877:. Active rewarming seeks to warm the injured tissue as quickly as possible without burning. The faster tissue is thawed, the less tissue damage occurs. According to Handford and colleagues, "The Wilderness Medical Society and State of Alaska Cold Injury Guidelines recommend a temperature of 37–39 °C, which decreases the pain experienced by the patient whilst only slightly slowing rewarming time." Warming takes 15 minutes to 1 hour. The faucet should be left running so the water can circulate. Rewarming can be very painful, so pain management is important.
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558:). Prolonged exposure to temperatures below −2 °C (28 °F) may cause ice crystals to form in the tissues, and prolonged exposure to temperatures below −4 °C (25 °F) may cause ice crystals to form in the blood. Ice crystals can damage small blood vessels at the site of injury. Typically, prolonged exposure to temperatures below −0.55 °C (31.01 °F) may cause frostbite.
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Individuals with frostbite or potential frostbite should go to a protected environment and get warm fluids. If there is no risk of re-freezing, the extremity can be exposed and warmed in the underarm of a companion or the groin. If the area is allowed to refreeze, there can be worse tissue damage. If
375:
Areas that are usually affected include cheeks, ears, nose and fingers and toes. Frostbite is often preceded by frostnip. The symptoms of frostbite progress with prolonged exposure to cold. Historically, frostbite has been classified by degrees according to skin and sensation changes, similar to burn
919:
A systematic review and metaanalysis revealed that iloprost alone or iloprost plus recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) may decrease amputation rate in case of severe frostbite in comparison to buflomedil alone with no major adverse events reported from iloprost or iloprost plus rtPA in
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recommends covering the skin and scalp, taking in adequate nutrition, avoiding constrictive footwear and clothing, and remaining active without causing exhaustion. Supplemental oxygen might also be of use at high elevations. Repeated exposure to cold water makes people more susceptible to frostbite.
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The major risk factor for frostbite is exposure to cold through geography, occupation and/or recreation. Inadequate clothing and shelter are major risk factors. Frostbite is more likely when the body's ability to produce or retain heat is impaired. Physical, behavioral, and environmental factors can
1026:
Frostbite has been described in military history for millennia. The Greeks encountered and discussed the problem of frostbite as early as 400 BC. Researchers have found evidence of frostbite in humans dating back 5,000 years, in an Andean mummy. Napoleon's Army was the first documented instance of
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without exhaustion. Treatment is by rewarming, by immersion in warm water (near body temperature) or by body contact, and should be done only when consistent temperature can be maintained so that refreezing is not a risk. Rapid heating or cooling should be avoided since it could potentially cause
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are potential consequences of frostbite. Permanent nerve damage including loss of feeling can occur. It can take several weeks to know what parts of the tissue will survive. Time of exposure to cold is more predictive of lasting injury than temperature the individual was exposed to. The
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The process of frostbite differs from the process of non-freezing cold injury (NFCI). In NFCI, temperature in the tissue decreases gradually. This slower temperature decrease allows the body to try to compensate through alternating cycles of closing and opening blood vessels
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Evidence of frostbite occurring in people dates back 5,000 years. Evidence was documented in a pre-Columbian mummy discovered in the Andes. The number of cases of frostbite is unknown. Rates may be as high as 40% a year among those who
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classifications. However, the degrees do not correspond to the amount of long term damage. A simplification of this system of classification is superficial (first or second degree) or deep injury (third or fourth degree).
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all contribute to the development of frostbite. Immobility and physical stress (such as malnutrition or dehydration) are also risk factors. Disorders and substances that impair circulation contribute, including
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1075:, who suffered severe frostbite on his feet as he and other survivors stood for over an hour on the back of a capsized lifeboat knee-deep in freezing water—Bride had to be carried off from the rescue vessel
1856:
McIntosh, SE; Opacic, M; Freer, L; Grissom, CK; Auerbach, PS; Rodway, GW; Cochran, A; Giesbrecht, GG; McDevitt, M; Imray, CH; Johnson, EL; Dow, J; Hackett, PH; Wilderness
Medical, Society. (December 2014).
347:. The most common age group affected is those 30 to 50 years old. Frostbite has also played an important role in a number of military conflicts. The first formal description of the condition was in 1813 by
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was 2.5 per 100,000 among civilians, compared with 3.2 per 100,000 in
Montreal. Research suggests that men aged 30–49 are at highest risk, possibly due to occupational or recreational exposures to cold.
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McIntosh, Scott E.; Opacic, Matthew; Freer, Luanne; Grissom, Colin K.; Auerbach, Paul S.; Rodway, George W.; Cochran, Amalia; Giesbrecht, Gordon G.; McDevitt, Marion (1 December 2014).
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The pathological mechanism by which frostbite causes body tissue injury can be characterized by four stages: Prefreeze, freeze-thaw, vascular stasis, and the late ischemic stage.
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the area cannot be reliably kept warm, the person should be brought to a medical facility without rewarming the area. Rubbing the affected area can also increase tissue damage.
908:
may prevent blood vessel blockage. This treatment might be appropriate in grades 2–4 frostbite, when people get treatment within 48 hours. In addition to vasodilators,
1027:
mass cold injury in the early 1800s. According to Zafren, nearly 1 million combatants fell victim to frostbite in the First and Second World Wars, and the Korean War.
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Bruen, KJ; Ballard JR; Morris SE; Cochran A; Edelman LS; Saffle JR (2007). "Reduction of the incidence of amputation in frostbite injury with thrombolytic therapy".
1956:
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Third degree frostbite developing. Doppler arterial ultrasound showed adequate perfusion to the foot with no blood flow to the toes. Gangrene was still demarcating.
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Handford, Charles; Buxton, Pauline; Russell, Katie; Imray, Caitlin EA; McIntosh, Scott E; Freer, Luanne; Cochran, Amalia; Imray, Christopher HE (22 April 2014).
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Grade 4: if there is a lesion very near the body (such as the carpals of the hand), the limb can be lost. Sepsis and/or other systemic problems are expected.
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classification system of grades, based on the tissue response to initial rewarming and other factors is designed to predict degree of longterm recovery.
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or chilblains are inflammation of the skin from exposure to wet, cold (non-freezing) conditions. They can appear as various types of ulcers and blisters.
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Frostnip is similar to frostbite, but without ice crystal formation in the skin. Whitening of the skin and numbness reverse quickly after rewarming.
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Early on, the primary symptom is loss of feeling in the skin. In the affected areas, the skin is numb, and possibly swollen, with a reddened border.
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following thawing. Diagnosis is based on symptoms. Severity may be divided into superficial (1st and 2nd degree) or deep (3rd and 4th degree). A
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can be given in the field to prevent clotting and inflammation. Ibuprofen is often preferred to aspirin because aspirin may block a subset of
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1986:
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is damage to nerves and blood vessels that results from exposure to cold wet (non-freezing) conditions. This is reversible if treated early.
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Millet, John D.; Brown, Richard K. J.; Levi, Benjamin; Kraft, Casey T.; Jacobson, Jon A.; Gross, Milton D.; Wong, Ka Kit (November 2016).
1110:, who in 1999 had all four limbs amputated due to sepsis from frostbite sustained after becoming trapped for four nights whilst climbing
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is a condition that causes itchy blisters over the body that can mimic frostbite. It does not require exposure to cold to develop.
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burning or heart stress. Rubbing or applying force to the affected areas should be avoided as it may cause further damage such as
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1725:
Knapik JJ, Reynolds KL, Castellani JW (2020). "Frostbite: Pathophysiology, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and
Prevention".
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People who are exposed to low temperatures for prolonged periods, such as winter sports enthusiasts, military personnel, and
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Third degree frostbite. No surgical interventions recommended as the gangrenous portion of the wound was still demarcating.
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3543:
2715:
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Gage AA, Ishikawa H, Winter PM (1970). "Experimental frostbite. The effect of hyperbaric oxygenation on tissue survival".
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Finderle Z, Cankar K (April 2002). "Delayed treatment of frostbite injury with hyperbaric oxygen therapy: a case report".
846:: should be administered according to local guidelines. Uncomplicated frostbite wounds are not known to encourage tetanus.
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A number of long term sequelae can occur after frostbite. These include transient or permanent changes in sensation,
291:, certain medications, and prior injuries due to cold. The underlying mechanism involves injury from ice crystals and
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Grade 3: if there is a lesion on the intermediate or near body part, auto-amputation and loss of function can occur
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areas. Most often, frostbite occurs in the hands and feet. The initial symptoms are typically a feeling of cold and
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Prevention consists of wearing proper, fully-covering clothing, avoiding low temperatures and wind, maintaining
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Various types of surgery might be indicated in frostbite injury, depending on the type and extent of damage.
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1149:(tPa) either intravenously or intra-arterially may decrease the likelihood of eventual need for amputation.
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If the area is still partially or fully frozen, it should be rewarmed in the hospital with a warm bath with
89:
1859:"Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update"
1273:"Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update"
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Avoid cold, wear proper clothing, maintain hydration and nutrition, stay active without becoming exhausted
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Golant, A; Nord, RM; Paksima, N; Posner, MA (Dec 2008). "Cold exposure injuries to the extremities".
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Palmar surface of frostbitten feet five days after a freeze. Patient was homeless with poor footwear.
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Fourth degree frostbite in a homeless patient five days after freezing conditions. Patient developed
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98:
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of frostbite. In the United States, frostbite is more common in northern states. In
Finland, annual
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People with potential for large amputations and who present within 24 hours of injury can be given
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Grade 1: if there is no initial lesion on the area, no amputation or lasting effects are expected
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often have frostbite as well. Since hypothermia is life-threatening this should be treated first.
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Early symptoms include a colorless appearance of the skin, a hard texture, and painless rewarming.
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In fourth degree frostbite, structures below the skin are involved like muscles, tendon, and bone.
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Grade 2: if there is a lesion on the distal body part, tissue and fingernails can be destroyed
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693:. Skin lesions can look similar those of frostbite, but do not require cold exposure to occur.
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has also been attempted with limited success. Studies have suggested that administration of
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use. Homeless individuals and individuals with some mental illnesses may be at higher risk.
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as an adjunctive treatment can assist in tissue salvage. Cases have been reported, but no
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is recommended for pain relief or to reduce swelling or inflammation. For severe injuries,
260:. This may be followed by clumsiness with a white or bluish color to the skin. Swelling or
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and other life-threatening complications of cold exposure. Before treating frostbite, the
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657:. Other conditions that can have a similar appearance or occur at the same time include:
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First degree frostbite is superficial, surface skin damage that is usually not permanent.
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2009:
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611:) and damage nerve fibers. Rewarming causes a series of inflammatory chemicals such as
487:
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2668:
Ay H, Uzun G, Yildiz S, Solmazgul E, Dundar K, Qyrdedi T, Yildirim I, Gumus T (2005).
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3944:
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2670:"The treatment of deep frostbite of both feet in two patients with hyperbaric oxygen"
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Wilderness
Medicine E-Book: Expert Consult Premium Edition - Enhanced Online Features
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In the weeks after injury, this hardened, blistered skin dries, blackens, and peels.
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Sachs, Christoph; Lehnhardt, Marcus; Daigeler, Adrien; Goertz, Ole (1 March 2017).
1688:
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1065:
1010:
944:). This has led to the adage "Frozen in January, amputate in July". If symptoms of
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scans are not required for diagnosis, but might be useful for prognostic purposes.
596:
571:
336:
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Avoiding alcohol and drugs that impair circulation or natural protective responses
689:
that can appear similar to frostbite. It is caused by contamination of cocaine by
2826:
2232:
2231:
Lorentzen, Anne
Kathrine; Davis, Christopher; Penninga, Luit (20 December 2020).
2124:
1089:, who in 1982 lost both legs below the knee to frostbite after being stranded on
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Prefreeze phase: involves the cooling of tissues without ice crystal formation.
224:
that occurs when someone is exposed to extremely low temperatures, causing the
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Heil, K; Thomas, R; Robertson, G; Porter, A; Milner, R; Wood, A (March 2016).
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Frostbite is diagnosed based on signs and symptoms as described above, and by
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is another possible mechanism of injury. Blisters and spasm of blood vessels (
292:
181:
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Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy
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2565:
2549:"Frostbite in a mountain climber treated with hyperbaric oxygen: case report"
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Freeze-thaw phase: ice-crystals form, resulting in cellular damage and death.
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Singleton, Joanne K.; DiGregorio, Robert V.; Green-Hernandez, Carol (2014).
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600:
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324:
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2625:"Controlled Frostbite Injury to Mice: Outcome of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy"
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893:. These medications should be withheld if there are any contraindications.
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486:. The amount of permanent damage can take one month or more to determine.
440:
Symptoms include blood blisters and "blue-grey discoloration of the skin".
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3139:
3039:
2075:
2058:
937:
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819:
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608:
607:(microthrombi) form and can cut off blood to the affected area (known as
604:
575:
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In frostbite, cooling of the body causes narrowing of the blood vessels (
352:
332:
253:
225:
194:
2775:
2125:"How to treat frostbite and when you should seek emergency medical help"
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3443:
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1738:
1525:"Frostbite: Spectrum of Imaging Findings and Guidelines for Management"
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individuals, are at greatest risk. Other risk factors include drinking
261:
257:
126:
46:
2059:"Freezing and non-freezing cold weather injuries: a systematic review"
437:
In third degree frostbite, the layers of tissue below the skin freeze.
367:
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1044:
941:
854:
444:
229:
221:
154:
1659:
Zafren, Ken (2013). "Frostbite: Prevention and
Initial Management".
792:
The first priority in people with frostbite should be to assess for
339:
may be used. Surgery, including amputation, is sometimes necessary.
3157:
3148:
2948:
2182:
Sachs, C; Lehnhardt, M; Daigeler, A; Goertz, O (30 October 2015).
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At this stage, lasting cold sensitivity and numbness can develop.
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2338:(7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 1866.
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in 1999. His nose, fingers and toes were subsequently amputated.
443:
In the weeks after injury, pain persists and a blackened crust (
249:
237:
218:
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2920:
807:
Other considerations for standard hospital management include:
19:
This article is about a medical condition. For other uses, see
1326:
Primary Care, Second
Edition: An Interprofessional Perspective
304:
241:
233:
2442:"Beck Weathers Says Fateful Everest Climb Saved His Marriage"
818:
can be drained by needle aspiration, unless they are bloody (
391:
In the weeks after injury, the skin's surface may slough off.
1211:
Handford, C; Thomas, O; Imray, CHE (May 2017). "Frostbite".
314:
and nutrition, and sufficient physical activity to maintain
912:
drugs can be used to counteract the detrimental peripheral
640:
Late ischemic phase: characterized by inflammatory events,
2336:
Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice
2010:"Preventing and Managing Hypothermia and Frostbite Injury"
54:
Frostbitten toes two to three days after mountain climbing
1704:"What are the characteristics of third-degree frostbite?"
1043:
in hospital after developing frostbite when benighted on
264:
may occur following treatment. Complications may include
2098:
Mistovich, Joseph; Haffen, Brent; Karren, Keith (2004).
1466:"Frostbite: a practical approach to hospital management"
1062:
explorer who in 1912 died of complications of frostbite
2635:(1): 35–44. Archived from the original on 10 July 2009
2382:"British History in depth: The Race to the South Pole"
2102:. Upsaddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. p. 506.
1009:
There is a lack of comprehensive statistics about the
2184:"The Triaging and Treatment of Cold-Induced Injuries"
1792:"The Triaging and Treatment of Cold-Induced Injuries"
1126:
Evidence is insufficient to determine whether or not
857:
are recommended during the painful rewarming process.
228:
of the skin or other tissues, commonly affecting the
2765:
1851:
1849:
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1843:
997:, increased sweating, cancers, and bone destruction/
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Avoiding temperatures below −23 °C (-9 °F)
409:
In second degree frostbite, the skin develops clear
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Effect of low temperature on skin and other tissues
2360:"Frostbite: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology"
1356:Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2018 E-Book: 5 Books in 1
741:Additional measures to prevent frostbite include:
574:, swelling (edema), and poor blood flow (stasis).
2696:. Archived from the original on 15 September 2008
2412:"Hugh Herr's Best Foot Forward | Boston Magazine"
826:gel can be applied before breathable, protective
767:Recognizing early signs of frostnip and frostbite
3956:Skin conditions resulting from physical factors
952:can be done to attempt to preserve blood flow.
307:may help in determining the extent of injury.
84:Numbness, feeling cold, clumsiness, pale color
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1585:CT.gov - Connecticut's Official State Website
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8:
1771:. UK National Health Service. 24 August 2021
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1329:. Springer Publishing Company. p. 172.
1051:Several notable cases of frostbite include:
748:Avoiding moisture, including in the form of
732:infographic video about frostbite prevention
2329:
2327:
1213:Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America
800:should be raised above 35 °C. Oral or
637:or the leaking of blood out of the vessels.
599:). If this process continues, inflammatory
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936:tissue is usually delayed unless there is
904:Blood vessel dilating medications such as
764:Using chemical or electric warming devices
730:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
45:
28:
2623:Weaver LK, Greenway L, Elliot CG (1988).
2564:
2547:Folio LR, Arkin K, Butler WP (May 2007).
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1874:
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1389:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 181.
1359:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 502.
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413:early on, and the skin's surface hardens.
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1244:
1242:
1103:who lost his nose and hands to frostbite
133:, certain medications, prior cold injury
2237:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1898:Jurkovich, Gregory J. (February 2007).
1863:Wilderness & Environmental Medicine
1277:Wilderness & Environmental Medicine
1158:
633:Vascular stasis phase: marked by blood
566:Rewarming causes tissue damage through
2707:
2646:
2233:"Interventions for frostbite injuries"
1727:Journal of Special Operations Medicine
836:: if there is trauma, skin infection (
3414:Radiation-induced erythema multiforme
2473:"I'll get there, even if it kills..."
2392:from the original on 13 February 2017
2147:
2145:
1943:
1941:
1904:The Surgical Clinics of North America
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
789:that are important in injury repair.
7:
3887:
2508:
1661:High Altitude Medicine & Biology
500:and was unable to properly dry feet.
3731:Pseudoverrucous papules and nodules
3419:Radiation-induced hypertrophic scar
2471:Heawood, Jonathan (27 March 2004).
1900:"Environmental cold-induced injury"
2422:from the original on 30 March 2017
2370:from the original on 2 March 2017.
2366:. Medscape, LLC. 2 February 2017.
2188:Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
1796:Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
1068:, the junior wireless operator of
482:Later, the skin becomes black and
14:
2490:from the original on 4 March 2017
2452:from the original on 4 March 2017
2163:from the original on 4 March 2017
1989:from the original on 4 March 2017
1959:from the original on 3 March 2017
1627:from the original on 2 March 2017
1617:"Frostbite Clinical Presentation"
1470:Extreme Physiology & Medicine
1411:"Frostbite - Symptoms and causes"
3922:
3910:
3898:
3886:
3875:
3874:
3517:Inner ear decompression sickness
2302:10.5435/00124635-200812000-00003
1091:Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
615:to increase localized clotting.
3911:
964:3 weeks after initial frostbite
582:) can develop after rewarming.
3971:Wilderness medical emergencies
2249:10.1002/14651858.cd012980.pub2
1134:has been performed on humans.
1058:, an English army captain and
916:that occurs during frostbite.
901:can be done to assess damage.
176:Rewarming, medication, surgery
1:
3751:environmental skin conditions
3544:High-altitude pulmonary edema
3741:Tropical anhidrotic asthenia
3550:High-altitude cerebral edema
2602:10.1016/0011-2240(70)90038-6
1147:tissue plasminogen activator
1085:Noted American rock climber
1082:after it arrived in New York
3763:frictional/traumatic/sports
3389:Chronic radiation keratosis
1581:"Frostbite and Hypothermia"
1101:1996 Mount Everest disaster
490:can occur after two months.
116:Temperatures below freezing
3987:
3855:Pseudoacanthosis nigricans
3079:Retroperitoneal hemorrhage
2743:10.1001/archsurg.142.6.546
2100:Prehospital Emergency Care
1702:Zonnoor B (29 July 2019).
1383:Auerbach, Paul S. (2011).
738:Wilderness Medical Society
21:Frostbite (disambiguation)
18:
3951:Mountaineering and health
3870:
3626:Space adaptation syndrome
3534:Chronic mountain sickness
3439:Radiation recall reaction
3429:Radiation-induced morphea
3332:Warm water immersion foot
2714:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
2653:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
2200:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0741
1916:10.1016/j.suc.2006.10.003
1876:10.1016/j.wem.2014.09.001
1808:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0741
1290:10.1016/j.wem.2014.09.001
1225:10.1016/j.emc.2016.12.006
1128:hyperbaric oxygen therapy
53:
44:
3808:Weathering nodule of ear
3424:Radiation-induced keloid
3409:Radiation-induced cancer
3339:Non-freezing cold injury
3317:Immersion foot syndromes
2566:10.7205/milmed.172.5.560
2063:British Medical Bulletin
2026:10.1177/1941738116630542
1132:randomized control trial
804:fluids should be given.
586:Non-freezing cold injury
3736:Sclerosing lymphangitis
3327:Tropical immersion foot
2522:Aviat Space Environ Med
1983:us.bestpractice.bmj.com
1353:Ferri, Fred F. (2017).
940:or systemic infection (
830:or bandages are put on.
603:act in the area. Small
471:Frostbite 12 days later
3823:Painful fat herniation
3803:Vibration white finger
3512:Decompression sickness
3369:Erythrocyanosis crurum
1949:"VisualDx - Frostbite"
1621:emedicine.medscape.com
1056:Captain Lawrence Oates
1048:
1001:in the area affected.
965:
920:the included studies.
733:
509:
501:
472:
450:There can be longterm
428:
400:
372:
289:mental health problems
149:Differential diagnosis
131:mental health problems
3778:Fissure of the nipple
3746:UV-sensitive syndrome
3671:Adverse drug reaction
3500:Middle ear barotrauma
3490:Arterial gas embolism
3186:Occupational injuries
2448:. 16 September 2015.
2290:J Am Acad Orthop Surg
1673:10.1089/ham.2012.1114
1541:10.1148/rg.2016160045
1483:10.1186/2046-7648-3-7
1106:Scottish mountaineer
1038:
963:
727:
507:
495:
470:
426:
398:
370:
349:Dominique Jean Larrey
3966:Causes of amputation
3773:Equestrian perniosis
3191:Traumatic amputation
2674:Undersea Hyperb. Med
2418:. 18 February 2009.
1910:(1): 247–267, viii.
1099:, a survivor of the
946:compartment syndrome
576:Platelet aggregation
531:Raynaud's phenomenon
355:'s army, during its
270:compartment syndrome
99:compartment syndrome
3860:Narcotic dermopathy
3768:Black heel and palm
3721:Dermatosis neglecta
3595:Psychological abuse
3434:Radiation poisoning
2731:Archives of Surgery
2334:Marx, John (2010).
1869:(4 Suppl): S43-54.
1283:(4 Suppl): S43–54.
1122:Research directions
1031:Society and culture
683:Levamisole toxicity
3961:Weather and health
3830:Uranium dermatosis
3783:Pulling boat hands
3692:Lightning injuries
3154:Penetrating trauma
3074:Grey Turner's sign
3064:Subungual hematoma
2848:External resources
2076:10.1093/bmb/ldw001
1739:10.55460/PDX9-BG8G
1141:using intravenous
1049:
966:
840:) or severe injury
734:
677:Bullous pemphigoid
568:reperfusion injury
510:
502:
473:
429:
401:
373:
363:Signs and symptoms
357:invasion of Russia
69:emergency medicine
3938:
3937:
3687:Electrical injury
3529:Altitude sickness
3377:
3376:
3230:
3229:
2902:
2901:
2629:J. Hyperbaric Med
2345:978-0-323-05472-0
2123:Laderer, Ashley.
1116:Mont Blanc massif
932:or amputation of
761:Layering clothing
725:
644:and tissue death.
570:, which involves
351:, a physician in
212:
211:
143:Based on symptoms
139:Diagnostic method
108:Superficial, deep
26:Medical condition
3978:
3926:
3914:
3913:
3902:
3901:
3890:
3889:
3878:
3877:
3714:physical factors
3710:skin conditions
3642:Hypersensitivity
3359:Cold intolerance
3276:
3263:Consequences of
3257:
3250:
3243:
3234:
3222:Abdominal trauma
3130:Ballistic trauma
3017:Friction blister
3012:Fracture blister
2941:
2934:
2927:
2918:
2767:
2755:
2754:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2713:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2652:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2568:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2517:
2511:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2331:
2322:
2321:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2268:
2243:(12): CD012980.
2228:
2222:
2221:
2211:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2157:www.uptodate.com
2149:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2078:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2037:
2008:Fudge J (2016).
2005:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1945:
1936:
1935:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1878:
1853:
1838:
1837:
1827:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1699:
1693:
1692:
1656:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1613:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1560:
1535:(7): 2154–2169.
1520:
1514:
1513:
1503:
1485:
1461:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1380:
1371:
1370:
1350:
1341:
1340:
1320:
1311:
1310:
1292:
1268:
1237:
1236:
1208:
968:Tissue loss and
914:vasoconstriction
802:intravenous (IV)
798:core temperature
726:
697:People who have
593:vasoconstriction
556:vasoconstriction
316:core temperature
49:
29:
3986:
3985:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3934:
3866:
3756:Electrical burn
3713:
3712:resulting from
3711:
3709:
3703:
3675:
3662:Arthus reaction
3630:
3611:Motion sickness
3599:
3573:
3557:
3473:
3469:Oxygen toxicity
3448:
3373:
3300:
3267:
3265:external causes
3261:
3231:
3226:
3195:
3118:
3085:
3026:
3022:Sucking blister
3002:Delayed blister
2978:
2955:
2945:
2903:
2898:
2897:
2843:
2842:
2778:
2764:
2759:
2758:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2706:
2699:
2697:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2645:
2638:
2636:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2519:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2503:
2493:
2491:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2455:
2453:
2440:
2439:
2435:
2425:
2423:
2416:Boston Magazine
2410:
2409:
2405:
2395:
2393:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2346:
2333:
2332:
2325:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2151:
2150:
2143:
2133:
2131:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1992:
1990:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1962:
1960:
1947:
1946:
1939:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1855:
1854:
1841:
1802:(44): 741–747.
1789:
1788:
1784:
1774:
1772:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1709:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1658:
1657:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1615:
1614:
1599:
1589:
1587:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1463:
1462:
1429:
1419:
1417:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1382:
1381:
1374:
1367:
1352:
1351:
1344:
1337:
1322:
1321:
1314:
1270:
1269:
1240:
1210:
1209:
1160:
1155:
1124:
1033:
1024:
1007:
979:
958:
926:
883:
868:povidone iodine
864:
774:
717:
715:
655:patient history
651:
621:
619:Pathophysiology
588:
564:
552:
547:
522:
517:
465:
434:
406:
382:
365:
191:tetanus vaccine
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3984:
3982:
3974:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3943:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3933:
3932:
3920:
3908:
3896:
3884:
3871:
3868:
3867:
3865:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3832:
3827:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3813:Wrestler's ear
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3793:Surfer's knots
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3717:
3715:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3695:
3694:
3683:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3673:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3638:
3636:
3635:Adverse effect
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3585:Physical abuse
3581:
3579:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3547:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3521:
3520:
3519:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3481:
3479:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3471:
3466:
3456:
3454:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3404:Radiation burn
3401:
3399:Radiation acne
3396:
3391:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3314:
3308:
3306:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3282:
3280:
3273:
3269:
3268:
3262:
3260:
3259:
3252:
3245:
3237:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3203:
3201:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3165:
3160:
3151:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3095:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3036:
3034:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2988:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2956:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2936:
2929:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2909:
2900:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2884:
2864:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2829:
2818:
2799:
2779:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2770:Classification
2763:
2762:External links
2760:
2757:
2756:
2721:
2660:
2615:
2580:
2539:
2512:
2501:
2463:
2433:
2403:
2373:
2351:
2344:
2323:
2296:(12): 704–15.
2280:
2223:
2174:
2141:
2115:
2108:
2090:
2049:
2000:
1970:
1937:
1890:
1839:
1782:
1760:
1733:(4): 123–135.
1717:
1694:
1638:
1597:
1572:
1515:
1427:
1402:
1396:978-1455733569
1395:
1372:
1365:
1342:
1335:
1312:
1238:
1219:(2): 281–299.
1157:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1104:
1094:
1083:
1063:
1032:
1029:
1023:
1020:
1006:
1003:
978:
975:
970:autoamputation
957:
954:
925:
922:
899:CT angiography
882:
879:
863:
860:
859:
858:
849:pain control:
847:
844:tetanus toxoid
841:
831:
787:prostaglandins
773:
770:
769:
768:
765:
762:
759:
756:
746:
714:
711:
695:
694:
680:
674:
668:
662:
650:
647:
646:
645:
638:
631:
628:
620:
617:
613:prostaglandins
587:
584:
563:
560:
551:
548:
546:
543:
521:
518:
516:
513:
512:
511:
488:Autoamputation
480:
477:
464:
461:
460:
459:
454:and damage to
448:
441:
438:
433:
430:
421:
420:
417:
414:
405:
402:
393:
392:
389:
386:
381:
378:
364:
361:
329:tetanus toxoid
210:
209:
206:
202:
201:
184:
178:
177:
174:
170:
169:
166:
162:
161:
151:
145:
144:
141:
135:
134:
124:
118:
117:
114:
110:
109:
106:
102:
101:
92:
86:
85:
82:
76:
75:
62:
56:
55:
51:
50:
42:
41:
38:
34:
33:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3983:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3931:
3930:
3925:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3909:
3907:
3906:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3873:
3872:
3869:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3840:Skin pop scar
3838:
3837:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3788:Runner's rump
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3761:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3706:
3700:
3697:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3678:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3560:
3551:
3548:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3524:High altitude
3522:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3510:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3495:Aerosinusitis
3493:
3491:
3488:
3487:
3486:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3380:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3303:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3258:
3253:
3251:
3246:
3244:
3239:
3238:
3235:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3198:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3176:Chemical burn
3173:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:/superficial/
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3069:Cullen's sign
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3049:Battle's sign
3047:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3007:Edema blister
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2992:Blood blister
2990:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2942:
2937:
2935:
2930:
2928:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2904:
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2890:
2889:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2869:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2853:
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2834:
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2828:
2824:
2823:
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2809:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2798:
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2790:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2780:
2777:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2737:(6): 546–51.
2736:
2732:
2725:
2722:
2717:
2711:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
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2502:
2489:
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2477:
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2467:
2464:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2437:
2434:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2407:
2404:
2391:
2387:
2386:BBC - History
2383:
2377:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2355:
2352:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2328:
2324:
2319:
2315:
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2307:
2303:
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2291:
2284:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2227:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2194:(44): 741–7.
2193:
2189:
2185:
2178:
2175:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2130:
2126:
2119:
2116:
2111:
2109:0-13-049288-4
2105:
2101:
2094:
2091:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2053:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2014:Sports Health
2011:
2004:
2001:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1783:
1770:
1764:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1748:
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1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1718:
1705:
1698:
1695:
1690:
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1678:
1674:
1670:
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1626:
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1618:
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1610:
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1606:
1604:
1602:
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1582:
1576:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1529:Radiographics
1526:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
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1436:
1434:
1432:
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1406:
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1388:
1387:
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1377:
1373:
1368:
1366:9780323529570
1362:
1358:
1357:
1349:
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1338:
1336:9780826171474
1332:
1328:
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1313:
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1296:
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1239:
1234:
1230:
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1222:
1218:
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1207:
1205:
1203:
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1199:
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1195:
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1191:
1189:
1187:
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1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:sympathectomy
1135:
1133:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1097:Beck Weathers
1095:
1093:in a blizzard
1092:
1088:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1030:
1028:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1004:
1002:
1000:
996:
991:
988:
985:
982:
976:
974:
971:
962:
955:
953:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
923:
921:
917:
915:
911:
910:sympatholytic
907:
902:
900:
896:
892:
888:
880:
878:
876:
873:
872:chlorhexidine
869:
861:
856:
852:
848:
845:
842:
839:
835:
832:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
810:
809:
808:
805:
803:
799:
795:
790:
788:
784:
780:
771:
766:
763:
760:
757:
755:
751:
747:
744:
743:
742:
739:
731:
712:
710:
708:
704:
703:Technetium-99
700:
692:
688:
684:
681:
678:
675:
672:
669:
666:
663:
660:
659:
658:
656:
648:
643:
639:
636:
632:
629:
626:
625:
624:
618:
616:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
585:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
561:
559:
557:
549:
544:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
519:
514:
506:
499:
494:
489:
485:
481:
478:
475:
474:
469:
463:Fourth degree
462:
457:
456:growth plates
453:
449:
446:
442:
439:
436:
435:
431:
425:
418:
415:
412:
408:
407:
404:Second degree
403:
397:
390:
387:
384:
383:
379:
377:
369:
362:
360:
358:
354:
350:
346:
340:
338:
337:thrombolytics
334:
330:
326:
323:. The use of
322:
317:
313:
308:
306:
302:
298:
297:blood vessels
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
220:
216:
207:
203:
200:
199:thrombolytics
196:
192:
188:
185:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
160:
156:
152:
150:
146:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
100:
96:
93:
91:
90:Complications
87:
83:
81:
77:
74:
70:
66:
63:
61:
57:
52:
48:
43:
39:
35:
30:
22:
3927:
3915:
3903:
3891:
3879:
3834:
3762:
3750:
3590:Sexual abuse
3578:Maltreatment
3505:Pneumothorax
3364:Acrocyanosis
3354:Aerosol burn
3348:
3296:Heat syncope
3291:Hyperthermia
3217:Chest trauma
3180:
3163:Aerosol burn
3145:Blunt trauma
3054:Raccoon eyes
2997:Coma blister
2886:
2866:
2855:
2831:
2820:
2801:
2782:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2710:cite journal
2698:. Retrieved
2677:
2673:
2663:
2649:cite journal
2637:. Retrieved
2632:
2628:
2618:
2593:
2589:
2583:
2559:(5): 560–3.
2556:
2552:
2542:
2528:(4): 392–4.
2525:
2521:
2515:
2504:
2492:. Retrieved
2476:The Guardian
2475:
2466:
2454:. Retrieved
2445:
2436:
2424:. Retrieved
2415:
2406:
2394:. Retrieved
2385:
2376:
2363:
2354:
2335:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2240:
2236:
2226:
2191:
2187:
2177:
2165:. Retrieved
2156:
2134:30 September
2132:. Retrieved
2128:
2118:
2099:
2093:
2069:(1): 79–93.
2066:
2062:
2052:
2020:(2): 133–9.
2017:
2013:
2003:
1991:. Retrieved
1982:
1973:
1961:. Retrieved
1952:
1907:
1903:
1893:
1866:
1862:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1773:. Retrieved
1763:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1708:. Retrieved
1697:
1664:
1660:
1629:. Retrieved
1620:
1588:. Retrieved
1584:
1575:
1532:
1528:
1518:
1473:
1469:
1418:. Retrieved
1414:
1405:
1385:
1355:
1325:
1280:
1276:
1216:
1212:
1136:
1125:
1108:Jamie Andrew
1078:
1071:
1066:Harold Bride
1050:
1039:Mountaineer
1025:
1011:epidemiology
1008:
1005:Epidemiology
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
967:
927:
918:
903:
884:
865:
806:
791:
775:
752:and/or skin
735:
696:
652:
622:
597:vasodilation
589:
572:vasodilation
565:
553:
523:
520:Risk factors
432:Third degree
380:First degree
374:
341:
309:
274:
214:
213:
122:Risk factors
3647:Anaphylaxis
3621:Airsickness
3616:Seasickness
3322:Trench foot
3312:Hypothermia
3272:Temperature
3212:Head injury
3207:Hand injury
2907:Mayo Clinic
2857:MedlinePlus
2680:(1 Suppl).
2590:Cryobiology
2153:"Frostbite"
1979:"Frostbite"
1769:"Frostbite"
1667:(1): 9–12.
1420:19 February
1415:Mayo Clinic
1112:Les Droites
1041:Nigel Vardy
995:paresthesia
930:Debridement
881:Medications
834:antibiotics
820:hemorrhagic
794:hypothermia
699:hypothermia
665:Trench foot
635:coagulation
498:trench foot
447:) develops.
345:mountaineer
293:blood clots
266:hypothermia
159:trench foot
129:, smoking,
95:Hypothermia
73:orthopedics
65:Dermatology
37:Other names
3945:Categories
3845:Skin track
3798:Tennis toe
3726:Pinch mark
3708:Ungrouped
3652:Angioedema
3569:Starvation
3539:Death zone
3485:Barotrauma
3344:Chilblains
3135:Stab wound
3044:Ecchymosis
2912:Definition
2888:Patient UK
2833:DiseasesDB
2596:(1): 1–8.
1706:. Medscape
1153:References
950:fasciotomy
895:Bone scans
875:antiseptic
838:cellulitis
812:wound care
754:emollients
713:Prevention
691:levamisole
687:vasculitis
601:mast cells
452:ulceration
262:blistering
182:Medication
165:Prevention
153:Frostnip,
3850:Slap mark
3818:Coral cut
3382:Radiation
3349:Frostbite
3200:By region
3181:Frostbite
3172:Corrosion
3059:Black eye
2960:Abrasions
2893:Frostbite
2873:emerg/209
2868:eMedicine
2686:1066-2936
2509:Marx 2010
2484:0261-3077
2257:1465-1858
1924:0039-6109
1816:1866-0452
1755:229171926
1549:0271-5333
1492:2046-7648
1299:1545-1534
1143:reserpine
1087:Hugh Herr
1079:Carpathia
1077:RMS
1070:RMS
1060:Antarctic
1015:incidence
999:arthritis
956:Prognosis
948:develop,
862:Rewarming
828:dressings
824:Aloe vera
783:ibuprofen
772:Treatment
649:Diagnosis
580:vasospasm
562:Rewarming
545:Mechanism
484:mummified
371:Frostbite
325:ibuprofen
321:abrasions
312:hydration
301:bone scan
295:in small
215:Frostbite
205:Frequency
187:Ibuprofen
173:Treatment
60:Specialty
32:Frostbite
3905:Glossary
3881:Category
3699:Drowning
3478:Pressure
3464:Asphyxia
3279:Elevated
3140:Splinter
3040:Hematoma
2984:Blisters
2972:Avulsion
2967:Abrasion
2953:injuries
2947:General
2879:derm/833
2876:med/2815
2751:17576891
2694:26915585
2575:17521112
2534:11952063
2488:Archived
2450:Archived
2420:Archived
2390:Archived
2368:Archived
2364:Medscape
2318:19274894
2310:19056919
2275:33341943
2218:26575137
2161:Archived
2085:26872856
2044:26857732
1987:Archived
1957:Archived
1953:VisualDx
1932:17127131
1885:25498262
1834:26575137
1747:33320326
1681:23537254
1625:Archived
1567:27494386
1510:24764516
1307:25498262
1233:28411928
1137:Medical
938:gangrene
934:necrotic
906:iloprost
816:blisters
642:ischemia
609:ischemia
550:Freezing
527:diabetes
411:blisters
353:Napoleon
333:iloprost
277:homeless
254:tingling
226:freezing
195:iloprost
80:Symptoms
40:Frostnip
3917:Outline
3893:Commons
3657:Allergy
3460:Hypoxia
3444:Sunburn
3305:Reduced
3032:Bruises
2882:ped/803
2827:D005627
2700:30 June
2639:20 June
2610:5475096
2553:Mil Med
2494:4 March
2456:4 March
2426:4 March
2396:4 March
2266:8092677
2209:4650908
2167:3 March
2129:Insider
2035:4789935
1993:4 March
1963:3 March
1825:4650908
1775:16 July
1689:3036889
1631:2 March
1558:5131839
1501:3994495
1114:in the
1072:Titanic
1022:History
924:Surgery
891:heparin
855:opioids
779:Aspirin
539:alcohol
535:tobacco
285:smoking
281:alcohol
258:numbing
230:fingers
208:Unknown
127:Alcohol
3929:Portal
3835:iv use
3604:Travel
3552:(HACE)
3546:(HAPE)
3453:Oxygen
3149:closed
3123:Other:
3109:Spider
3104:Insect
3099:Animal
3091:Biting
2949:wounds
2862:000057
2749:
2692:
2684:
2608:
2573:
2532:
2482:
2446:PEOPLE
2342:
2316:
2308:
2273:
2263:
2255:
2216:
2206:
2106:
2083:
2042:
2032:
1930:
1922:
1883:
1832:
1822:
1814:
1753:
1745:
1710:10 May
1687:
1679:
1590:2 July
1565:
1555:
1547:
1508:
1498:
1490:
1393:
1363:
1333:
1305:
1297:
1231:
1045:Denali
977:Grades
942:sepsis
851:NSAIDs
671:Pernio
515:Causes
445:eschar
246:cheeks
222:injury
155:pernio
113:Causes
3680:Other
3114:Snake
2838:31167
2816:991.3
2812:991.0
2314:S2CID
1751:S2CID
1685:S2CID
1476:: 7.
889:with
750:sweat
685:is a
605:clots
217:is a
105:Types
3562:Food
3286:Burn
3168:Burn
3158:open
2951:and
2822:MeSH
2807:9-CM
2747:PMID
2716:link
2702:2008
2690:OCLC
2682:ISSN
2655:link
2641:2008
2606:PMID
2571:PMID
2530:PMID
2496:2017
2480:ISSN
2458:2017
2428:2017
2398:2017
2340:ISBN
2306:PMID
2271:PMID
2253:ISSN
2241:2020
2214:PMID
2169:2017
2136:2021
2104:ISBN
2081:PMID
2040:PMID
1995:2017
1965:2017
1928:PMID
1920:ISSN
1881:PMID
1830:PMID
1812:ISSN
1777:2023
1743:PMID
1712:2020
1677:PMID
1633:2017
1592:2021
1563:PMID
1545:ISSN
1506:PMID
1488:ISSN
1422:2021
1391:ISBN
1361:ISBN
1331:ISBN
1303:PMID
1295:ISSN
1229:PMID
781:and
736:The
595:and
537:and
327:and
250:chin
248:and
242:ears
238:nose
234:toes
219:skin
2803:ICD
2797:T35
2793:T33
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