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women as witches and carrying out more brutal forms of punishment on the accused. However, hunts continued regardless of new laws, in more inconspicuous and less violent forms. The
British failed to acknowledge how deeply embedded witchcraft beliefs were in tribal societies and instead of stopping witch hunts the bans drove the practice underground. It did not help that many colonial officials, attempting to ease tensions and accommodate local traditions, were known to accept certain witch-hunting practices and were lenient towards perpetrators with some even attending witch-swingings.
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locals, were only trying to protect their communities from evil supernatural forces. Additionally, after the passing of witch-hunting bans, reasons to hunt 'dayans' expanded beyond land-grabbing and a way of gaining retribution for misfortunes and arguably transitioned into a form of resisting colonialist rule. For instance, witches became a symbol of colonial power and who many believed had been 'protected' by new
British laws, therefore the practice of witch-hunting became an indirect form of expressing hostility towards colonial power.
215:. The rebellion provided an opportunity for rebel leaders to 'clean out' witches, whose numbers many suspected had risen under the 'benevolent power' of the British, leading to a surge in hunts across rebel-controlled regions. Witches in many ways came to symbolise British power and for this reason were killed by rebel leaders as a way of consolidating their religious and political power over the masses in times of major upheaval.
645:, who runs an organisation which spreads awareness against witch-hunting called [Mission Birubala, has spent the last 15 years campaigning against the practice. Rabha was instrumental in the passing of the Assam Witch Hunting (Prohibition Prevention and Protection) Act, which many say is India's toughest anti-witch-hunting law and in 2021 was recognised for her work by the Government of India with the prestigious
190:
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641:(CSJ) use the legal system to fight for the rights and assets of women and marginalized people, who are attacked in witch hunts. Another organisation, ANANDI, builds solidarity among victims of witch hunts or those who live in areas where women are frequently targeted. Individual activists have also had a significant impact on the fight against witch-hunting. For example,
70:(NCRB) of India, since 2000 more than 2,500 women have been killed after being branded as a witch. This number is estimated to be even higher, as many cases go unreported. Women accused of practising witchcraft face various forms of physical and mental torture as well as execution. Severe violence is commonly used to punish accused witches and can include rape, beating,
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documented as it is difficult for poor and illiterate women to travel from isolated regions to file police reports. For these reasons, campaigners have argued for social solutions which target superstition and irrationality in communities, support victims and address the roots of the problem, rather than taking a strictly legal approach to eliminate witch-hunting.
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which aims to curb witch-hunting by “empowering” victims by providing them with counselling, job skills training and livelihood opportunities. The project also has the goal of spreading awareness among vulnerable communities in order to prevent witch-hunts. Currently 6 states in the country have specific laws targeting witch hunting including
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deity or priest for medical ailments. This is a key causal factor of witch hunts as disease outbreaks and seemingly unexplainable deaths are viewed in these communities as the result of witchcraft or black magic. The significance of poor access to healthcare on witch-hunting can be seen in a 2019 joint study by
110:, where victims were tried and recorded by state-run judiciaries, detailed records of witch hunts in India are difficult to find as many hunts were mob-instigated, unofficial incidents that were publicly tried. For this reason, there is no concrete documented evidence of witch-hunting in India before the
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enacted The
Prevention of Witch (Daain) Practices Act to “eliminate” the “torture, humiliation and killing by the (sic) society”. Additionally, the law criminalises rituals performed by witch doctors who are believed to identify and ‘cure’ witches. In 2021 the state government launched Project Garima
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A lack of hygiene and easily accessible medical facilities means that in many poorer areas, treatable minor illnesses are common causes of death. Hospitals and other medical facilities are often too far from rural Indian communities and instead, many
Indians in isolated areas seek the help of a local
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It is possible that the outlawing of witch-hunting inflamed the number of hunts, due to the hostile and resistant response legislation was met with. Firstly, many
Indians opposed the trials of witch-killers, who were often influential men that played central roles in village life and, in the views of
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Witch hunts are often a common ploy to grab land and property from women, a motive which is usually hidden under the guise of superstition. This is because coveted land and resources owned by single, usually widowed and childless women are more easily acquired after witch hunts by jealous neighbours
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was 'witch-swinging', where an accused witch would have chilli paste rubbed into her eyes, was hung upside-down from a tree and swung over an open fire until she confessed to her crimes or promised to release her victim(s). In one case in 1886 an elderly woman called Kunkoo was accused of inflicting
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Settling personal grudges and disputes can take the form of a witch hunt. Outspoken, naturally assertive and more confrontational women are more likely to be targeted and labelled as a witch as a way of silencing them or acting on a long-term grudge against them. There have been instances where the
465:
Since the early 2000s reported cases of witch-hunting have shown that women accused of practising black magic have been subjected to persecution and inhumane treatment from those living in their village. This is done in an attempt to punish the witch or 'purify' her. Victims can be badly beaten or
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accusation, ranging from crop failure, financial hardship, and the loss of livestock to the illness or death of family members. Accusations are often instigated to serve ulterior motives like grabbing the land and property of a 'witch', settling personal grudges or even as a punishment for turning
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district were paraded naked, beaten and forced to eat human faeces. In many cases, women have to flee their homes in fear of persecution or are banished from their villages and forced off their property. The effects of attacks and so-called 'punishments' often leave a lasting impact on victims of
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Initially, the bans seemed to be effective and were living up to their aim of reducing the number of witch hunts. Women accused of witchcraft and their families were given more resources and opportunities to seek support, compensation and justice. Bhopas were also dissuaded from labelling certain
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The implementation of these laws is also poor, as only 2 percent of perpetrators are convicted. Cases that are reported are likely to be dismissed due to a lack of proper investigation, witnesses or because of a 'compromise' reached between victim and perpetrator. Furthermore, most cases are not
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were triggered in response to children developing health issues and another 43.5% were instigated due to the ill health of adults. The poor standard of education in states like
Jharkhand also increases the likelihood that people will turn to irrational superstitious beliefs, like witchcraft, to
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academics have argued that an underlying desire to subordinate women who pose a threat to the patriarchal structure of rural Indian societies is a key factor in the existence of modern-day witch-hunting. Tanvi Yadav, for example, argues that brutal methods of physical and mental punishment for
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also have recorded many cases of witch branding. There are usually three stages to a witch hunt: accusation, declaration and persecution. A witchcraft accusation is most commonly triggered after the sudden death or illness of a family member, crop failure or loss of livestock. A woman is then
126:, many cases of witch hunting were recorded and officials speculated that during this period over a thousand women were killed on the grounds of witchcraft in India's central plains alone. It was also believed that more women were killed as witches than those who died through the practice of
39:
in the twenty-first century. Those who are labelled as witches are usually elderly or single women accused of manipulating supernatural forces with malicious intent. Witch branding occurs predominantly in rural, poorer areas of the country where there is often a higher concentration of
148:' and other names, were consulted after members of the community, their relatives or the leaders of villages complained of suffering misfortunes caused by witchcraft. Once a 'witch' was identified, bohpas would attempt to 'free' the victim from her power, by using magic,
716:
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The majority of witch-hunting cases in India are recorded from places and communities in poor socio-economic conditions. For example, in
Jharkhand, a state where witch branding is highly prevalent, nearly 40% of the population lives below the
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norms. Sikha Das also notes that young, independent and strongly-willed widows are more likely to be branded a witch as a way of punishing them for stepping outside of traditional expectations for women of their status.
474:, some are forced to endure even more violent forms of torture such as having limbs chopped off. In more serious cases accused witches are killed, and some methods of execution still used today in hunts include being
199:
Mass incidents of witch-hunting often coincided with major rebellions in
British India, further supporting the notion that witch-hunts represented a mode of resistance against colonial rule. For example, in the 1855
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declared a witch by a socially recognised sorcerer, who is consulted by community members after suffering misfortune. These sorcerers perform magic to identify a witch and to punish her for practising black magic.
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has yet to pass a specific piece of legislation relating to the practice. One of the only attempts to stop this crime at a federal level has been the introduction of The
Prevention of Witch-Hunting Bill by
482:. Many deaths can also happen as a result of injuries caused by physical violence. Witch-hunting victims face mental torture as well as physical attacks, this ranges from verbal abuse and harassment to
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and family members. For instance, a labelled 'witch' can have her right to own property denied. She may be forced off her land in fear of being attacked, by being banished from her village, or killed.
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refusal of a woman to accept sexual advances has led to her being branded a witch, making it far easier for perpetrators to isolate the woman from her village and take sexual advantage of her.
223:
In modern-day India, witch-hunting continues to be prevalent and customary in isolated and deprived rural areas, particularly in the
Northern and central parts of the country. The state of
604:
However, the overall effectiveness of anti-witch-hunting legislation has been called into question. Firstly, the majority of laws enacted to combat witch-hunting have only been made at a
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for the misfortunes of their neighbours. Whilst not as common, men can be subjected to witchcraft accusations especially if they are relatives or family members of an accused witch.
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has recorded the highest total number of murders where the motive was witchcraft, with 593 women being killed on the grounds of witchcraft between 2001 and 2021 according to the
173:. The bans targeted spiritual leaders and holy men who named and accused witches in their villages. In serious cases punishments for hunters could even lead to a death sentence.
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accused witches, such as beating, naked parading and lynching are used to intentionally terrorize and silence women who otherwise may have challenged or spoken out against
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down sexual advances. There are also deeper underlying causes of witch hunting, primarily a lack of education and basic social benefits, particularly healthcare.
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Attempts to create legislation to prevent and eliminate the practice of witch-hunting have been made at national and state levels. For example, in 2001
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204:, large numbers of women were persecuted by Santhal leaders in the form of witchcraft accusations, despite playing active roles in the resistance.
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illness on a soldier's wife, she was made to put her hands in boiling oil and swung for days before being released and eventually murdered.
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513:. This combined with inadequate healthcare provision and education helps to create an environment where witch-hunting can thrive.
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717:"Greed & Power Override Myth As India's Poorest State Strives To End The Hunting Of Witches By 2023 — Article 14"
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witch trials of 1792 and the majority of witch-hunting cases are found in information from the colonial period.
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Das, Sikha (March 2017). "Gender, Power and Conflict of Identities: A Witch Hunting Narrative of Rabha Women".
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Bailey, Frederick George 1994: The Witch-Hunt, or the Triumph of Morality. New York: Cornell University Press.
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were usually identified by male practitioners of magic and spiritual leaders. These witch hunters known as '
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and severing of limbs. Furthermore, 'witches' can be mentally and emotionally abused through ostracism,
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59:, who because of their background are socially marginalised and are thus more vulnerable to becoming
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British authorities implemented several bans on witch-killing between the 1840s and 60s throughout
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Skaria, Ajay (May 1997). "Women, witchcraft and gratuitous violence in colonial Western India".
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The vast majority of witch-hunting victims are women, especially older, single women of a lower
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Witch-hunting in India is an ancient practice spanning back many centuries with references to
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1338:"Hundreds accused after woman is burned alive 'for being a witch' in Indian village"
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578:
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Mallick, Ata (2017). "Santal Women and the Rebellion of 1855 in Colonial India".
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Commission, which found that 27% of recorded witch-hunting cases in the state of
1547:"Labelled As Witches In Rajasthan, Women Face Harassment, Torture And Ostracism"
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have legislation broadly covering witch-hunting along with other superstitions.
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874:"In Rural India, Protecting Women From Witch Hunting, and an Impending Flood"
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explain sudden deaths, illnesses or crop failure in their communities.
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486:. For example, in 2009 five women from a remote village in Jharkhand's
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1287:"India's 'witches' victims of superstition, poverty – DW – 07/26/2019"
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to Parliament in 2016, however, as of now the bill is still pending.
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1466:"World Human Rights Day: Is an India free of witch-hunts possible."
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1312:"Five women killed in India by villagers suspecting witchcraft"
1192:"Crime in India Table Contents | National Crime Records Bureau"
1068:"1857: Witch-hunts, Adivasis, and the Uprising in Chhotanagpur"
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and execution. For example, a popular method of torture in
1633:"A witch-hunting survivor crusades to save Assamese women"
1090:"Witch-Hunts, Adivasis, and the Uprising in Chhotanagpur"
1599:"The Witch Hunt Bill, 2016: Speculations & Urgency"
211:, a wave of witch hunts broke out across the region of
758:"Witchcraft and Witch Hunting in India: An Assessment"
1129:
ANTYAJAA: Indian Journal of Women and Social Change
1688:"Crusader against witch hunting to be felicitated"
1418:Borah, Lekha; Das, Madhushree (25 November 2019).
504:Lack of quality education and healthcare provision
27:Persecution of accused witches in modern-day India
256:Murders with Witchcraft as their Motive by Year
1167:"Day Thirteen | Witch-branding in Eastern India"
756:Alam, Shamsher; Raj, Aditya (22 February 2018).
185:1855 Santhal Rebellion and 1857 Indian Rebellion
794:"Recourse Rare for Witch Hunt Victims in India"
659:2017 hair and braid chopping incidents in India
1662:"The Indian woman who hunts the witch hunters"
819:"The Indian woman who hunts the witch hunters"
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958:Caste: A Global Journal on Social Exclusion
519:The Uttarakhand State Commission for Women
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1420:"Witch-Hunting in Assam: Myth or Reality"
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491:witch branding, leading some to commit
94:(witches) being found in several early
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931:New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
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1365:"Village 'witches' beaten in India"
1022:– via Gale Academic Onefile.
25:
1390:"Three 'witches' kill themselves"
1165:Suresh, Mayur (6 December 2019).
844:Phutela, Apoorva (6 April 2022).
1545:Mishra, Jigyasa (6 April 2023).
1363:Ravi, Salman (20 October 2009).
952:Yadav, Tanvi (31 October 2020).
1741:Violence against women in India
1066:Shashank, Sinha (12 May 2007).
1037:"Witch Trials in British India"
684:Witch-hunts in Papua New Guinea
118:Witch hunting in colonial India
47:Multiple factors can lead to a
792:Saxena, Swati (16 July 2007).
635:Non-governmental organisations
207:Similarly, in 1857 during the
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1272:National Crime Records Bureau
1249:National Crime Records Bureau
1226:National Crime Records Bureau
1094:Economic and Political Weekly
1072:Economic and Political Weekly
229:National Crime Records Bureau
68:National Crime Records Bureau
560:Efforts to end witch-hunting
534:Ulterior motives of accusers
610:Central Government of India
98:works. However, unlike the
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1534:– via SAGE Journals.
664:Indian WhatsApp lynchings
639:Centre for Social Justice
130:. Witches (also known as
1524:10.1177/0971523118783037
1424:Space and Culture, India
1264:"Motives of Murder 2021"
1241:"Motives of Murder 2020"
1218:"Motives of Murder 2019"
1141:10.1177/2455632717723490
1088:Sinha, Shashank (2007).
971:10.26812/caste.v1i2.203
35:are still prevalent in
1736:Superstitions of India
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1470:, 7 Dec. 2021, p. NA.
1437:10.20896/saci.v7i3.566
1020:10.1093/past/155.1.109
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231:(NCRB). The states of
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18:Witch-hunting in India
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194:Indian Rebellion 1857
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165:Bans on witch-hunting
1712:"Padma Awards: 2021"
1472:Gale General OneFile
927:Archer, W G (1979).
679:Witch-hunts in Nepal
470:by perpetrators and
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104:Early Modern Europe
1731:Modern witch hunts
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1551:www.indiaspend.com
1512:South Asian Survey
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1344:. 11 November 2022
1151:– via JSTOR.
1012:Past & Present
669:Modern witch-hunts
632:
484:public humiliation
472:sexually assaulted
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219:Modern witch-hunts
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80:public humiliation
42:tribal communities
1578:. 13 October 2022
1396:. 24 October 2003
1171:16 Days Blogathon
1100:(19): 1672–1676.
850:Feminism in India
766:. Rochester, NY.
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302:
301:
298:
294:
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286:
285:
282:
278:
277:
274:
270:
269:
264:
245:Madhya Pradesh
220:
217:
186:
183:
166:
163:
124:Colonial India
119:
116:
87:
84:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1758:
1747:
1746:Witch hunting
1744:
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1734:
1732:
1729:
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1726:
1713:
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1469:
1468:Down To Earth
1463:
1460:
1455:
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1447:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1430:(3): 99–114.
1429:
1425:
1421:
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1408:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1370:
1366:
1359:
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1123:
1120:
1115:
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1107:
1103:
1099:
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1078:
1073:
1069:
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1058:
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1042:
1038:
1032:
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1026:
1021:
1017:
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1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
994:
989:
985:
981:
977:
972:
967:
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959:
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948:
946:
944:
942:
940:
938:
934:
930:
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921:
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905:
899:
897:
895:
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875:
869:
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863:
851:
847:
840:
837:
824:
820:
814:
811:
799:
798:Women's eNews
795:
788:
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782:
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773:
769:
765:
764:
759:
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750:
748:
746:
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742:
740:
738:
734:
722:
718:
712:
710:
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706:
704:
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700:
696:
689:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
656:
652:
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
630:
626:
622:
618:
616:
611:
607:
602:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
567:
559:
557:
554:
549:
544:
540:
533:
531:
528:
524:
520:
514:
512:
503:
498:
496:
494:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
460:
453:
451:
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443:
440:
439:
435:
432:
431:
427:
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384:
383:
379:
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371:
368:
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347:
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331:
328:
327:
323:
320:
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315:
312:
311:
307:
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299:
296:
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291:
288:
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283:
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272:
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268:
265:
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246:
242:
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234:
230:
226:
218:
216:
214:
210:
205:
203:
195:
191:
184:
182:
178:
174:
172:
171:Eastern India
164:
162:
159:
158:Western India
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
134:
129:
125:
117:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
85:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
64:
62:
58:
53:
50:
45:
43:
38:
34:
30:
19:
1707:
1695:. Retrieved
1691:
1682:
1670:. Retrieved
1665:
1641:. Retrieved
1636:
1627:
1618:
1606:. Retrieved
1602:
1592:
1580:. Retrieved
1575:
1566:
1554:. Retrieved
1550:
1540:
1518:(1): 1–100.
1515:
1511:
1505:
1493:. Retrieved
1488:
1479:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1427:
1423:
1398:. Retrieved
1393:
1384:
1372:. Retrieved
1368:
1358:
1346:. Retrieved
1341:
1332:
1320:. Retrieved
1316:the Guardian
1315:
1306:
1294:. Retrieved
1290:
1281:
1270:
1258:
1247:
1235:
1224:
1212:
1200:. Retrieved
1195:
1186:
1174:. Retrieved
1170:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1097:
1093:
1071:
1044:. Retrieved
1040:
1011:
961:
957:
928:
923:
911:. Retrieved
907:
881:. Retrieved
877:
853:. Retrieved
849:
839:
827:. Retrieved
822:
813:
801:. Retrieved
797:
761:
724:. Retrieved
720:
633:
619:
603:
593:, meanwhile
579:Chhattisgarh
563:
545:
541:
537:
515:
511:poverty line
507:
476:burned alive
464:
449:
266:
261:
241:Chhattisgarh
222:
213:Chota Nagpur
206:
198:
179:
175:
168:
145:
141:
137:
132:
121:
100:witch trials
89:
65:
54:
46:
31:
29:
1198:. Table 13A
1196:ncrb.gov.in
1135:(1): 9–28.
1041:blogs.bl.uk
913:20 December
908:ncrb.gov.in
726:20 December
606:state level
595:Maharashtra
553:patriarchal
527:Uttarakhand
461:Persecution
33:Witch-hunts
1725:Categories
1697:31 January
1672:31 January
1643:31 January
1608:29 January
1495:25 January
1400:28 January
1374:27 January
1348:28 January
1322:28 January
1296:27 January
1176:31 January
1046:11 January
883:31 January
855:25 January
690:References
674:Witch-hunt
647:Padma Shri
523:Action Aid
76:banishment
61:scapegoats
49:witchcraft
1692:DNA India
1532:158296750
1454:214131359
1446:2052-8396
1149:158785351
1106:0012-9976
988:228973839
980:2639-4928
829:3 January
803:3 January
637:like the
599:Karnataka
575:Jharkhand
571:Rajasthan
566:Jharkhand
225:Jharkhand
1666:BBC News
1394:BBC News
1369:BBC News
823:BBC News
653:See also
608:and the
548:feminist
150:exorcism
138:dayans),
96:Sanskrit
72:flogging
1582:6 April
1556:6 April
1114:4419566
772:3130547
649:award.
493:suicide
488:Deoghar
468:flogged
267:Murders
154:torture
146:bahgats
133:dakinis
112:Santhal
86:History
1530:
1452:
1444:
1291:dw.com
1202:5 June
1147:
1112:
1104:
986:
978:
770:
589:, and
587:Odisha
480:stoned
249:Odisha
142:bohpas
92:dayans
1603:Vidhi
1528:S2CID
1450:S2CID
1267:(PDF)
1244:(PDF)
1221:(PDF)
1145:S2CID
1110:JSTOR
984:S2CID
591:Assam
583:Bihar
546:Some
454:3077
450:Total
273:2000
237:Bihar
233:Assam
57:caste
37:India
1699:2023
1674:2023
1645:2023
1610:2023
1584:2023
1558:2023
1497:2023
1442:ISSN
1402:2023
1376:2023
1350:2023
1324:2023
1298:2023
1204:2023
1178:2023
1102:ISSN
1048:2023
976:ISSN
915:2022
885:2023
857:2023
831:2023
805:2023
768:SSRN
763:SSRN
728:2022
597:and
521:and
478:and
441:2021
433:2020
428:102
425:2019
417:2018
409:2017
404:134
401:2016
396:135
393:2015
388:156
385:2014
380:160
377:2013
372:119
369:2012
364:240
361:2011
356:178
353:2010
348:175
345:2009
340:175
337:2008
332:177
329:2007
324:186
321:2006
316:197
313:2005
308:111
305:2004
300:138
297:2003
292:151
289:2002
284:126
281:2001
276:126
262:Year
247:and
144:', '
128:Sati
106:and
1520:doi
1489:RFI
1432:doi
1137:doi
1016:doi
966:doi
444:68
436:88
420:62
412:73
136:or
102:in
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