wind velocity and air density.

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Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application

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Wind Turbine – Materials and Manufacturing Fact Sheet

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( 1784:Largest 2-blade turbine 1768:Largest 1-blade turbine 1551:Demolition and recycling 1155:Wind turbine prognostics 365:John Brown & Company 5737:2 December 2010 at the 5615:wind-turbine-models.com 5502:10.1021/acs.est.3c03899 5367:www.pawindenergynow.org 5312:windexchange.energy.gov 4764:(1): 015110–015110–16. 4208:www.compositesworld.com 3310:"Wind Energy Factsheet" 2972:Acta Physica Polonica A 2715:Wind Power Fundamentals 2530:10.1111/1600-0498.12420 2492:windexchange.energy.gov 2363:"History of wind power" 2295:10.1093/ref:odnb/100957 1335:liquid crystal displays 1219:convoy passing through 1207:Glass and carbon fibers 1058:Design and construction 1049:Light pole wind turbine 6295:Wind profile power law 6290:Wind power forecasting 5693:Guinness World Records 4905:(1): 011007–011007–9. 4691:Meyers, Johan (2011). 4488:10.1002/cite.201700098 4386:Riviera Maritime Media 3727:www.greentechmedia.com 3543:Experimental Mechanics 3245:10.5194/wes-4-115-2019 2126:Mechanical Engineering 1885:Tidal stream generator 1741:Largest vertical-axis 1693: 1489: 1467:research conducted by 1441: 1403: 1313: 1224: 1185: 1134: 1113:adjustable-speed drive 1081: 1073: 952: 818: 802: 791: 775: 758: 664: 548:conservation of energy 312: 246: 235: 169: 62: 50:, using 5 MW turbines 48:Thorntonbank Wind Farm 6400:Electrical generators 6321:Wind power portal 4335:. National Grid Group 3589:www.sciencedirect.com 3445:"Urban Wind Turbines" 3339:www.sciencedirect.com 3198:www.sciencedirect.com 1683: 1487: 1424: 1389: 1327:light emitting diodes 1304: 1236:Hybrid reinforcements 1214: 1183: 1129: 1079: 1071: 991:Floating wind turbine 985:Floating wind turbine 976:Airborne wind turbine 970:Airborne wind turbine 950: 943:Savonius wind turbine 937:Savonius wind turbine 911:Darrieus wind turbine 905:Darrieus wind turbine 808: 797: 781: 773: 753:, HAWT towered; VAWT 748: 703:increases as the cube 665: 306: 241: 233: 223:(1595). He described 163: 156:History of wind power 129:Smaller wind turbines 46: 6126:Consulting companies 5934:Airborne wind energy 5718:Wind Energy Handbook 4175:windpower.sandia.gov 3752:World Economic Forum 3284:. 26 September 2018. 3033:on 23 September 2010 3027:"Wind Energy Basics" 2966:Ozdamar, G. (2018). 2866:Wind Energy Handbook 2810:"Wind Energy Basics" 1640:population numbers. 1633:nuclear power plants 1462:Wind turbine spacing 1169:stereophotogrammetry 1101:electrical generator 1000:Unconventional types 834:electrical generator 586: 544:Conservation of mass 430:Avg Wind Speed (m/s) 6355:Additional portals: 6285:Virtual power plant 6118:Wind power industry 5996:Lists of wind farms 5848:. Springer (2013), 5591:on 4 September 2012 5415:2017JEnvM.201..252P 4770:2010PhFl...22a5110C 4709:2012WiEn...15..305M 4530:Reinforced Plastics 4515:Wall Street Journal 4413:2015ApEn..139..327K 4362:on 26 November 2012 4095:Energy News Network 4070:on 11 November 2017 3973:2015MSSP...62..284B 3658:2015RSERv..51.1461C 3479:2019RSERv.105....1M 3236:2019WiEnS...4..115B 3224:Wind Energy Science 2984:2018AcPPA.134..156O 2929:2018REne..126..640H 2780:2013WiEng..37..441B 2628:2019ERSS...49...36O 2389:Stanford Law School 2351:on 3 February 2008. 2325:on 8 September 2008 2115:Scientific American 2074:al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1966:2009RSERv..13.1082E 1860:Wind turbine design 1845:Mingyang Wind Power 1794:Mingyang Wind Power 1790:Longyuan Wind Farm 1735:Mingyang Wind Power 1705: 1660:Wind turbines have 1530:containerized crane 1427:Quietrevolution QR5 1411:Small wind turbines 1365:rare earth minerals 1310:Jonesboro, Arkansas 1281:Non-blade materials 1064:Wind turbine design 384:rare earth elements 332:distribution system 5816:David Spera (ed,) 5286:Clean Energy Ideas 4878:. 15 February 2016 4299:. 22 October 2019. 3967:. 62–63: 284–295. 3854:"Hansen W4 series" 3754:. 16 December 2022 3621:on 4 December 2010 3555:10.1007/BF02326553 2762:Betz, A. (2013) . 2205:www.igwindkraft.at 1779:MBB Messerschmitt 1704: 1694: 1684:Éole, the largest 1490: 1442: 1417:Small wind turbine 1404: 1314: 1268:nameplate capacity 1225: 1186: 1135: 1109:planetary gear box 1082: 1074: 953: 819: 803: 792: 776: 759: 711:lift to drag ratio 660: 416:wind power density 412:Wind Power Density 401:Wind power density 313: 247: 236: 174:Hero of Alexandria 170: 63: 6410:Energy conversion 6372: 6371: 5964:on public display 5854:978-3-642-32975-3 5840:978-1-118-64751-6 5812:978-0-47001-500-1 5798:978-0-470-69981-2 5784:978-1-119-96294-6 5774:Siegfried Heier, 5769:978-3-642-27150-2 5763:, Springer, 2013 5754:978-3-642-22937-4 5726:978-0-470-69975-1 5637:Windpower Monthly 5390:. 24 August 2023. 5116:. 5 February 2020 5090:. 30 October 2020 4911:10.1115/1.4003187 4817:10.1063/1.3608170 4779:10.1063/1.3291077 4677:978-2-8130-0076-7 4319:energy.sandia.gov 4270:978-1-5386-8271-5 4184:on 13 August 2017 4121:Visual Capitalist 4014:978-1-4614-2418-5 3425:. Scoraigwind.com 3298:. 22 August 2021. 3171:978-1-5090-4383-5 3086:on 28 August 2022 2876:978-0-471-48997-9 2724:978-0-12-809451-8 2699:978-1-1189-0011-6 2582:978-1-118-79430-2 2391:. 19 October 2016 2301:(Subscription or 2159:978-0-333-79248-3 2097:978-0-521-42239-0 2034:978-0-8061-4192-3 1850: 1849: 1833:Largest offshore 1824:Pastoruri Glaicer 1817:Highest-situated 1572:trade association 1133:of a wind turbine 964:adapted for ships 892:power coefficient 859:Turbines used in 642: 613: 603: 536: 535: 254:Josef Friedländer 172:The windwheel of 83:electrical energy 69:is a device that 58:off the coast of 16:(Redirected from 6427: 6359:Renewable energy 6354: 6342: 6341: 6330: 6329: 6319: 6318: 6165:GE Offshore Wind 5911: 5904: 5897: 5888: 5788:Peter Jamieson, 5748:, Springer 2012 5730:Darrell, Dodge, 5705: 5704: 5702: 5700: 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5655: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5644: 5629: 5623: 5622: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5577: 5571: 5570: 5558: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5542: 5528: 5522: 5521: 5481: 5475: 5474: 5472: 5470: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5441: 5435: 5434: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5384: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5346: 5344: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5320: 5318: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5278: 5269: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5249: 5243: 5242: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5209: 5203: 5202: 5200: 5198: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5158: 5152: 5151: 5149: 5147: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5106: 5100: 5099: 5097: 5095: 5080: 5069: 5068: 5066: 5064: 5055:. Archived from 5044: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5018: 5012: 5011: 5009: 5007: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4960: 4954: 4953: 4940:(in Norwegian). 4929: 4923: 4922: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4885: 4883: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4856:on 12 April 2016 4855: 4844: 4835: 4829: 4828: 4810: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4749: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4727: 4721: 4720: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4661: 4655: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4619: 4613: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4593: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4577:on 25 April 2009 4573:. Archived from 4570:Edmonton Journal 4560: 4554: 4553: 4525: 4519: 4518: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4482:(1–2): 141–153. 4470: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4453: 4442: 4433: 4432: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4369: 4367: 4358:. Archived from 4351: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4340: 4329: 4323: 4322: 4316: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4255:. pp. 1–7. 4244: 4238: 4237: 4228:Vries, Eize de. 4225: 4219: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4183: 4177:. 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Brush 133:battery charging 125:energy sources. 99:renewable energy 21: 6435: 6434: 6430: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6425: 6424: 6375: 6374: 6373: 6368: 6313: 6304: 6275:Tip-speed ratio 6270:Net energy gain 6228:Capacity factor 6201: 6140: 6112: 6015: 6001:Community-owned 5982: 5920: 5915: 5868: 5739:Wayback Machine 5713: 5711:Further reading 5708: 5698: 5696: 5687: 5686: 5682: 5672: 5670: 5663:UTM Consultants 5657: 5656: 5652: 5642: 5640: 5631: 5630: 5626: 5609: 5608: 5604: 5594: 5592: 5579: 5578: 5574: 5560: 5559: 5550: 5540: 5538: 5530: 5529: 5525: 5483: 5482: 5478: 5468: 5466: 5458: 5457: 5453: 5443: 5442: 5438: 5400: 5399: 5395: 5386: 5385: 5381: 5371: 5369: 5361: 5360: 5356: 5342: 5340: 5331: 5330: 5326: 5316: 5314: 5306: 5305: 5301: 5291: 5289: 5280: 5279: 5272: 5262: 5260: 5251: 5250: 5246: 5230: 5229: 5225: 5218:CompositesWorld 5211: 5210: 5206: 5196: 5194: 5186: 5185: 5181: 5171: 5169: 5160: 5159: 5155: 5145: 5143: 5134: 5133: 5129: 5119: 5117: 5108: 5107: 5103: 5093: 5091: 5082: 5081: 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2861: 2857: 2852:on 16 May 2011. 2849: 2842: 2838: 2837: 2833: 2823: 2821: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2761: 2760: 2756: 2746: 2744: 2741: 2737: 2736: 2732: 2725: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2665: 2663: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2609: 2608: 2604: 2595: 2593: 2583: 2558: 2557: 2553: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2496: 2494: 2486: 2485: 2481: 2471: 2469: 2460: 2459: 2455: 2445: 2443: 2441:Pulitzer Center 2435: 2434: 2430: 2420: 2418: 2409: 2408: 2404: 2394: 2392: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2368: 2366: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2343: 2342: 2338: 2328: 2326: 2315: 2314: 2310: 2300: 2282: 2281: 2272: 2262: 2260: 2251: 2250: 2246: 2236: 2234: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2210: 2208: 2198: 2197: 2193: 2183: 2181: 2172: 2171: 2167: 2160: 2147: 2146: 2139: 2133:Wayback Machine 2109: 2105: 2098: 2078:Hill, Donald R. 2072: 2071: 2067: 2057: 2055: 2047: 2046: 2042: 2035: 2022: 2021: 2014: 2004: 2002: 1994: 1993: 1989: 1951: 1950: 1943: 1930: 1928: 1923: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1870:Éolienne Bollée 1855: 1771:Monopteros M50 1678: 1666:light pollution 1662:blinking lights 1622: 1605: 1600: 1553: 1544: 1538: 1495: 1482: 1464: 1419: 1413: 1384: 1378: 1312:, United States 1299: 1297:Material supply 1283: 1260: 1247: 1238: 1209: 1201: 1199:Blade materials 1178: 1157: 1151: 1090: 1066: 1060: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1038: 1035: 1026: 1020: 1008: 1002: 993: 987: 978: 972: 945: 939: 926: 913: 907: 878: 825: 768: 766:Horizontal axis 743: 647: 618: 584: 583: 574: 570: 569: 561: 557: 556: 541: 409: 403: 367:in 1951 in the 347:capacity factor 217:Fausto Veranzio 158: 152: 137:electrical grid 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6433: 6431: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6395:Electric power 6392: 6387: 6377: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6348: 6336: 6324: 6309: 6306: 6305: 6303: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6250:Energy subsidy 6247: 6246: 6245: 6238:Energy storage 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6209: 6207: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6187:Siemens Gamesa 6184: 6179: 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4717:10.1002/we.469 4703:(2): 305–317. 4683: 4676: 4656: 4637: 4614: 4588: 4555: 4520: 4501: 4465: 4434: 4401:Applied Energy 4391: 4373: 4346: 4324: 4302: 4284: 4269: 4239: 4220: 4195: 4159: 4133: 4107: 4081: 4047: 4020: 4013: 3986: 3955: 3930: 3912:Bauer, Lucas. 3904: 3871: 3845: 3826: 3813:(2): 192–202. 3793: 3765: 3739: 3714: 3689: 3632: 3601: 3576: 3529: 3510: 3453: 3436: 3413: 3381: 3372: 3351: 3326: 3301: 3287: 3267: 3230:(1): 115–125. 3210: 3185: 3170: 3140: 3122: 3097: 3080:Wind-works.org 3063: 3044: 3018: 2999: 2978:(1): 156–158. 2958: 2907: 2882: 2875: 2855: 2831: 2801: 2774:(4): 441–446. 2754: 2730: 2723: 2705: 2698: 2673: 2651: 2602: 2581: 2551: 2524:(4): 695–713. 2504: 2479: 2468:. 21 June 2017 2453: 2428: 2416:Vermont Public 2402: 2376: 2354: 2336: 2308: 2270: 2244: 2218: 2191: 2180:. 25 July 2023 2165: 2158: 2137: 2103: 2096: 2065: 2053:explorable.com 2040: 2033: 2012: 1987: 1941: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1856: 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6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6161: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6151: 6149: 6147: 6146:Manufacturers 6143: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6131:Manufacturers 6129: 6127: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6115: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6094: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6079:Vertical-axis 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6059:Pitch bearing 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6022: 6021:Wind turbines 6018: 6012: 6011:Onshore farms 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5993: 5991: 5989: 5985: 5977: 5974: 5973: 5972: 5969: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5949:Land vehicles 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5929: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5912: 5907: 5905: 5900: 5898: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5827: 5826:9780791802601 5823: 5819: 5815: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 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3282: 3281:CleanTechnica 3277: 3271: 3268: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3214: 3211: 3199: 3195: 3189: 3186: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3141: 3133: 3126: 3123: 3111: 3107: 3101: 3098: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3068: 3064: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3045: 3032: 3028: 3022: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3003: 3000: 2994: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2962: 2959: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2911: 2908: 2903: 2900:(in Danish). 2899: 2898: 2893: 2886: 2883: 2878: 2872: 2868: 2867: 2859: 2856: 2848: 2841: 2835: 2832: 2820:on 9 May 2019 2819: 2815: 2811: 2805: 2802: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2758: 2755: 2740: 2734: 2731: 2726: 2720: 2716: 2709: 2706: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2674: 2661: 2655: 2652: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2606: 2603: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2555: 2552: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 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