134:(WCET), which is theoretically less useful. The author of this change is unknown, but it was not Siple or Passel as is generally believed. At first, it was defined as the temperature at which the windchill index would be the same in the complete absence of wind. This led to equivalent temperatures that exaggerated the severity of the weather. Charles Eagan realized that people are rarely still and that even when it is calm, there is some air movement. He redefined the absence of wind to be an air speed of 1.8 metres per second (6.5 km/h; 4.0 mph), which was about as low a wind speed as a cup anemometer could measure. This led to more realistic (warmer-sounding) values of equivalent temperature.
598:
586:
27:
610:
899:
and is somewhat more involved than the simpler North
American model. The North American formula was designed to be applied at low temperatures (as low as −46 °C or −50 °F) when humidity levels are also low. The hot-weather version of the AT (1984) is used by the National Weather Service in
578:
As the air temperature falls, the chilling effect of any wind that is present increases. For example, a 16 km/h (10 mph) wind will lower the apparent temperature by a wider margin at an air temperature of −20 °C (−4 °F) than a wind of the same speed would if the air temperature
629:
The apparent temperature (AT), invented in the late 1970s, was designed to measure thermal sensation in indoor conditions. It was extended in the early 1980s to include the effect of sun and wind. The AT index used here is based on a mathematical model of an adult, walking outdoors, in the shade
122:
working in the
Antarctic before the Second World War, and were made available by the National Weather Service by the 1970s. They were based on the cooling rate of a small plastic bottle as its contents turned to ice while suspended in the wind on the expedition hut roof, at the same level as the
287:
under various wind speeds and temperatures using standard engineering correlations of wind speed and heat transfer rate. Heat transfer was calculated for a bare face in wind, facing the wind, while walking into it at 1.4 m/s (5.0 km/h; 3.1 mph). The model corrects the officially
81:
of warm air forms against the surface. Moving air disrupts this boundary layer, or epiclimate, carrying the warm air away, thereby allowing cooler air to replace the warm air against the surface and increasing the temperature difference in the boundary layer. The faster the wind speed, the more
860:
433:
When the temperature is −20 °C (−4 °F) and the wind speed is 5 km/h (3 mph), the wind chill index is −24. If the temperature remains at −20 °C and the wind speed increases to 30 km/h (19 mph), the wind chill index falls to −33.
77:. The rate of convection depends on both the difference in temperature between the surface and the fluid surrounding it and the velocity of that fluid with respect to the surface. As convection from a warm surface heats the air around it, an insulating
550:
404:
282:
In
November 2001, Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom implemented a new wind chill index developed by scientists and medical experts on the Joint Action Group for Temperature Indices (JAG/TI). It is determined by iterating a model of
147:/hour per square metre. Each individual calibrated the scale of numbers personally, through experience. The chart also provided general guidance to comfort and hazard through threshold values of the index, such as 1400, which was the threshold for
620:
The 2001 WCET is a steady-state calculation (except for the time-to-frostbite estimates). There are significant time-dependent aspects to wind chill because cooling is most rapid at the start of any exposure, when the skin is still warm.
102:
Many formulas exist for wind chill because, unlike temperature, wind chill has no universally agreed-upon standard definition or measurement. All the formulas attempt to qualitatively predict the effect of wind on the temperature humans
249:
755:
142:
Equivalent temperature was not universally used in North
America until the 21st century. Until the 1970s, the coldest parts of Canada reported the original Wind Chill Index, a three- or four-digit number with units of
700:
630:(Steadman 1994). The AT is defined as the temperature, at the reference humidity level, producing the same amount of discomfort as that experienced under the current ambient temperature and humidity.
446:
300:
288:
measured wind speed to the wind speed at face height, assuming the person is in an open field. The results of this model may be approximated, to within one degree, from the following formulas.
159:
107:. Weather services in different countries use standards unique to their country or region; for example, the U.S. and Canadian weather services use a model accepted by the
1378:
1272:
953:
597:
1163:
1832:
638:
45:
from the body to the surrounding atmosphere. Its values are always lower than the air temperature in the range where the formula is valid. When the
1100:
1016:
Eagan, C. (1964). Review of research on military problems in cold regions. C. Kolb and F. Holstrom eds. TDR-64-28. Arctic
Aeromed. Lab. p 147–156.
855:{\displaystyle e={\frac {\mathrm {RH} }{100}}\cdot 6.105\cdot \exp {\left({\frac {17.27\cdot T_{\mathrm {a} }}{237.7+T_{\mathrm {a} }}}\right)},}
1371:
575:
Windchill temperature is defined only for temperatures at or below 10 °C (50 °F) and wind speeds above 4.8 km/h (3.0 mph).
41:) is the sensation of cold produced by the wind for a given ambient air temperature on exposed skin as the air motion accelerates the rate of
1520:
948:
1817:
1827:
1540:
1364:
1034:
932:
1688:
30:
Wind chill index values for a range of temperatures and wind speeds, from the standard wind chill formula for
Environment Canada.
1822:
1735:
1191:
1535:
1482:
83:
1345:
1796:
86:, wind chill does not refer to how cold things get, and they will only get as cold as the air temperature. This means
20:
585:
1730:
1487:
1045:
609:
1710:
1644:
1472:
1577:
1429:
108:
1167:
545:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {wc} }=35.74+0.6215T_{\mathrm {a} }-35.75v^{+0.16}+0.4275T_{\mathrm {a} }v^{+0.16},}
399:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {wc} }=13.12+0.6215T_{\mathrm {a} }-11.37v^{+0.16}+0.3965T_{\mathrm {a} }v^{+0.16},}
1778:
1700:
1567:
1057:
1632:
1592:
1545:
1530:
1512:
1679:
1572:
1562:
1525:
1266:
1108:
1758:
1725:
1627:
1622:
1587:
1246:
1135:
889:
717:
46:
26:
1720:
1705:
127:. The so-called Windchill Index provided a pretty good indication of the severity of the weather.
1492:
992:
438:
292:
62:
958:
1773:
1669:
1557:
1399:
1030:
928:
749:
119:
115:
1311:
1254:
1143:
284:
244:{\displaystyle WCI=\left(10{\sqrt {v}}-v+10.5\right)\cdot \left(33-T_{\mathrm {a} }\right),}
94:
cannot freeze when wind chill is below freezing and the air temperature is above freezing.
1424:
1237:
Tikuisis, Peter; Osczevski, Randall J. (2003). "Facial
Cooling During Cold Air Exposure".
1250:
1139:
1715:
900:
the United States. In the United States, this simple version of the AT is known as the
78:
1339:
1286:
1811:
1497:
42:
19:
This article is about the meteorological effect of "wind chill". For other uses, see
1356:
1674:
1649:
1582:
1459:
1216:
1195:
729:
922:
1763:
1602:
1502:
144:
66:
1350:
1768:
1654:
1449:
1434:
1414:
901:
427:
124:
70:
50:
16:
Lowering of body temperature due to the passing flow of lower-temperature air
1610:
1439:
1419:
1404:
1148:
1123:
1078:
148:
74:
1258:
1058:"Environment Canada - Weather and Meteorology - Canada's Wind Chill Index"
1788:
1750:
1664:
1409:
896:
91:
87:
1659:
603:
Comparison of old and new wind chill values at −15 °C (5 °F)
1467:
25:
415:
is the wind chill index, based on the
Celsius temperature scale;
1444:
1360:
1079:"Meteorological Tables, Wind Chill. August, 2001 Press Release"
748:
The vapour pressure can be calculated from the temperature and
695:{\displaystyle \mathrm {AT} =T_{\mathrm {a} }+0.33e-0.7v-4.00,}
1477:
1164:"Calculation of the 1971 to 2000 Climate Normals for Canada"
114:
The first wind chill formulas and tables were developed by
1342:
Table of wind chill temperatures in
Celsius and Fahrenheit
1166:. Climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca. 2013-07-10. Archived from
921:
Vincent J. Schaefer; John A. Day; Jay
Pasachoff (1998).
895:
The Australian formula includes the important factor of
561:
is the wind chill index, based on the Fahrenheit scale;
758:
641:
449:
303:
162:
740:
is wind speed (m/s) at an elevation of 10 m (33
1787:
1749:
1601:
1511:
1458:
1392:
130:In the 1960s, wind chill began to be reported as a
854:
694:
568:is the air temperature in degrees Fahrenheit; and
544:
398:
278:North American and United Kingdom wind chill index
243:
1124:"The new wind chill equivalent temperature chart"
1239:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
1128:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
1122:Osczevski, Randall; Bluestein, Maurice (2005).
954:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
422:is the air temperature in degrees Celsius; and
1372:
1217:"A chart of windchills based on this formula"
8:
1521:Convective available potential energy (CAPE)
1287:"The Apparent Temperature (AT) - Heat Index"
426:is the wind speed at 10 m (33 ft)
1271:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
1379:
1365:
1357:
1312:"The formula for the apparent temperature"
1194:. Weather.gov. 2009-12-17. Archived from
1147:
834:
833:
814:
813:
800:
795:
767:
765:
757:
658:
657:
642:
640:
530:
519:
518:
499:
482:
481:
455:
454:
448:
384:
373:
372:
353:
336:
335:
309:
308:
302:
226:
225:
183:
161:
1340:National Center for Atmospheric Research
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
154:The original formula for the index was:
49:is higher than the air temperature, the
1346:Current map of global wind chill values
1186:
1184:
913:
581:
82:readily the surface cools. Contrary to
1264:
993:"How to Calculate a Wind Chill Factor"
572:is the wind speed in miles per hour.
111:. That model has evolved over time.
7:
291:The standard wind chill formula for
1483:Convective condensation level (CCL)
991:Kozlowski, Rosann (30 March 2020).
1689:Equivalent potential temperature (
1353:at the US National Weather Service
1105:BBC Weather, Understanding weather
835:
815:
771:
768:
659:
646:
643:
520:
483:
459:
456:
374:
337:
313:
310:
227:
14:
1541:Conditional symmetric instability
1387:Meteorological data and variables
949:"Windchill Terms and Definitions"
132:wind chill equivalent temperature
1833:Units of meteorology measurement
1488:Lifting condensation level (LCL)
1316:Bureau Of Meteorology, Australia
1291:Bureau Of Meteorology, Australia
608:
596:
584:
1473:Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
924:A Field Guide to the Atmosphere
625:Australian apparent temperature
579:were −10 °C (14 °F).
1736:Wet-bulb potential temperature
1578:Level of free convection (LFC)
258:= wind chill index, kg⋅cal/m/h
1:
1779:Pressure-gradient force (PGF)
1701:Sea surface temperature (SST)
1536:Convective momentum transport
1027:Human Factors Design Handbook
927:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
61:A surface loses heat through
1593:Bulk Richardson number (BRN)
1025:*Woodson, Wesley E. (1981).
876:is dry-bulb temperature (°C)
1797:Maximum potential intensity
1563:Free convective layer (FCL)
1526:Convective inhibition (CIN)
21:Wind chill (disambiguation)
1849:
1818:Atmospheric thermodynamics
1731:Wet-bulb globe temperature
1588:Maximum parcel level (MPL)
1081:. National Weather Service
437:The equivalent formula in
430:, in kilometres per hour.
428:standard anemometer height
18:
1828:Meteorological quantities
1711:Thermodynamic temperature
1645:Forest fire weather index
1219:. Weather.gov. 2009-12-17
1029:, page 815. McGraw-Hill.
1633:Equivalent temperature (
1546:Convective temperature (
1430:Surface weather analysis
1318:. Bom.gov.au. 2010-02-05
1293:. Bom.gov.au. 2010-02-05
882:is relative humidity (%)
591:Celsius wind chill index
109:National Weather Service
1680:Potential temperature (
1425:Surface solar radiation
1149:10.1175/BAMS-86-10-1453
1046:Aquation 55, page 6-113
1823:Meteorological indices
1670:Relative humidity (RH)
1558:Equilibrium level (EL)
1531:Convective instability
1261:(inactive 2024-05-02).
1192:"NWS Wind Chill Index"
856:
696:
546:
400:
245:
98:Alternative approaches
31:
1351:Wind chill calculator
1259:10.1175/BAMS-84-7-927
1107:. BBC. Archived from
961:on September 17, 2008
857:
697:
615:Wind chill calculator
547:
401:
273:= air temperature, °C
246:
29:
1759:Atmospheric pressure
1726:Wet-bulb temperature
1628:Dry-bulb temperature
1623:Dew point depression
890:exponential function
756:
752:using the equation:
718:dry-bulb temperature
639:
447:
301:
264:= wind velocity, m/s
160:
47:apparent temperature
1721:Virtual temperature
1706:Temperature anomaly
1400:Adiabatic processes
1251:2003BAMS...84..927T
1140:2005BAMS...86.1453O
1111:on 11 October 2010.
1493:Precipitable water
852:
692:
542:
439:US customary units
396:
293:Environment Canada
241:
32:
1805:
1804:
1774:Pressure gradient
1583:Lifted index (LI)
1134:(10): 1453–1458.
842:
778:
750:relative humidity
188:
120:Charles F. Passel
116:Paul Allman Siple
53:is used instead.
39:wind chill factor
1840:
1381:
1374:
1367:
1358:
1327:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1308:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1283:
1277:
1276:
1270:
1262:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1203:
1188:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1054:
1048:
1043:
1037:
1023:
1017:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1005:
1003:
988:
971:
970:
968:
966:
957:. Archived from
945:
939:
938:
918:
887:
881:
875:
861:
859:
858:
853:
848:
847:
843:
841:
840:
839:
838:
821:
820:
819:
818:
801:
779:
774:
766:
743:
739:
727:
715:
701:
699:
698:
693:
664:
663:
662:
649:
633:The formula is:
612:
600:
588:
551:
549:
548:
543:
538:
537:
525:
524:
523:
507:
506:
488:
487:
486:
464:
463:
462:
405:
403:
402:
397:
392:
391:
379:
378:
377:
361:
360:
342:
341:
340:
318:
317:
316:
285:skin temperature
250:
248:
247:
242:
237:
233:
232:
231:
230:
206:
202:
189:
184:
1848:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1808:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1783:
1745:
1695:
1639:
1617:
1597:
1552:
1507:
1454:
1388:
1385:
1336:
1331:
1330:
1321:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1296:
1294:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1263:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1222:
1220:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1201:
1199:
1190:
1189:
1182:
1173:
1171:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1084:
1082:
1077:
1076:
1072:
1063:
1061:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1040:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1001:
999:
990:
989:
974:
964:
962:
947:
946:
942:
935:
920:
919:
915:
910:
888:represents the
885:
879:
874:
868:
829:
822:
809:
802:
796:
754:
753:
741:
735:
723:
714:
708:
653:
637:
636:
627:
616:
613:
604:
601:
592:
589:
567:
560:
526:
514:
495:
477:
450:
445:
444:
421:
414:
380:
368:
349:
331:
304:
299:
298:
280:
272:
221:
214:
210:
179:
175:
158:
157:
140:
100:
59:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1846:
1844:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1810:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1793:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1755:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1716:Vapor pressure
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1686:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1607:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1517:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1464:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1376:
1369:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1348:
1343:
1335:
1334:External links
1332:
1329:
1328:
1303:
1278:
1245:(7): 927–933.
1229:
1208:
1180:
1155:
1114:
1092:
1070:
1049:
1038:
1018:
1009:
972:
940:
933:
912:
911:
909:
906:
893:
892:
883:
877:
872:
851:
846:
837:
832:
828:
825:
817:
812:
808:
805:
799:
794:
791:
788:
785:
782:
777:
773:
770:
764:
761:
746:
745:
733:
732:pressure (hPa)
721:
712:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
661:
656:
652:
648:
645:
626:
623:
618:
617:
614:
607:
605:
602:
595:
593:
590:
583:
565:
558:
541:
536:
533:
529:
522:
517:
513:
510:
505:
502:
498:
494:
491:
485:
480:
476:
473:
470:
467:
461:
458:
453:
419:
412:
395:
390:
387:
383:
376:
371:
367:
364:
359:
356:
352:
348:
345:
339:
334:
330:
327:
324:
321:
315:
312:
307:
279:
276:
275:
274:
270:
265:
259:
240:
236:
229:
224:
220:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
198:
195:
192:
187:
182:
178:
174:
171:
168:
165:
139:
138:Original model
136:
99:
96:
84:popular belief
79:boundary layer
58:
55:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1845:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1769:Barotropicity
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1600:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1498:Precipitation
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1382:
1377:
1375:
1370:
1368:
1363:
1362:
1359:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1317:
1313:
1307:
1304:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1279:
1274:
1268:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1230:
1218:
1212:
1209:
1198:on 2011-09-18
1197:
1193:
1187:
1185:
1181:
1170:on 2013-06-27
1169:
1165:
1159:
1156:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1096:
1093:
1080:
1074:
1071:
1059:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1035:0-07-071765-6
1032:
1028:
1022:
1019:
1013:
1010:
998:
997:sciencing.com
994:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
973:
960:
956:
955:
950:
944:
941:
936:
934:0-395-97631-6
930:
926:
925:
917:
914:
907:
905:
903:
898:
891:
884:
878:
871:
867:
866:
865:
862:
849:
844:
830:
826:
823:
810:
806:
803:
797:
792:
789:
786:
783:
780:
775:
762:
759:
751:
738:
734:
731:
726:
722:
719:
711:
707:
706:
705:
702:
689:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
654:
650:
634:
631:
624:
622:
611:
606:
599:
594:
587:
582:
580:
576:
573:
571:
564:
557:
552:
539:
534:
531:
527:
515:
511:
508:
503:
500:
496:
492:
489:
478:
474:
471:
468:
465:
451:
442:
440:
435:
431:
429:
425:
418:
411:
406:
393:
388:
385:
381:
369:
365:
362:
357:
354:
350:
346:
343:
332:
328:
325:
322:
319:
305:
296:
294:
289:
286:
277:
269:
266:
263:
260:
257:
254:
253:
252:
238:
234:
222:
218:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
196:
193:
190:
185:
180:
176:
172:
169:
166:
163:
155:
152:
150:
146:
137:
135:
133:
128:
126:
121:
117:
112:
110:
106:
97:
95:
93:
89:
85:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
56:
54:
52:
48:
44:
43:heat transfer
40:
36:
28:
22:
1740:
1690:
1681:
1675:Mixing ratio
1650:Haines Index
1634:
1612:
1547:
1460:Condensation
1320:. Retrieved
1315:
1306:
1295:. Retrieved
1290:
1281:
1267:cite journal
1242:
1238:
1232:
1221:. Retrieved
1211:
1200:. Retrieved
1196:the original
1172:. Retrieved
1168:the original
1158:
1131:
1127:
1117:
1109:the original
1104:
1101:"Wind Chill"
1095:
1083:. Retrieved
1073:
1062:. Retrieved
1052:
1041:
1026:
1021:
1012:
1000:. Retrieved
996:
963:. Retrieved
959:the original
952:
943:
923:
916:
894:
869:
863:
747:
736:
730:water vapour
724:
709:
703:
635:
632:
628:
619:
577:
574:
569:
562:
555:
553:
443:
436:
432:
423:
416:
409:
407:
297:
290:
281:
267:
261:
255:
156:
153:
145:kilocalories
141:
131:
129:
113:
104:
101:
60:
38:
34:
33:
1764:Baroclinity
1611:Dew point (
1603:Temperature
1503:Water vapor
67:evaporation
57:Explanation
37:(popularly
1812:Categories
1741:Wind chill
1655:Heat index
1513:Convection
1450:Wind shear
1435:Visibility
1415:Lapse rate
1322:2013-08-09
1297:2018-08-01
1223:2017-04-13
1202:2013-08-09
1174:2013-08-09
1085:14 January
1064:2013-08-09
1060:. Ec.gc.ca
908:References
902:heat index
125:anemometer
71:convection
63:conduction
51:heat index
35:Wind chill
1440:Vorticity
1420:Lightning
1405:Advection
1002:5 October
807:⋅
793:
787:⋅
781:⋅
684:−
675:−
490:−
344:−
219:−
208:⋅
191:−
149:frostbite
88:radiators
75:radiation
1789:Velocity
1751:Pressure
1665:Humidity
1568:Helicity
1410:Buoyancy
897:humidity
105:perceive
1660:Humidex
1573:K Index
1393:General
1247:Bibcode
1136:Bibcode
965:July 3,
864:where:
704:where:
251:where:
1033:
931:
742:
554:where
512:0.4275
475:0.6215
408:where
366:0.3965
329:0.6215
73:, and
1468:Cloud
824:237.7
804:17.27
784:6.105
493:35.75
469:35.74
347:11.37
323:13.12
92:pipes
1445:Wind
1273:link
1087:2013
1031:ISBN
1004:2021
967:2024
929:ISBN
720:(°C)
687:4.00
669:0.33
535:0.16
504:0.16
441:is:
389:0.16
358:0.16
295:is:
200:10.5
118:and
90:and
1478:Fog
1255:doi
1144:doi
886:exp
790:exp
776:100
744:ft)
728:is
716:is
678:0.7
256:WCI
1814::
1314:.
1289:.
1269:}}
1265:{{
1253:.
1243:84
1241:.
1183:^
1142:.
1132:86
1130:.
1126:.
1103:.
995:.
975:^
951:.
904:.
880:RH
559:wc
413:wc
216:33
181:10
151:.
69:,
65:,
1696:)
1694:e
1691:θ
1684:)
1682:θ
1640:)
1638:e
1635:T
1618:)
1616:d
1613:T
1553:)
1551:c
1548:T
1380:e
1373:t
1366:v
1325:.
1300:.
1275:)
1257::
1249::
1226:.
1205:.
1177:.
1152:.
1146::
1138::
1089:.
1067:.
1006:.
969:.
937:.
873:a
870:T
850:,
845:)
836:a
831:T
827:+
816:a
811:T
798:(
772:H
769:R
763:=
760:e
737:v
725:e
713:a
710:T
690:,
681:v
672:e
666:+
660:a
655:T
651:=
647:T
644:A
570:v
566:a
563:T
556:T
540:,
532:+
528:v
521:a
516:T
509:+
501:+
497:v
484:a
479:T
472:+
466:=
460:c
457:w
452:T
424:v
420:a
417:T
410:T
394:,
386:+
382:v
375:a
370:T
363:+
355:+
351:v
338:a
333:T
326:+
320:=
314:c
311:w
306:T
271:a
268:T
262:v
239:,
235:)
228:a
223:T
212:(
204:)
197:+
194:v
186:v
177:(
173:=
170:I
167:C
164:W
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
