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belief and reinforced that mothers specifically were supposed to raise their children. During World War II, the United States saw for the first time a nationwide, federally funded nursery school program, but after the war, the program was automatically disbanded since women no longer had to work outside the home. Despite the disbanding of these programs, many women chose to stay in the workforce. To combat this belief, propaganda spread that mothers working poorly impacted their children’s mental well-being. The propaganda worked, and in the summer of 1945, 1 out of 4 women working in factories quit, and the remaining women were pushed into lower-paying, traditionally female-oriented jobs. It was not until the 1960s and 1970s, when more mothers started to enter the workforce, that the idea of childcare switched from something meant for children with problems at home to something that was a nationwide necessity.
133:, women entered the workforce in large droves. Families could no longer survive on the single income of the male breadwinner and both sexes were relied upon for financial support. The dominant family model starting in the 1970s was the dual-earner family where both parents worked. Women also entered college in higher percentages. However, the economy was still assumed to run on an outdated breadwinner-homemaker model as evidence by the following things: women made significantly less income than men, they were still expected to do the majority of domestic work, and the nine-to-three o'clock school schedule of children still existed. The recession of the 1970s also further pushed the correlation between income and family structure. As more and more previously lucrative manufacturing jobs
601:
work–family conflict. A room that would allow for breast milk pumping could be one of the most helpful work–family policies for a company and family. A 1995 study found 86% of breastfed infants experienced no illness during the 1-year duration of the study and another study found breastfeeding infants decreases the chances of acute infections. Breastfeeding will help the company because breastfeeding has been linked to lower health care costs. This prolonged breast feeding saved one company $ 240,000 in health care savings and $ 60,000 in reduced absenteeism. Some other work–family policies that could help the family and company include various scheduling options, such as paid vacation, flex schedules,
424:, including the U.S., still do hours more of housework than their male counterparts, despite their success in the workplace. Working mothers on average do more work and sleep less than their husbands. The perception of who does more housework is also skewed by whether or not the husband or the wife is reporting. Unsurprisingly then, working mothers do not spend a significantly lower amount of time with their children compared to women who do not work—working mothers simply sleep less on average.
524:
care of their young children halted provisioning from happening. There has been a shift in views on motherhood, with only a minority of
Americans supporting the notion that mothers should stay home, but this is yet to be reflected in policy, with most still supporting the belief that middle-class women should take care of their children instead of pursuing a career {As indicated in Palley and Shdaimah’s research}. Current
515:, and among the industrialized Western nations only the United States does not mandate paid vacations. Many solutions to the family-work balance problem have been observed in other countries and proposed in the U.S. Solutions specific to the U.S. have also developed recently. Recent U.S. policy has focused on "restoring marriage" rather than providing direct support to children.
355:
an influence on women's fertility choices: popular celebrities who have managed to have children well into their forties and other medical miracles covered in the media oftentimes give women false hope that they themselves will also be able to bear children later in life. For every success story, however, there are many more disappointments.
330:, many middle class American families must deal with the ultimate decision between balancing their families with their jobs. Although the figures vary depending on parents' household income, the U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates families spend anywhere from $ 134,370 to $ 269,520 raising a child from birth through age 17.
99:
drafted into the military in large numbers during World War II, and women with young children were needed to supplement single women and those with older children at wartime factories. Problems with women leaving children in unsafe situations while working began to appear. ENS capacity peaked at 130,00 children in 1944.
642:
for taking care of sick children or even for having children, our country might be able to get rid of the welfare program. Mothers wouldn't need welfare because they could have a job and be able to take care of children. Employers would have to allow parents to leave work to take care of children and
363:
Although
American women have made significant strides in the workplace, they are still culturally and socially required to be mothers first and foremost. The cultural ideas of motherhood in the U.S. have given birth to a new ideal: a working mother who not only has a wonderful career but also manages
354:
The delay in fertility becomes a problem among middle-class women when they delay childbirth past their fertility peak. Since fertility peaks at a certain age, pushing childbirth past that age significantly decreases the probability that certain women will be able to have children. The media has been
283:
The Child and
Dependent Care Tax Credit offsets childcare expenses. The tax credit covers 20 to 35% of costs and is capped at $ 3,000 for one child and $ 6,000 for two or more children. It offsets income taxes, so families in lower-income brackets receive little money in return. In 2016, only 15% of
244:
and Title IV-A At-Risk Child Care were passed due to a demand for childcare support among middle- and upper-middle-class families, as Head Start was restricted to families that were below the
Federal Poverty Line, and the recognition that families who were at risk of losing work would soon enter the
624:
If government support for workplace family-friendly policies or childcare subsidies was stronger, it is possible that more solutions could be attempted. For example, child care subsidies by the government actually result in less childcare and work disruptions and could impact low-income families as
523:
issue that also affected working parents, but still the programs passed were relegated to funding childcare, not creating childcare. Moving into the 1990s and 2000s, the framing became centered around working women’s need for childcare, but contrasting views that mothers should stay at home to take
518:
Head Start was the first big push away from the charity-based mindset of childcare as seen through day nurseries, but even as childcare entered the political sphere, it has been considered as a program to address poverty only, which is one reason {as indicated in Burger} why we do not see universal
403:
put high value on families raising their children and preparing them for the world, and if the parents could not fulfill this role, the children were taken away. For a brief period in the early 1800s, infant schools challenged this notion, but by the mid-1800s, counter-movements de-popularized this
325:
Middle-class families have certain class-specific problems that arise when family and work intersects. Many of them have to do with the balance parents must create between their career aspirations and their familial desires. Because the middle class has greater access to more stable occupations and
232:
was passed, which required parents using federal programs, like Head Start, to actively be working, getting an education, or taking part in professional training. At the time, 56% of mothers with children under 6 were already in the workforce, which meant that mothers who were unable to comply with
480:
changes, little flexibility, and extreme short notice for changes. As a result, lower class mothers have a greater a time crunch and more conflict in balancing their work needs with those of their children. Single mother home environments are much poorer because of nonstandard hours and schedules.
292:
The structural economic changes have influenced specific aspects of the family. However, not all families are affected in the same way. In the U.S., whether or not a family is dual or single-earner is related to their social class and income. The economic changes in the past couple of decades have
90:
because of the lower number of economic opportunities available for women. As a result, Depression Era women were more likely to marry and have children earlier. In 1900, roughly 40 percent of single women were employed versus only five percent of married women (Preston, 2003). This 35 percent gap
608:
One extremely important aspect of all these policies is the management support and work environment that go along with it. It has been shown multiple times that the work culture influence whether employees take advantage of work–family policies. This work culture is a better predictor of use of
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at age 29–30, a delay that has become more common in the last two decades. Motherhood is delayed because of the higher educational and career aspirations middle-class women oftentimes make—the career incentives are too great to pass up. While middle-class women on average have children at age 29,
274:
In 1996, the Child Care
Development Fund was created to allow states flexibility in creating childcare provisioning for low- and lower-middle-income families. Despite this change, families still face significant barriers when trying to access these subsidies, with less than ¼ of eligible families
265:
placement, and care for an ill family member. However, this legislation is limited: coverage is only extended for twelve weeks and for employees who have worked for at least twelve months at the same job. Short-term medical illness and routine medical checkups were not covered until the FMLA, and
98:
opened about 3,000 part-day
Emergency Nursery Schools for about 75,000 children from 1933 to 1935, which provided child care to help eligible adults looking for work and which employed teachers in an industry where two-thirds of private nursery schools had closed during the Depression. Men were
82:
In 19th century farm settings, children were an important part of their families' agricultural livelihoods. As industrialization occurred and families shifted from rural agricultural settings to urban ones, the number of children per household also declined. Children became less of an economic
451:
Single mothers are more likely to face challenges, with anywhere from 40.6% to 47.1% of single mothers being at or below 150% of the poverty line. According to
Kathryn Edin, this is because of the lack of incentive to marry other lower-class men among lower-class women, and the desire to save
556:
and the entrance of women into the workforce has prompted the mass immigration of transnational care chains - poor women who leave their home countries and go to developed countries to work specifically as domestic workers. This has become an option for many middle and upper-class families.
600:
There are many other options of work–family policies that lead to happier and more productive workers. Some of these options include educational classes, such as classes on the wellbeing of a newborn or family, put on by the company, that has been shown to be associated with less reported
498:
cost a substantial amount, low-income mothers spend a higher percentage of their income on child care than middle class mothers do. Few low-income mothers are happy with their childcare arrangements especially in light of the fact that low-income childcare arrangements suffer from frequent
1863:
Sahibzada, Khatera, Leslie B. Hammer, Margaret B. Neal and Daniel C. Kuang. 2005. "The
Moderating Effects of Work-Family Role Combinations and Work-Family Organizational Culture on the Relationship Between Family-Friendly Workplace Supports and Job Satisfaction." Journal of Family Issues
379:
As a result of this
Supermom ideal, cultural contradictions of motherhood widely exist. Working mothers are often critiqued for being selfish and not spending enough time with their children. They defend their position by saying they work to support their children economically.
633:
Fewer than half of working parents stay home when their children are sick, even though research shows that sick children recover more quickly when a parent is there. …54 percent of working women are not entitled to any paid leave for taking care of a sick child or other family
164:
From 1890 to 1910, the proportion of working women increased by 8%, from 1.2 million to 3.1 million workers, which influenced the creation of Mother's
Pensions in 1910, which gave non-working mothers pensions to offset their need to work outside the home. According to scholar
220:), but families apply and there is no guarantee for a spot. In 2017, there were 1 million children enrolled in Head Start and Early Head Start, but there are about 19 million children under five in the United States and around 3 million children under five living in poverty.
34:
Middle-class family issues center on dual-earner spouses and parents while lower class issues center on problems that arise due to single parenting. Work–family balance issues also differ by class, since middle class occupations provide more benefits and family support while
597:. Workplace supports such as personal time off, paid leave, on-site or nearby childcare, financial assistance for childcare, and other family-friendly policies are Western European workplace norms that could solve the work–family balance problem in the United States.
156:, gender discrimination in hiring and firing, and the occupational rights of workers in taking family and medical leave. Despite these significant legislative efforts, the U.S. still lags behind other developed countries in progressive family-friendly work policies.
137:, men without college educations could no longer support their families on a single wage. Women's labor force participation rates have steadily increased since the 1940s Since the 1970s, the relationship between marriage and college education has also been positive.
1876:
Payne, Stephanie C., Allison L. Cook, and Ismael Diaz. 2011. "Understanding childcare satisfaction and its effect on workplace outcomes: The convenience factor and the mediating role of work-family conflict." Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology
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policies than individual's needs or values. If an individual feels that using a policy will affect his/her chances of advancement he/she is more likely to refuse to use the policy. This is why management support is a big part of this work–family policy.
347:
lower-class women typically have children much earlier in their lives because of the lack of incentives to delay childbirth. According to Edin and Kefalas, lower-class women do not make the same delay because they are oftentimes lacking the career and
459:
The inability to use the income and time of two spouses has a harmful effect upon the work opportunities of lower-income mothers. Another factor is income: single-mothers tend to work lower income wage, which come with few benefits such as
59:, marriage and family formation in the 17th century was heavily influenced by desires to form economic and political alliances. Children were seen as a method of ensuring the passage of political and economic power to future generations.
1674:
Backett-Milburn, Kathryn, Kaura Airey, Linda McKie, and Gillian Hogg. 2008. "Family comes first or open all hours?: How low paid women working in food retailing manage webs of obligation at home and work." The Sociological Review
78:
occurred. The 1920s was the first time that the majority of children lived in two-parent breadwinner-homemaker families (one where the father supported the family financially and the mother supported the family domestically).
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Poor families, however, still do not have the same care work markets that middle-class families do. Relying on formal child care providers is less disruptive and risky, but providers still pose a significant price problem.
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1902:
Frye, N. & Breaugh, J. (2004). Family-friendly policies, supervisor support, work-family conflict, family-work conflict, and satisfaction: A test of a conceptual model. Journal of Business and Psychology, 19(2),
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persisted for many years. Goldin (1992), in a study of women college graduates in the twentieth century, concluded that those graduating between 1900 and 1920 had to make "a distinct choice between family and career".
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families have been heavily influenced by income as well. Lower-class families have a different set of work–family balancing issues, many of which are much more difficult to solve than those of middle-class families.
452:
marriage for more quality prospects. Unlike middle-class women, lower-class women do not have the same financial and marriage incentives to marry. As a result, lower class mothers have less incentive to delay their
1912:
Cohen, R., Mrtek, M., Mrtek, R. (1995). Comparison of maternal absenteeism and infant illness rate among breastfed and formula-feeding woman in to corporations. American Journal of Health Promotion, 19(2),
778:
Hammel, E.A., Sheila R. Johansson, and Caren A. Ginsberg. 1983. "The Value of Children During Industrialization: Sex Ratios in Childhood in Nineteenth-Century America." Journal of Family History 8: 346-366.
544:. For the middle class, there has been an ongoing debate over who should take care of children: family members or child care providers However, the debate is slowly shifting to one concerning parents and
1889:
Cardenas, R. & Major, D. (2005). Combining employment and breastfeeding: Utilizing a work-family conflict framework to understand obstacles and solutions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 20(1),
1403:
Hays, Sharon. "The Mommy Wars: Ambivalence, Ideological Work, and the Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood." In Family in Transition, edited by Arlene S. Skolnick, 40-56. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2003.
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or finding sustainable childcare options. The breadwinner-homemaker family and economic model does not apply to single-parent families because the single-parent must be both roles at all times. Because
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Usdansky, Margaret L. and Douglas A. World. 2008. "When Child Care Breaks Down : Mothers' Experiences With Child Care Problems and Resulting Missed Work." Journal of Family Issues 29(9):1185-1210.
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values. Before modern medicine, high mortality rates meant it was common for children to be raised by others outside their immediate family. This idea did not make its way to the New World because the
605:, part-time work, and job sharing. Employees who have this flexibility increase productivity and have less work–family spill over and they are less likely to miss work due to family related issues.
856:
74:, the two-parent farm family was the dominant family model, in which both parents working side by side on family farms The two-parent farm family ceased to be the dominant family model after the
1931:
Hill, J., Erickson, J., Holmes, E, and Ferris, M. (2010). Workplace flexibility, work hours, and work-life conflict: Finding an extra day or two. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(3), 349-358.
1540:
Braun, Michael, Noah Lewin-Epstein, Haya Stier, and Miriam K. Baumgartner. 2008. "Perceived Equity in the Gendered Division of Household Labor." Journal of Marriage and Family 70:1145-1156.
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they would have to pay them for it as well. When the parent is still getting a paycheck there would be no need for welfare programs to supplement another income or for a lack of income.
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or options for reduced hours. Workplaces are realizing that employees with well balanced family and work lives are actually valuable to firms: workplace childcare assistance can increase
152:
Historically significant pieces of legislation have been enacted at the federal level to address the sex disparities in the workplace. These pieces of legislation attempt to address the
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Craig, Lyn and Killian Mullan. 2010. "Parenthood, Gender and Work-Family Time in the United States, Australia, Italy, France, and Denmark." Journal of Marriage and Family 72: 1344-1361.
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family members other than parents, spouses, and children are not covered. Some states have extended the definition of family on their own, and therefore extended the coverage of FMLA.
1821:
Hickman, Lisa N. 2006. "Who Should Care for Our Children? : The Effects of Home Versus Center Care on Child Cognition and Social Adjustment." Journal of Family Issues 27:652-684.
1712:
Gerson, Kathleen. "Finishing the Gender Revolution." The Unfinished Revolution: How a New Generation Is Reshaping Family, Work, and Gender in America. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.
1391:
Fursman, Lindy. 2002. 'Ideologies of Motherhood and Experiences of Work: Pregnant Women in Management and Professional Careers." Berkeley Collection of Working and Occasional Papers.
368:." The media is a culprit in this depiction: A study examining the portrayal of mothers in magazines showed that the most popular magazines in the U.S. still continue to promote the
616:, which are once again out of reach for the poor. The huge lack of government funding at the state and federal levels also make these workplace policies unrealistic at this point.
1970:
Forry, Nicole D. and Sandra L. Hofferth. 2011. "Maintaining Work: The Influence of Child Care Subsidies on Child Related Work Disruptions." Journal of Family Issues 32(3):346-368.
1290:
Conger, Rand D., Katherine J. Conger, and Monica J. Martin. 2010. "Socioeconomic Status, Family Processes, and Individual Development." Journal of Marriage and Family 72:685-704.
796:
Cookingham, Mary E. 1984. "Combining Marriage, Motherhood, and Jobs Before World War II: Women College Graduates, Classes of 1903-1935." Journal of Family History 9(2): 178-195.
216:. Head Start is a program for low-income families that provides early education and care for 3- to 5-year-olds. Head Start is free for eligible families (those living below the
909:
2022:
39:
are less flexible with benefits. Solutions for helping individuals manage work–family balance in the U.S. include legislation, workplace policies, and the marketization of
241:
169:, this legislation did little to decrease the wage gap between men and women because women “preferred to work, did not fit the criteria,” or the states ran out of funds.
1854:
Bloom, Nick, Tobias Kretschmer, and John van Reenen. 2011. "Are Family-Friendly Workplace Practices a Valuable Firm Resource?" Strategic Management Journal 32:343-367.
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Zhan, Min and Shanta Pandey. 2004. "Postsecondary Education and Economic Well-Being of Single Mothers and Single Fathers." Journal of Marriage and Family 66:661-673.
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The idea that parents only should raise their children is not a long-standing social expectation, but one that is reserved to the United States and its conservative
31:
may refer to the health and living issues that arise from work, work–family balance refers specifically to how work and families intersect and influence each other.
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that support working families when compared to other developed countries. Of the twenty-one richest countries in the world, only the United States does not mandate
310:
2032:
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Hammer, L., Bauer, T., & Grandey, A. (2003). Work-family conflict and work-related withdrawal behaviors. Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(3), 419-436.
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Johnston, Deirdre D., and Debra H. Swanson. 2003. "Invisible Mothers: A Content Analysis of Motherhood Ideologies and Myths in Magazines." Sex Roles 49: 21-33.
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Press, Julie, Jay Fagan, and Elisa Bernd. 2006. "Child Care, Work, and Depressive Symptoms Among Low-Income Mothers." Journal of Family Issues 27(5): 609-632.
1952:
Secret, M. (2000). Identifying the family, job, and workplace characteristics of employees who use work-family benefits. Family Relations, 49(2), 217-225.
1833:
Hondagneu-Sotelo, Pierrette. Domestica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring in the Shadows of Affluence. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
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Torr, Berna M. 2011. "The Changing Relationship between Education and Marriage in the United States, 1940-2000." Journal of Family History 36(4): 483-503.
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During the 1910s and 1920s, women delayed childbirth for economic opportunities that were present in urban areas. However, this trend reversed during the
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Congress passed the Comprehensive Child Development Act in 1971, which subsidized child care to make it universal, but the bill was vetoed by President
1426:
Dillaway, Heather and Elizabeth Pare. 2008. "Locating Mothers How Cultural Debates About Stay-at-Home Versus Working Mothers Define Women and Home."
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disruptions. In the United States, state assistance for childcare is nowhere near the level of other developed countries and has actually decreased.
1684:
Lleras, Christy. 2008. "Employment, Work Conditions, and the Home Environment in Single-Mother Families." Journal of Family Issues 29(10):1268-1297.
1522:
Maume, David J., Rachel A. Sebastian, and Anthony R. Bardo. "Gender, Work-Family Responsibilities, and Sleep." Gender and Society 24(2010): 746-768.
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Caucutt, Elizabeth M., Nezih Guner, and John Knowles. 2002. "Why Do Women Wait? Matching, Wage Inequality, and the Incentives for Fertility Delay."
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requires employers to provide job-protected unpaid leave for certain family and medical reasons. Legitimate reasons include pregnancy, childbirth,
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that can alleviate the burden of work–family balance for many middle-class families. Some options in family-friendly workplaces include providing
153:
1531:
Blair-Loy, Mary and Jerry A. Jacobs. "Globalization, Work Hours, and the Care deficit Among Stockbrokers." Gender & Society 17(2003): 230-249
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Edin, Kathryn and Rebecca Joyce Kissane. 2010. "Poverty and the American Family: A Decade in Review." Journal of Marriage and Family 72:460-479.
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well by making childcare more affordable. However, government support is not at the level of other developed countries. Legislation such as the
838:
805:
Barnett, Rosalind Chait. 2004. Preface: Women and Work: Where Are We, Where Did We Come From, and Where Are We Going?Journal of Social Issues.
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mandates against gender discrimination in the workplace. It makes gender discrimination on the basis of pregnancy and childbirth illegal. The
1961:
Prohaska, Ariane and John F. Zipp. 2011. "Gender Inequality and the Family and Medical Leave Act." Journal of Family Issues 32(11):1425-1448.
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Hansen, Karen V., Rosanna Hertz, and Cameron Macdonald. 2002. "Care and Kinship : An Introduction." Journal of Family Issues 23:703-715.
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and Melissa A. Milkie. 2010. "Work and Family Research in the First Decade of the 21st Century." Journal of Marriage and Family 72: 705-725.
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Singley, Susan G. 2005. "Transitions to Parenthood: Work-Family Policies, Gender, and the Couple Context." Gender and Society. 19: 376-397
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As a result, many middle-class families have resorted to alternative methods of child care. A common option is to buy child care, such as
103:
such as the Lanham Act and Servicemen's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided federal funding for day care centers starting in 1942.
769:
Barkley, Paul W. 1976. "A Contemporary Political Economy of Family Farming." American Journal of Agricultural Economics 58(5): 812-819.
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to later years. Many of the problems shared by single parents are disproportionately felt by the lower class for these very reasons.
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66:, several changes to marriage occurred: the move toward individualism and the loosening of church influence over families after the
20:
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1922:
Murtaugh, M. (1997). Optimal breastfeeding duration. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecological, and Neonatal Nursing, 97, 1252-1255.
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are motivated by the improvement of children’s development, facilitating employment among mothers, or alleviating poverty.
1308:
Abma, Joyce C. and Gladys M. Martinez. 2006. "Childlessness Among Older Women in the United States: Trends and Profiles."
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Coontz, Stephanie. 2000. "Historical Perspectives on Family Studies." Journal of Marriage and the Family 62: 283-297.
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Owens, Erica and Gail Ring. 2007. "Difficult Children and Difficult Parents : Constructions by Child Care."
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Hochschild, Arlie Russell. The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home. New York: Penguin, 1989
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Barber, Jennifer S. and William G. Axinn. 2004. "New Ideas and Fertility Limitation: The Role of Mass Media."
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child care in the United States. The 1970s and 1980s shifted the framing of childcare as an accessibility and
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are often critiqued for not pursuing meaningful careers. They respond by saying that the childcare and other
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Wells, Robert V. 1975. "Family History and Demographic Transition." Journal of Social History 9(1): 1-19.
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75:
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1979:
Crittenden, A. (2001). Conclusion. In A. Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood (p. 239). New York: Holt.
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can balance these two ideological extremes, but that ideal is an unrealistic solution for most women.
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of 1978 is an amendment to Title VII that explicitly prohibits discrimination against pregnant women.
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Despite the career gains women have made, their husbands have not reached parity in terms of their
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999:"Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission"
900:"Why America Gave up on the Fight for a Family-Friendly Workplace, and Why It's Starting Again"
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1017:"The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission"
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Martin, S. P. 2000. "Diverging fertility among US women who delay childbearing past age 30."
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to earn the income to support his family financially, while women were relied upon to do the
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had little impact on gender inequality in care work and was strongly opposed by businesses.
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However, many constrains still exist. These workplace policies are largely only offered at
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model regained dominance during the twenty-year period immediately after World War II. The
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Simon, Robin W. "The Joys of Parenthood, Reconsidered." Contexts 7.2 (2008): 40-45. Print.
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to flawlessly balance her family and domestic duties as well. This ideal is known as the "
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they do for their families is much more important. Only the unrealistic depiction of the
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benefit and more of a cost: urban life necessitated educating children which was costly.
1253:"U.S. Department of Labor - Wage and Hour Division (WHD) - Family and Medical Leave Act"
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1724:"A Social History of Ideas Pertaining to Childcare in France and in the United States"
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Children's interests/mothers' rights : the shaping of America's child care policy
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welfare system but could use help before they qualified for traditional assistance.
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Single-mother and lower-class families have a much more difficult time negotiating
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Family structure (how the family is organized) historically has been influenced by
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Lu, Yuan-Chiao; Walker, Regine; Richard, Patrick; Younis, Mustafa (January 2020).
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American Sociological Association Section on Organizations, Occupations, and Work
1149:"Child Care and Child Care Policy: Existing Policies, Their Effects, and Reforms"
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981:"The Equal Pay Act of 1963 | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission"
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If our society were to follow in the footsteps of other countries who allow
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417:
369:
189:
181:
attempted to abolish wage and payment discrimination between men and women.
123:
111:
40:
1613:
1586:
1238:
1199:"A Brief History of Federal Financing for Child Care in the United States"
1997:
1739:
1455:"Nonparental Child Care: Context, Concepts, Correlates, and Consequences"
857:"Here's What Happened the One Time when the U.S. Had Universal Childcare"
495:
428:
400:
258:
233:
guidelines were denied the assistance they were previously eligible for.
100:
1992:
1723:
1665:
Wessels, Anke. 2003. "Displacing mothers from work and welfare." UNESCO.
237:
Child Care and Development Block Grant and Title IV-A At-Risk Child Care
70:
resulted in the flourishing of the two-parent farm family. Prior to the
1570:"Inequalities in Poverty and Income between Single Mothers and Fathers"
1230:
545:
540:
in the United States refers to the lack of care work as the result of
2007:
1198:
839:"U.S. Once Had Universal Child Care, But Rebuilding It Won't Be Easy"
582:
376:. Instead, only the Supermom type is portrayed and rarely critiqued.
19:
in the United States differs significantly for families of different
1214:
946:
126:
and other forms of domestic work to support her husband's earnings.
1153:
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
473:
1574:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
1352:
Stone, Pamela. 2007. "The Rhetoric and Reality of 'Opting Out.'"
728:
Coontz, Stephanie. Marriage: A History. New York: Penguin, 2006.
301:
families very differently in many aspects, especially since the
1256:
750:
Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project
55:
forces, many of them economic. According to family historian
2008:
A Better Balance - Advancing the rights of working families
1095:"Supporting the Move From Welfare to Work: What Women Say"
2003:
On Balance by Leslie Morgan Steiner - The Washington Post
1841:
1839:
1708:
1706:
1704:
593:. Childcare options for working parents can be key in
1885:
1883:
1766:
Shdaimah, Corey S.; Palley, Elizabeth (2016-09-20).
1643:
1641:
1993:
American Sociological Association Section on Family
1453:Lamb, Michael E.; Ahnert, Lieselotte (2007-06-01),
372:while undermining homemakers by portraying them as
1948:
1946:
746:"The Decline of Marriage And Rise of New Families"
1768:"Elusive public support for us child care policy"
1461:, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1898:
1896:
204:The only federal childcare ever implemented was
1093:Pearlmutter, Sue; Bartle, Elizabeth E. (2000).
8:
1829:
1827:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1413:
1411:
1409:
724:
722:
712:
710:
708:
279:Child and Dependent Care Tax Credit of 1998
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1147:Hotz, V. Joseph; Wiswall, Matthew (2019).
833:
831:
1603:
1585:
309:significantly affect the intersection of
208:, which was created in 1965 as a part of
185:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
1872:
1870:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1518:
1516:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1378:Gibbs, Nancy. "Making Time for A Baby."
678:Shared earning/shared parenting marriage
507:The United States has lagged behind the
321:Problems affecting middle-class families
1399:
1397:
1277:
1275:
1273:
885:
883:
819:"The History of Child Care in the U.S."
704:
435:Problems affecting lower-class families
2023:Work–life balance in the United States
1192:
1190:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1034:
1032:
1030:
663:Work–life balance in the United States
476:oftentimes is characterized by weekly
242:Child Care and Development Block Grant
1761:
1759:
1757:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
940:
938:
813:
811:
740:
738:
736:
734:
653:Family structure in the United States
7:
2033:Labor relations in the United States
658:Public holidays in the United States
338:Middle-class women oftentimes delay
255:Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
249:Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
585:among employees, as well as lessen
270:Child Care Development Fund of 1996
14:
315:social class in the United States
284:families received this subsidy.
159:
1467:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0423
1367:Journal of Marriage and Family
1310:Journal of Marriage and Family
822:Social Welfare History Project
370:traditional role of motherhood
351:that middle-class women have.
342:until after the peak of their
1:
1784:10.1080/13668803.2016.1230841
1045:Comparative Political Studies
1041:"Ideas and the Welfare State"
326:the chances for occupational
96:Works Progress Administration
1772:Community, Work & Family
1459:Handbook of Child Psychology
627:Family and Medical Leave Act
194:Pregnancy Discrimination Act
2038:Family in the United States
1341:Review of Economic Dynamics
1057:10.1177/0010414002035006004
210:President Lyndon B. Johnson
2054:
1111:10.1177/088610990001500203
673:Intra-household bargaining
472:, and flexible schedules.
224:Family Support Act of 1988
131:recession during the 1970s
1728:Journal of Social History
1722:Burger, K. (2012-04-03).
951:. Yale University Press.
408:Inequalities in care work
160:Mother's Pensions of 1910
129:As the economy went into
101:Wartime New Deal measures
1556:Journal of Family Issues
1428:Journal of Family Issues
1165:10.1177/0002716219884078
1039:WHITE, LINDA A. (2002).
374:superficial and negative
303:1970s economic recession
2028:United States labor law
1197:Cohen, Abby J. (1996).
945:Sonya., Michel (2000).
683:Sociology of the family
431:providers and centers.
1587:10.3390/ijerph17010135
1203:The Future of Children
595:workplace satisfaction
359:Ideology of motherhood
349:educational incentives
68:Protestant Reformation
179:Equal Pay Act of 1963
173:Equal Pay Act of 1963
118:relied upon the male
76:Industrial Revolution
72:Industrial Revolution
1382:, April 15, pp. 1–6.
693:Work–family conflict
546:child care providers
218:federal poverty line
154:wage gap in the U.S.
23:. This differs from
930:Bianchi, Suzanne M.
824:. January 19, 2011.
513:paid parental leave
496:child care services
288:Effects on families
17:Work–family balance
1740:10.1093/jsh/shr144
620:Government support
614:higher salary jobs
571:workplace policies
230:Family Support Act
200:Head Start of 1965
135:were sent overseas
1476:978-0-470-14765-8
589:, accidents, and
334:Delayed fertility
64:the Enlightenment
29:work–life balance
25:work–life balance
2045:
1980:
1977:
1971:
1968:
1962:
1959:
1953:
1950:
1941:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1923:
1920:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1900:
1891:
1887:
1878:
1874:
1865:
1861:
1855:
1852:
1846:
1843:
1834:
1831:
1822:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1763:
1752:
1751:
1734:(4): 1005–1025.
1719:
1713:
1710:
1699:
1696:
1685:
1682:
1676:
1672:
1666:
1663:
1648:
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1313:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1291:
1288:
1282:
1279:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1264:
1255:. Archived from
1249:
1243:
1242:
1194:
1185:
1184:
1144:
1131:
1130:
1090:
1077:
1076:
1036:
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995:
989:
988:
977:
971:
970:
942:
933:
927:
921:
920:
918:
917:
908:. Archived from
896:
890:
887:
878:
877:
875:
874:
865:. Archived from
853:
847:
846:
835:
826:
825:
815:
806:
803:
797:
794:
788:
785:
779:
776:
770:
767:
761:
760:
758:
757:
742:
729:
726:
717:
714:
550:domestic workers
466:health insurance
447:Single-parenting
88:Great Depression
57:Stephanie Coontz
2053:
2052:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2013:
2012:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1951:
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1939:
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1926:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1894:
1888:
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1875:
1868:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1837:
1832:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1765:
1764:
1755:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1702:
1697:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1651:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1553:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1514:
1509:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1452:
1451:
1434:
1430:29(4): 437-464.
1425:
1421:
1416:
1407:
1402:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1377:
1373:
1364:
1360:
1351:
1347:
1338:
1329:
1320:
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1298:
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1280:
1271:
1262:
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1250:
1246:
1215:10.2307/1602417
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1080:
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1037:
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1010:
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888:
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855:
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744:
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727:
720:
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706:
701:
649:
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569:There are many
567:
534:
509:social benefits
505:
487:
462:maternity leave
449:
437:
422:developed world
420:. Women in the
410:
361:
336:
323:
305:. These family
290:
281:
272:
251:
239:
226:
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187:
175:
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150:
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12:
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2049:
2041:
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2035:
2030:
2025:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1988:
1987:External links
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1369:66:1180–1200.
1368:
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1259:on 2011-04-04
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912:on 2017-05-18
911:
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901:
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869:on 2017-03-14
868:
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666:
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554:Globalization
551:
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539:
531:
529:
527:
522:
521:affordability
516:
514:
510:
502:
500:
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492:
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482:
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475:
474:Low-wage work
471:
467:
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457:
455:
446:
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441:
434:
432:
430:
425:
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407:
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383:
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285:
278:
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269:
267:
264:
260:
256:
248:
246:
243:
236:
234:
231:
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199:
197:
195:
191:
184:
182:
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142:Richard Nixon
138:
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127:
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89:
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37:low-wage jobs
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1286:
1261:. Retrieved
1257:the original
1247:
1209:(2): 26–40.
1206:
1202:
1156:
1152:
1102:
1098:
1048:
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1021:www.eeoc.gov
1020:
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1003:www.eeoc.gov
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984:
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867:the original
860:
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754:. Retrieved
752:. 2010-11-18
749:
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579:productivity
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506:
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454:childbearing
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307:inequalities
295:middle-class
291:
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275:using them.
273:
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176:
167:Sonya Michel
163:
151:
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105:
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53:social-level
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15:
1864:26:820-839.
603:remote work
591:absenteeism
538:care crisis
532:Care crisis
440:Lower class
299:lower-class
263:foster care
148:Legislation
120:breadwinner
108:breadwinner
2017:Categories
1580:(1): 135.
1482:2021-05-10
1343:5:815–855.
1323:Demography
1263:2011-11-03
916:2016-08-08
873:2016-08-08
756:2020-11-27
699:References
575:paid leave
382:Homemakers
340:motherhood
206:Head Start
1800:151654051
1792:1366-8803
1748:0022-4529
1596:1660-4601
1223:1054-8289
1181:210683897
1173:0002-7162
1127:144481093
1119:0886-1099
1073:154656182
1065:0010-4140
688:Time bind
565:Workplace
503:Solutions
491:childcare
485:Care work
470:childcare
418:care work
344:fertility
317:as well.
293:affected
190:Title VII
124:care work
112:homemaker
41:care work
1913:148-153.
1903:197-220.
1614:31878126
1356:6:14–19.
1354:Contexts
967:45349864
647:See also
634:members.
587:turnover
526:policies
478:schedule
429:day care
401:Puritans
390:supermom
366:supermom
328:mobility
259:adoption
27:: while
1605:6982282
1239:8972126
1231:1602417
1099:Affilia
843:NPR.org
116:economy
47:History
1890:31-51.
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583:morale
1877:1-21.
1796:S2CID
1227:JSTOR
1177:S2CID
1123:S2CID
1069:S2CID
1788:ISSN
1744:ISSN
1635:jobs
1610:PMID
1592:ISSN
1471:ISBN
1380:Time
1235:PMID
1219:ISSN
1169:ISSN
1115:ISSN
1061:ISSN
963:OCLC
953:ISBN
581:and
536:The
416:and
313:and
311:race
297:and
253:The
177:The
106:The
94:The
1780:doi
1736:doi
1600:PMC
1582:doi
1463:doi
1211:doi
1161:doi
1157:686
1107:doi
1053:doi
548:to
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