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and/or stress. The use of wound callose occurs when callose gets deposited following sieve element damage. Wound callose is proven to first be deposited at the sieve plate pores, or the intracellular connections, where it then spreads to different regions. Essentially, wound callose seals off the parts that were damaged, and separates them from the parts that are still healthy and not broken. Once the sieve elements get fixed, the callose is always dissipated by callose-hydrolyzing enzyme. Callose is also synthesized during normal plant growth and development, and it typically responds to things like high temperatures, or allows the plant to prepare for more dormant seasons.
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that plants alter their morphology is by reducing the area of their leaves. Though large and flat leaves are favorable for photosynthesis because there is a larger surface area for the leaf to absorb sunlight, bigger leaves are more vulnerable to environmental stresses. For example, it is easier for water to evaporate off of large surface areas which can rapidly deplete the soil of its water and cause drought stress. Plants will reduce leaf cell division and expansion and alter the shape to reduce leaf area.
150:. Jasmonic acid induces the prosystemin gene along with other defense related genes such as abscisic acid, and ethylene, contributing to a rapid induction of defense responses. Other physical factors also play a vital role in wound signaling, which include hydraulic pressure and electrical pulses. Most of these that are involved within wound signaling also function in signaling other defense responses. Cross-talk events regulate the activation of different roles.
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successfully protect the plant, they must be dense. Oftentimes, trichomes will appear white on a plant, meaning that they are densely packed and are able to reflect a large amount of light off of the plant to prevent heat and light stress. Although trichomes are used for protection, they can be disadvantageous for plants at times because trichomes may reflect light away from the plant that can be used to photosynthesize.
131:. Plants maintain an ability to sense when they have an injured area and induce a defensive response. Within wounded tissues, endogenous molecules become released and become Damage Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPs), inducing a defensive response. DAMPs are typically caused by insects that feed off the plant. Such responses to wounds are found at the site of the wound and also systemically. These are mediated by
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the transmissible signal that coordinates responses to wounding stress. JA mutants, which lack the gene encoding jasmonic acid, are killed by insect herbivore damage that would otherwise not harm normal-type plants. Upon the application of JA to the same mutants, resistance is restored. Signaling agents such as ethylene, methyl salicylate, and salicylic acid can pair with JA and enhance JA responses.
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metabolites. Its structure and synthesis show parallels to oxylipins, which function in inflammatory responses. JA is synthesized by the octadecanoid pathway, which is activated in response to wound-induced signals. It is a derivative of the most rich fatty acid in the lipids of leaf membranes, alpha-linolenic acid. When plants experience mechanical wounding or herbivory, JA is synthesized
22:
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and induces genome-wide changes in gene expression. JA travels through plants via the phloem, and accumulates in vascular tissue. JA acts as an intracellular signal in order to promote responses in distal tissues. The perception of jasmonate in distal responding leaves is necessary for recognition of
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Jasmonic acid (JA) is a plant hormone that increases in concentration in response to insect herbivore damage. The rise in JA induces the production of proteins functioning in plant defenses. JA also induces the transcription of multiple genes coding for key enzymes of the major pathways for secondary
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A longer-term solution to wounded sieve tube elements involves the production of callose at the sieve pores. Callose is a β-1,3 glucan synthesized by callose synthase, which is an enzyme that's localized within the plasma membrane. Callose gets synthesized after the sieve tube elements undergo damage
169:
The main mechanism for closing damaged sieve elements involves P-proteins, which act as a plug in the sieve element pores. P-proteins essentially plug the pores that form in sieve elements. They act as a stopper in the damaged sieve elements by blocking the open channels so that no additional sap or
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Plants are constantly exposed to different stresses that result in wounding. Plants have adapted to defend themselves against wounding events, like herbivore attacks or environmental stresses. There are many defense mechanisms that plants rely on to help fight off pathogens and subsequent infections.
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are very rich in sugars and various organic molecules. Plants don't want to lose these sugars when the sieve elements get damaged, as the molecules are a very large energy investment. The plants have both short-term and long-term mechanisms to prevent sieve element sap loss. The short-term mechanism
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Plants can protect themselves from abiotic stress in many different ways, and most include a physical change in the plant’s morphology. Phenotypic plasticity is a plant’s ability to alter and adapt its morphology in response to the external environments to protect themselves against stress. One way
109:
Plants are capable of activating innate immunity, by responding to wounding events with damage-associated
Molecular Patterns (DAMPs). Additionally, plants rely on microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) to defend themselves upon sensing a wounding event. There are examples of both rapid and
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with plants that can elicit stress responsive pathways. PGPRs also improve key physiological processes in plants such as water and nutrient uptake, photosynthesis, and source-sink relationships. Bacteria will respond to substances secreted by plant roots and optimize nutrient acquisition for the
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are small, hair-like growths on plant leaves and stems which help the plant protect itself. Although not all trichomes are alive (some undergo apoptosis, but their cell walls are still present) they protect the leaf by keeping its surface cool and reducing evaporation. In order for trichomes to
209:
Another way that plants alter their morphology to protect against stress is by changing the leaf orientation. Plants can suffer from heat stress if the sun’s rays are too strong. Changing the orientation of their leaves in different directions (parallel or perpendicular) allows plants to reduce
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Plants have pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize MAMPs, or microbe-associated molecular patterns. Upon entry of a pathogen, plants are vulnerable to infection and lose a fair amount of nutrients to said pathogen. The constitutive defenses are the physical barriers of the plant;
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plant with their own metabolic processes. Though dependent on the strain, most
Rhizobacteria will produce major phytohormones such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene, which stimulate plant growth and increase the plant’s resistance to
229:
is a layered structure of waxes and hydrocarbons located on the outer layer of the epidermis which also helps protect the plant from stress. Cuticles can also reflect light, like trichomes, which reduces light intensity and heat. Plant cuticles can also limit the
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When the sieve elements get damaged, the sap, sugar, and other molecules inside rush to the end that was damaged. If there was no mechanism to stop the sugars from leaking out the plant would lose an incredibly large amount of invested energy.
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of water and gases from the leaves which helps maintain them under stress conditions. Thicker cuticles have been found to decrease evaporation, so some plants will increase the thickness of their cuticles in response to drought stress.
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damage from intense light. Leaves also wilt in response to stress, because it changes the angle at which the sun hits the leaf. Leaf rolling also minimizes how much of the leaf area is exposed to the sun.
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106:. The structure of a plant cell wall is incredibly important for wound responses, as both protect the plant from pathogenic infections by preventing various molecules from entering the cell.
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There are many forms of defense that plants use to respond to wounding events. There are physical defense mechanisms that some plants utilize, through structural components, like
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As a plant senses a wound, it immediately sends a signal for innate immunity. These signals are controlled by hormones such as
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256:. Other substances are also released by Rhizobacteria, including nitric oxide, enzymes, organic acids, and osmolytes.
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involves sap proteins, and the long-term mechanism involves callose, which helps to close the open channels in broken
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697:"Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria in Amelioration of Salinity Stress: A Systems Biology Perspective"
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Plants are also further protected from both abiotic and biotic stresses when plant growth promoting
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247:(PGPRs) are present. Rhizobacteria are root-colonizing and non-pathogenic, and they form
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Savatin, Daniel V.; Gramegna, Giovanna; Modesti, Vanessa; Cervone, Felice (2014-09-16).
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Howe, Gregg A. (2004-09-01). "Jasmonates as
Signals in the Wound Response".
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759:"Plant-rhizobacteria interactions alleviate abiotic stress conditions"
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82:, and others are systemic, which involve a variety of hormones like
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delayed wound responses, depending on where the damage took place.
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Sánchez‐Serrano, José J.; Rojo, Enrique; León, José (2001-01-01).
330:"Wounding in the plant tissue: the defense of a dangerous passage"
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DIMKPA, CHRISTIAN; WEINAND, TANJA; ASCH, FOLKARD (2009-08-11).
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Wounding responses can be local, like the deposition of
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Ilangumaran, Gayathri; Smith, Donald L. (2017-10-23).
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Schilmiller, Anthony L.; Howe, Gregg A. (2005-08-01).
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Callose, Damaged Sieve Tube
Elements, and P-Proteins
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609:"Jasmonates as Signals in the Wound Response"
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1923:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
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559:"Systemic signaling in the wound response"
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65:Learn how and when to remove this message
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114:MAMPs/ DAMPS & Signaling Pathways
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607:Howe, Gregg A. (September 2004).
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776:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2009.02028.x
660:Fundamentals of plant physiology
563:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
428:Fundamentals of plant physiology
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468:Journal of Experimental Botany
42:see talk for list of concerns.
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763:Plant, Cell & Environment
1913:History of plant systematics
1500:Thorns, spines, and prickles
464:"Wound signalling in plants"
663:. Oxford University Press.
430:. Oxford University Press.
40:. The specific problem is:
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1729:Alternation of generations
701:Frontiers in Plant Science
334:Frontiers in Plant Science
36:to meet Knowledge (XXG)'s
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1879:Cultivated plant taxonomy
1842:Biological classification
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625:10.1007/s00344-004-0030-6
575:10.1016/j.pbi.2005.05.008
525:10.1007/s00344-004-0030-6
127:that act toxic and deter
1739:Evolutionary development
1390:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
714:10.3389/fpls.2017.01768
481:10.1093/jexbot/52.354.1
347:10.3389/fpls.2014.00470
249:symbiotic relationships
239:Symbiotic Relationships
214:Constitutive structures
2005:by author abbreviation
1929:Plant taxonomy systems
1847:Botanical nomenclature
657:Taiz, Lincoln (2018).
426:Taiz, Lincoln (2018).
2012:Botanical expeditions
271:Somatic embryogenesis
201:Morphological Changes
1744:Evolutionary history
1734:Double fertilization
1586:Cellular respiration
47:improve this article
963:Non-vascular plants
170:sugar can be lost.
1468:Surface structures
1263:Flower development
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1687:Herbaceous plants
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769:(12): 1682–1694.
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38:quality standards
29:This article may
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2061:Plant physiology
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2017:Individual trees
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1663:Succulent plants
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1614:
1611:
1609:
1608:Transpiration
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1574:
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1423:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1395:Inflorescence
1393:
1391:
1388:
1382:
1379:
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1374:
1370:
1367:
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1362:
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1360:
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1199:
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1103:
1100:
1098:
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1086:
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1082:
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1080:Ground tissue
1078:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1055:
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1038:
1035:
1034:
1032:
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1026:
1023:
1016:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1004:
1003:Plant anatomy
1000:
994:
991:
989:
986:
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936:
930:
927:
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924:Plant ecology
922:
920:
919:Plant anatomy
917:
913:
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905:
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898:
895:
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890:
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873:
870:
868:
867:Archaeobotany
865:
864:
862:
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856:
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847:
845:
842:
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838:
834:
827:
822:
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764:
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312:
306:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
281:Jasmonic acid
279:
277:
276:Wound healing
274:
272:
269:
267:
266:Embryo rescue
264:
263:
259:
257:
255:
250:
246:
245:Rhizobacteria
238:
236:
233:
228:
223:
220:
213:
211:
207:
200:
195:
193:
190:
182:Jasmonic Acid
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
165:
160:
153:
151:
149:
148:abscisic acid
145:
141:
140:jasmonic acid
136:
134:
130:
126:
122:
113:
111:
107:
105:
101:
93:
91:
89:
88:abscisic acid
85:
84:jasmonic acid
81:
69:
66:
58:
48:
43:
39:
35:
34:
27:
18:
17:
1965:Horticulture
1955:Floriculture
1857:Correct name
1707:Reproduction
1697:Woody plants
1622:Plant growth
1581:Gas Exchange
1566:Phytomelanin
1444:Plant embryo
1194:Reproductive
1042:Phragmoplast
766:
762:
704:
700:
659:
616:
612:
566:
562:
516:
512:
506:
474:(354): 1–9.
471:
467:
427:
337:
333:
242:
224:
217:
208:
204:
188:
185:
176:
172:
168:
164:sieve plates
157:
137:
123:or even the
117:
108:
97:
76:
61:
52:
45:Please help
41:
30:
2066:Plant cells
1781:Pollen tube
1776:Pollinators
1766:Pollination
1761:Germination
1576:Respiration
1559:Chlorophyll
1405:Pedicellate
1339:Gametophyte
1258:Aestivation
1209:Antheridium
1204:Archegonium
1052:Plasmodesma
1029:Plant cells
892:Paleobotany
887:Ethnobotany
872:Astrobotany
125:metabolites
49:if you can.
2055:Categories
1803:Microspore
1793:Sporangium
1771:Artificial
1459:Sporophyte
1454:Sporophyll
1449:Receptacle
1344:Gynandrium
1214:Androecium
1123:Vegetative
993:Angiosperm
988:Gymnosperm
882:Dendrology
679:1035316853
446:1035316853
307:References
129:herbivores
55:April 2020
2000:Botanists
1918:Herbarium
1815:Megaspore
1713:Evolution
1656:Subshrubs
1624:and habit
1549:Nutrition
1544:Cellulose
1539:Bulk flow
1522:Materials
1485:Epidermis
1349:Gynoecium
1330:Endosperm
1325:Dispersal
1241:Staminode
1177:Sessility
1165:Cataphyll
1085:Mesophyll
1037:Cell wall
978:Lycophyte
958:Bryophyte
912:Geobotany
897:Phycology
785:0140-7791
723:1664-462X
633:0721-7595
583:1369-5266
533:1435-8107
490:0022-0957
356:1664-462X
286:Herbivore
254:pathogens
232:diffusion
219:Trichomes
2040:Category
1960:Forestry
1950:Agronomy
1943:Practice
1894:Cultivar
1889:Cultigen
1749:timeline
1641:Rosettes
1529:Aleurone
1505:Trichome
1422:Perianth
1234:Filament
1092:Meristem
1015:glossary
877:Bryology
793:19671096
741:29109733
707:: 1768.
591:15939667
498:11181708
374:25278948
301:Pathogen
291:Trichome
260:See also
144:ethylene
133:hormones
102:and the
94:Overview
31:require
1718:Ecology
1475:Cuticle
1305:Capsule
1295:Anatomy
1246:Tapetum
1170:Petiole
1145:Rhizome
1140:Rhizoid
1067:Tissues
1057:Vacuole
1047:Plastid
849:Outline
844:History
732:5660262
641:5018217
541:5018217
365:4165286
340:: 470.
296:Cuticle
227:cuticle
189:de novo
121:cuticle
104:cuticle
80:callose
33:cleanup
2022:Plants
1925:(IAPT)
1678:Lianas
1646:Shrubs
1598:Starch
1490:Nectar
1410:Raceme
1376:Stigma
1364:Locule
1354:Carpel
1315:Pyrena
1253:Flower
1229:Anther
1224:Stamen
1219:Pollen
941:groups
833:Botany
791:
783:
739:
729:
721:
677:
667:
639:
631:
589:
581:
539:
531:
496:
488:
444:
434:
372:
362:
354:
100:lignin
1982:Lists
1899:Group
1822:Spore
1756:Flora
1673:Vines
1668:Trees
1631:Habit
1603:Sugar
1495:Stoma
1437:Sepal
1432:Petal
1427:Tepal
1415:Umbel
1400:Bract
1381:Style
1369:Ovule
1359:Ovary
1300:Berry
1290:Fruit
1283:Whorl
1150:Shoot
948:Algae
939:Plant
637:S2CID
537:S2CID
1904:Grex
1786:Self
1320:Seed
1182:Stem
1160:Leaf
1135:Root
1130:Bulb
1114:Wood
1075:Cork
973:Fern
789:PMID
781:ISSN
737:PMID
719:ISSN
675:OCLC
665:ISBN
629:ISSN
587:PMID
579:ISSN
529:ISSN
494:PMID
486:ISSN
442:OCLC
432:ISBN
370:PMID
352:ISSN
225:The
146:and
86:and
1593:Sap
1310:Nut
1155:Bud
771:doi
727:PMC
709:doi
621:doi
571:doi
521:doi
476:doi
360:PMC
342:doi
2057::
787:.
779:.
767:32
765:.
761:.
749:^
735:.
725:.
717:.
703:.
699:.
687:^
673:.
649:^
635:.
627:.
617:23
615:.
611:.
599:^
585:.
577:.
565:.
561:.
549:^
535:.
527:.
517:23
515:.
492:.
484:.
472:52
470:.
466:.
454:^
440:.
382:^
368:.
358:.
350:.
336:.
332:.
314:^
166:.
142:,
135:.
90:.
1017:)
1013:(
825:e
818:t
811:v
795:.
773::
743:.
711::
705:8
681:.
643:.
623::
593:.
573::
567:8
543:.
523::
500:.
478::
448:.
376:.
344::
338:5
68:)
62:(
57:)
53:(
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