558:, the pest could kill most of the region's hemlock trees within the next decade. According to the study, researchers found "hemlock woolly adelgid infestation is rapidly impacting the carbon cycle in tree stands", and "adelgid-infested hemlock trees in the South are declining much faster than the reported 9-year decline of some infested hemlock trees in the Northeast." In fact, as of 2007, the rate of HWA expansion was recorded as 15.6 km/year south of Pennsylvania and 8.13 km/year (or less) in the northern section of the HWA's range.
73:
216:
49:
201:
328:, HWA was first found in the eastern United States near Richmond, Virginia, in 1951. The pest is now found from northern Georgia to coastal Maine and southwestern Nova Scotia as well as areas of western Michigan near the eastern Lake Michigan shoreline. As of 2015, HWA has affected 90% of the geographic range of eastern hemlock in North America.
476:, which can be effective for several years if absorbed through the soil. Tree roots absorb and transport the product into the foliage and kill hemlock woolly adelgid. Soil drenches must be applied when soil moisture is adequate for the tree roots to absorb the product. These products should not be used in close proximity to bodies of water.
528:
Loss of the eastern and
Carolina hemlock from hemlock woolly adelgid infestation will likely result in many ecological shifts in eastern North America. The understory of hemlock forests is characterized as dark, damp, and cool and is an ideal habitat for various other organisms. The moist environment
479:
Trunk injections are used for large trees that are near water or where soils are too rocky for soil injections or drenches. The chemical is injected directly into the tree and transported to the twigs and needles where the hemlock woolly adelgids are feeding. Adequate soil moisture is also necessary
350:
and exclusively female. In its native Asian habitat, a third winged generation called sexupera occurs; although this generation's sexual reproduction requires a species of spruce not found in the
Eastern United States, and therefore dies, Between 100 and 300 eggs are laid by each individual in the
341:
ray tissue to derive nutrition from stored reserves. It may also inject a toxin while feeding. The resulting desiccation causes the tree to lose needles and not produce new growth. Hemlocks stricken by HWA frequently become grayish-green rather than a healthy dark green. In the northern portion of
537:
One factor giving hope is that the adelgid does not seem able to survive prolonged or bitter cold. Following the winter of 1999β2000, a considerable dieback of adelgids and subsequent regrowth of infested trees was observed across
Connecticut. The same phenomenon was repeated after the prolonged
396:
beetles into infested hemlock stands resulted in a 47 to 88% reduction in adelgid densities within 5 months of introduction. The beetle's lifecycle is in parallel to the lifecycle of the hemlock woolly adelgid. Both lay eggs in the spring and hatching occurs nearly simultaneously. When hatched,
533:
is a native fish species to the eastern United States and is known to prefer the cool, shaded streams of hemlock forests during spawning events. Vulnerable animal populations are expected to diminish as a result of loss of hemlock habitat to the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid.
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is preferred by many native amphibian species, particularly newts and salamanders. Some species of birds have close association with the hemlock, especially during mating and nesting periods. Aquatic systems adjunct to hemlock stands are also affected by the trees' decline.
336:
An adult individual body length is typically 0.8 mm, and is oval in shape. The tiny brown-colored insect has four thread-like stylets that are bundled together and function as a mouthpart. Three times the length of its body, the stylet bundle pierces the host plant's
345:
The presence of HWA can be identified by its egg sacs, which resemble small tufts of cotton clinging to the underside of hemlock branches. In North
America, the hemlock woolly adelgid asexually reproduces and can have two generations per year. Both generations are
468:
Toxic systemic insecticides may be applied to the foliage and bark of a tree and can persist in killing the adelgid for up to four years after application. Caution must be used, and restraint exercised around bodies of water.
391:
beetles into affected hemlock forests of the eastern United States to determine its effectiveness at controlling the spread of the adelgid. From 1995 to 1997, experiments in
Connecticut and Virginia found that releasing adult
382:
that is relatively host-specific, feeding only on three known aldegid species, including HWA. This beetle was discovered in 1992 while feeding on hemlock woolly adelgid in its natural range of Japan. Since 1995, the
351:
woolly egg sacs beneath the branches. Larvae emerge in spring and can spread on their own or with the assistance of wind, birds, or mammals. In the nymph stage, the adelgid is immobile and settles on a single tree.
384:
499:. It provides protection from erosion along stream banks, food for deer and wildlife, and shelter for deer in winter. The tree is also valued both as an ornamental and as an important source of
342:
the hemlock's range, death typically occurs 4 to 10 years after infestation. Trees that survive the direct effects of the infection are usually weakened and may die from secondary causes.
646:
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that attacked only mature balsam fir, HWA infests hemlocks of all ages. Where hemlocks occur in pure stands in that region, the most commonly observed tree species to succeed it is
472:
Soil drenches/soil injections/bark sprays are used in larger trees that cannot be completely sprayed with insecticidal soaps or foliage insecticides. The most common insecticide is
1288:
1045:
Orwig, David A.; Foster, David R.; Mausel, David L. (1 October 2002). "Landscape patterns of hemlock decline in New
England due to the introduced hemlock woolly adelgid".
668:
601:
318:). HWA is also found in western North America, where it has likely been present for thousands of years. In western North America, it primarily attacks western hemlock
1009:
1529:
926:. Morgantown, West Virginia: United States Department of Agriculture; Forest Service; Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team. pp. 212β221. FHTET-2011-04
298:
spp.). In its native range, HWA is not a serious pest because populations are managed by natural predators and parasitoids and by host resistance. In eastern
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1352:
1590:
982:
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adults lay their eggs on top of wintering adelgid larvae in early spring, and upon hatching, the larval beetles feed on hemlock woolly adelgid.
413:
is another predatory beetle used as a biological control in response to hemlock woolly adelgid. Native to the western United States and Canada,
650:
790:
702:
548:
suggests the hemlock woolly adelgid is killing hemlock trees faster than expected in the southern
Appalachians, and rapidly altering the
525:
plant species. Major changes in ecosystem structure and function, including hydrologic processes, are expected with the loss of hemlock.
1600:
772:
1319:
1477:
703:"Hemlock woolly adelgid in the southern Appalachians: Control strategies, ecological impacts, and potential management responses"
1226:"Variation in Winter Survival of the Invasive Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) Across the Eastern United States"
816:
676:
324:
and has only caused minor damage due to natural predators and host resistance. Accidentally introduced to North
America from
1020:
465:. These are sprayed on the foliage and smother the insects as they dry. Most trees need to be treated on a yearly basis.
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521:, which often coexists with hemlock, because a combination of influences restricts regeneration to shade and otherwise
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The environmentally safest chemical control methods for treating individual trees are nontoxic insecticidal soap and
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1534:
1142:
846:
1580:
545:
72:
757:
McClure M.S. and Cheah, C.A. (2002) "Important
Mortality Factors in the Life Cycle of Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,
619:
1585:
1289:"Using dendrochronology to model hemlock woolly adelgid effects on eastern hemlock growth and vulnerability"
986:
365:
1393:
1361:
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958:
University of
California Agriculture & Natural Resources Statewide Integrated Pest Management System
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as a Biological Control Agent for the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid: Is There a Threat to the Native Congener,
885:
504:
177:
31:
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1143:"Avian response to removal of a forest dominant: consequences of hemlock woolly adelgid infestations"
1113:
1054:
908:
717:
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426:
370:
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511:. In the southern extreme of its range, hemlock typically occurs not in pure stands, but in linear
409:
1521:
649:. Virginia Tech College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Department of Entomology. Archived from
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larva can effectively consume about 500 adelgid eggs or nearly 100 developing adelgid nymphs.
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775:. University of Rhode Island, University of Maryland Cooperative Extension. Archived from
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1010:"Optimized Insecticide Dosage for Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Control in Hemlock Trees"
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larvae are highly mobile and feed on hemlock woolly adelgid eggs and larvae. Each
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and other moist sites. Succession in these areas is affected by the presence of
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208:
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845:. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Archived from
793:. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Archived from
1307:
907:
Havill, N.P; Davis, G.; Fischer, M.; Salom, S.; Mausel, D.; Onken, B. (2011).
17:
1251:
1074:
924:
Implementation and Status of Biological Control of the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid
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1198:) at a Southern Appalachian Headwater Stream: Implications for Brook Trout (
575:
283:
279:
144:
124:
104:
84:
1274:"Science Daily: Hemlock Trees Dying Rapidly, Affecting Forest Carbon Cycle"
1259:
669:"Invasion Biology Introduced Species Summary Project β Columbia University"
1508:
1438:
1410:
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Government of Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency (3 January 2012).
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winter of 2013β2014, in time to save numerous nearly succumbed forests.
1469:
1443:
496:
154:
1126:
1495:
1355:. Lists general information and resources for Hemlock Woolly Adelgid.
983:"Recommendations for Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Control in the Landscape"
500:
492:
275:
114:
94:
1387:
1019:. Warnell School of Forestry & Natural Resources. Archived from
1456:
442:
387:'s Bureau of Forestry has released hundreds of thousands of adult
325:
294:
288:
214:
199:
761:
Annand (Homoptera: Adelgidae) in the Northeastern United States."
1370:
1391:
1358:
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985:. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Archived from
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Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
834:
832:
830:
819:. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Archived from
247:
238:
256:
1377:
How Was HWA Introduced?: The Gilded Age Garden Hypothesis
1287:
Rentch, J.; Fajvan, M.A.; Evans, R.A.; Onken, B. (2008).
417:
is known to prey exclusively on various woolly adelgids.
286:. It feeds by sucking sap from hemlock and spruce trees (
259:
1379:, How When & Where was HWA introduced to Eastern US?
1224:
Talbot Trotter, R.; Shields, Kathleen S. (29 May 2009).
1102:
stands on two amphibian species in a New England forest"
1194:
Changes in Light Levels with Loss of Eastern Hemlock (
817:"Other Exotic Forest Threats β Hemlock Woolly Adelgid"
602:"Adelges tsugae (Hemlock Woolly Adelgid) β Fact Sheet"
262:
250:
244:
1400:
241:
976:
974:
647:"Biological Control of the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid"
595:
593:
591:
589:
1351:, National Invasive Species Information Center,
495:system, and is the third-most prevalent tree in
882:PhD Professor of Entomology, Cornell University
541:A 2009 study conducted by scientists with the
878:"A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America"
576:"Definition of adelgid | Dictionary.com"
207:, Sullivan County, Tennessee. With lacewing (
8:
773:"Hemlock Wooly Adelgid Greenshare Factsheet"
437:Other natural predators of adelgids include
1353:United States National Agricultural Library
645:Kok, Loke T.; Salom, Scott M.; et al.
434:. They have shown promise in field trials.
253:
56:Hemlock woolly adelgid on western hemlock (
1388:
620:"Invasive Species: Hemlock Woolly Adelgid"
47:
38:
1345:Species Profile- Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (
1241:
1125:
1098:"Assessing the impacts of the decline of
1340:University of Vermont entomology website
480:for the tree to take up these products.
1276:. University of Toronto. 10 March 2009.
1191:Siderhurst, Leigh A. (1 January 2010).
567:
441:larvae (family Chamaemyiidae), certain
1205:(MS thesis). James Madison University
871:
869:
867:
7:
1096:Siddig, A.A.H.; et al. (2016).
1008:Benton, Elizabeth; Cowles, Richard.
922:. In Onken, B.; Reardon, R. (eds.).
884:. Cornell University. Archived from
696:
694:
662:
660:
488:Hemlock is a vital component of the
368:method of hemlock woolly adelgid is
306:that threatens the eastern hemlock (
1141:Tingley, M.W.; et al. (2002).
626:. Michigan Invasive Species Program
25:
1591:Insect pests of temperate forests
1383:New York State Hemlock Initiative
909:"Chapter 21: The Introduction of
1359:US Department of Agriculture HWA
1170:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2002.00789.x
1067:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2002.00765.x
701:Vose, J.M.; et al. (2013).
234:
71:
552:of these forests. According to
1596:Conifer pathogens and diseases
1:
710:Forest Ecology and Management
1373:, Biological Control for HWA
730:10.1016/j.foreco.2012.11.002
312:) and the Carolina hemlock (
1617:
840:"Forest Health Fact Sheet"
667:Danoff-Burg, Dr. James A.
430:from Japan, a relative of
29:
1601:Insects described in 1928
1308:10.1007/s10530-008-9270-x
624:Michigan Invasive Species
546:Southern Research Station
449:(family Chrysopidae) and
183:
176:
68:Scientific classification
66:
55:
46:
41:
1230:Environmental Entomology
30:Not to be confused with
1150:Journal of Biogeography
1047:Journal of Biogeography
981:Sidebottom, PhD, Jill.
791:"Hemlock Wooly Adelgid"
453:(family Hemerobiidae).
42:Hemlock woolly adelgid
282:(true bugs) native to
230:hemlock woolly adelgid
220:
212:
1364:20 April 2006 at the
1200:Salvelinus fontinalis
505:balsam woolly adelgid
218:
203:
32:Balsam woolly adelgid
1296:Biological Invasions
1243:10.1603/022.038.0309
1156:(10β11): 1505β1516.
1053:(10β11): 1475β1487.
606:www.inspection.gc.ca
518:Rhododendron maximum
427:Laricobius osakensis
424:Also under study is
394:Sasajiscymnus tsugae
371:Sasajiscymnus tsugae
364:The current leading
302:it is a destructive
1162:2002JBiog..29.1505T
1118:2016Ecosp...7E1574S
1059:2002JBiog..29.1475O
989:on 24 February 2014
911:Laricobius nigrinus
888:on 9 September 2013
852:on 22 February 2014
722:2013ForEM.291..209V
679:on 6 September 2016
543:U.S. Forest Service
523:understory-tolerant
509:black (sweet) birch
410:Laricobius nigrinus
27:Species of true bug
876:Shelton, Anthony.
797:on 3 February 2004
779:on 8 January 2009.
653:on 28 August 2006.
580:www.dictionary.com
366:biological control
321:Tsuga heterophylla
221:
213:
205:Bays Mountain Park
59:Tsuga heterophylla
1576:Hemiptera of Asia
1558:
1557:
1543:Open Tree of Life
1394:Taxon identifiers
1127:10.1002/ecs2.1574
771:McClure, Mark S.
463:horticultural oil
315:Tsuga caroliniana
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16:(Redirected from
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1581:Insects of Japan
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1318:. Archived from
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739:on 13 April 2017
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732:. Archived from
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675:. Archived from
673:www.columbia.edu
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1491:iNaturalist
1371:Tree-Savers
993:16 February
892:16 February
856:16 February
716:: 209β219.
531:Brook trout
490:New England
432:L. nigrinus
419:L. nigrinus
415:L. nigrinus
380:lady beetle
378:is a black
209:Chrysopidae
1565:Categories
1209:13 January
946:"Adelgidsβ
915:L. rubidus
562:References
131:Suborder:
105:Arthropoda
1571:Adelgidae
1252:0046-225X
1106:Ecosphere
1075:1365-2699
801:2 January
439:aphid fly
403:S. tsugae
399:S. tsugae
389:S. tsugae
376:S. tsugae
284:East Asia
280:Hemiptera
163:Species:
145:Adelgidae
125:Hemiptera
91:Kingdom:
85:Eukaryota
1522:2.113466
1439:BugGuide
1417:Q5712309
1411:Wikidata
1362:Archived
1316:33191351
1260:19508766
1178:42295889
1083:43186320
1017:Outreach
743:13 April
683:13 April
445:larvae,
274:, is an
211:sp. egg)
141:Family:
101:Phylum:
95:Animalia
81:Domain:
1470:2049739
1158:Bibcode
1114:Bibcode
1055:Bibcode
1030:30 July
963:5 March
948:Adelges
930:5 March
718:Bibcode
630:2 March
497:Vermont
219:closeup
156:Adelges
151:Genus:
121:Order:
115:Insecta
111:Class:
1548:624801
1535:357502
1457:ADLGTS
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501:lumber
493:forest
292:spp.;
276:insect
228:, the
1496:61513
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1323:(PDF)
1312:S2CID
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1174:S2CID
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1079:S2CID
1024:(PDF)
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443:midge
326:Japan
295:Picea
289:Tsuga
270:) or
1530:NCBI
1509:3270
1478:GISD
1465:GBIF
1452:EPPO
1426:BOLD
1256:PMID
1248:ISSN
1211:2024
1071:ISSN
1032:2021
995:2014
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954:spp"
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