Xiphodon - Knowledge (XXG)

2210: 668: 550: 114: 541: 914: 3117:. The causes of the faunal turnover have been attributed to a shift from humid and highly tropical environments to drier and more temperate forests with open areas and more abrasive vegetation. The surviving herbivorous faunas shifted their dentitions and dietary strategies accordingly to adapt to abrasive and seasonal vegetation. The environments were still subhumid and full of subtropical evergreen forests, however. The Palaeotheriidae was the sole remaining European perissodactyl group, and frugivorous-folivorous or purely folivorous artiodactyls became the dominant group in western Europe. 1011: 2762: 3126: 2690: 138: 2630: 677: 2426: 1254: 2805: 3981:"Die Säugertiere des schweizerischen Eocaens. Sechster Teil: Catodontherium – Dacrytherium – Leptotherium – Anoplotherium – Diplobune – Xiphodon – Pseudamphimeryx – Amphimeryx – Dichodon – Haplomeryx – Tapirulus – Gelocus. Nachträge, Artiodactyla incertae sedis, Schlussbetrachtungen über die Artiodactylen, Nachträge zu den Perissodactylen" 3738:"Description of Teeth and portions of Jaws of two extinct Anthracotherioid Quadrupeds (Hyopotamus vectianus and Hyop. bovinus) discovered by the Marchioness of Hastings in the Eocene Deposits on the N.W. coast of the Isle or Wight: with an attempt to develop Cuvier's idea of the Classification of Pachyderms by the Number of their Toes" 3318: 3357:

The seaway dynamics separating western Europe from other landmasses to strong extents but allowing for some levels of dispersals prior to the Grande Coupure are complicated and contentious, but many palaeontologists agreed that glaciation and the resulting drops in sea level played major roles in the

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mammalian faunas of western Europe were therefore mostly isolated from other continents including Greenland, Africa, and eastern Eurasia, allowing for endemism to occur within western Europe. The European mammals of the late Eocene (MP17 - MP20) were mostly descendants of endemic middle Eocene groups

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is premolariform with its sharpness similar to the premolars but differ from them by the smaller mesiodistal diameter and assymetry. All three front premolars appear compressed on the labiolingual side of the teeth, with the second premolar being the most elongated of the three. They appear sharp the

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dental traits (traits thought to have originated from their most recent common ancestor). The result, Weppe mentioned, matches up with previous phylogenetic analyses on the Cainotherioidea with other endemic European Palaeogene artiodactyls that support the families as a clade. As a result, he argued

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that was isolated from the rest of Eurasia, meaning that it lived in an environment with various other endemic faunas. The xiphodont made its first appearance in the middle Eocene shortly before a shift towards drier but still subhumid conditions, which led to increasingly abrasive plants. Species of

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is often proposed as the main European seaway barrier prior to the Grande Coupure, but some researchers challenged this perception recently, arguing that it completely receded already 37 Ma, long before the Eocene-Oligocene transition. Alexis Licht et al. suggested that the Grande Coupure could have

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in front of it appears to have been elevated. The entolateral sulcus does not appear extensive in length. The gyrus between the lateral sulcus and the entolateral sulcus is narrow compared to that between the lateral sulcus and the suprasylvia. All three sulci are distinctly deep in elevation within

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In 2022, Weppe created a phylogenetic analysis in his academic thesis regarding Palaeogene artiodactyl lineages, focusing most specifically on the endemic European families. He stated that his phylogeny was the first formal one to propose affinities of the Xiphodontidae and Anoplotheriidae. He found

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in form. Its premolars are both elongated and unspecialized while its upper molars are quadrangular in shape, display W-shaped ectolophs, and show size increases from M to M. They display five cusps, four of which are crescent-shaped. The paraconule and metaconule cusps connect to the parastyle and

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events of cooler and more seasonal climates. The result of the event was a 60% extinction rate of western European mammalian lineages while Asian faunal immigrants replaced them. The Grande Coupure is often marked by palaeontologists as part of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary as a result at 33.9 Ma,

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or ruminants. Some researchers considered the selenodont families Anoplotheriidae, Xiphodontidae, and Cainotheriidae to be within Tylopoda due to postcranial features that were similar to the tylopods from North America in the Palaeogene. Other researchers tie them as being more closely related to

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Land-based connections to the north of the developing Atlantic Ocean were interrupted around 53 Ma, meaning that North America and Greenland were no longer well-connected to western Europe. From the early Eocene up until the Grande Coupure extinction event (56 Ma - 33.9 Ma), the western Eurasian

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Hutchinson, David K.; Coxall, Helen K.; Lunt, Daniel J.; Steinthorsdottir, Margret; De Boer, Agatha M.; Baatsen, Michiel L.J.; Von der Heydt, Anna S.; Huber, Matthew; Kennedy-Asser, Alan T.; Kunzmann, Lutz; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Lear, Caroline; Moraweck, Karolin; Pearson, Paul; Piga, Emanuela;

1385:, Anoplotheriidae, and Mixtotheriidae formed a clade that was the sister group to the Ruminantia while Tylopoda, along with the Amphimerycidae and Xiphodontidae split earlier in the tree. The phylogenetic tree published in the article and another work about the cainotherioids is outlined below: 1380:

within the Artiodactyla based on mandibular and dental characteristics, specifically in terms of relationships with artiodactyls of the Palaeogene. The results retrieved that the superfamily was closely related to the Mixtotheriidae and Anoplotheriidae. They determined that the Cainotheriidae,

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sculptures for an unknown amount of time. The sole surviving sculpture measures 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) long from the snout to the tail and has a llama-like appearance given its long neck, small head, large eyes, robust body, camel-like nose, branched lips, and a narrow snout. The

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extinction/faunal turnover event, coinciding with shifts towards further glaciation and seasonality plus dispersals of Asian immigrant faunas into western Europe. The causes of its extinction are attributed to negative interactions with immigrant faunas (resource competition, predation),

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based on one locality, this allocation is based on very poor fossil material. Instead, the Xiphodontidae is generally thought to have first appeared by MP14, making them the first selenodont dentition artiodactyl representatives to have appeared in the landmass along with the

2780:(or the suborder Euprimates) appeared already by the early Eocene, diversifying rapidly and developing dentitions specialized for folivory. The omnivorous forms mostly either switched to folivorous diets or went extinct by the middle Eocene (47–37 Ma) along with the archaic " 2717:

had progressively molarized premolars for the function of grinding food, meaning that the two genera had different types of ecological specializations. Dechaseaux considered that the two xiphodontid genera may have been more derived than North American Palaeogene tylopods.

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are last recorded in MP20 localities. The disappearances of the three genera meant the complete extinction of the Xiphodontidae. Many other artiodactyl genera from western Europe disappeared also as a result of the Grande Coupure extinction event. The extinctions of

2478:. They are also characterized by indistinct canines in comparison to other teeth and elongated premolars. Xiphodontids additionally have molariform P teeth, upper molars with 4 to 5 crescent-shaped cusps, and selenodont lower molars with 4 ridges, compressed lingual 3213:

is well-represented in localities of France, Spain, and the United Kingdom. It has the longest known fossil record range within its genus, lasting from MP18 to MP20. Based on the MP19 French locality of Escamps, it coexisted with the likes of the herpetotheriids

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that measured 17 mm (0.67 in) long and 8 mm (0.31 in) wide, yielding 4.6 kg (10 lb). The body mass formula based on astragali was previously established by Jean-Noël Martinez and Sudre in 1995 for Palaeogene artiodactyls, although

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Luccisano, Vincent; Sudre, Jean; Lihoreau, Fabrice (2020). "Revision of the Eocene artiodactyls (Mammalia, Placentalia) from Aumelas and Saint-Martin-de-Londres (Montpellier limestones, Hérault, France) questions the early European artiodactyl radiation".

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Martin, Jeremy E.; Pochat-Cottilloux, Yohan; Laurent, Yves; Perrier, Vincent; Robert, Emmanuel; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier (2022). "Anatomy and phylogeny of an exceptionally large sebecid (Crocodylomorpha) from the middle Eocene of southern France".

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could not have lived in marshes or ponds. Instead, he said, it would have grazed on herbs and shrubs on dry lands and had more "timid" behaviours not unlike gracile ruminants. Cuvier also proposed that it probably did not have a long tail unlike

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Costa, Elisenda; Garcés, Miguel; Sáez, Alberto; Cabrera, Lluís; López-Blanco, Miguel (2011). "The age of the "Grande Coupure" mammal turnover: New constraints from the Eocene–Oligocene record of the Eastern Ebro Basin (NE Spain)".

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Robinet, Céline; Remy, Jean Albert; Laurent, Yves; Danilo, Laure; Lihoreau, Fabrice (2015). "A new genus of Lophiodontidae (Perissodactyla, Mammalia) from the early Eocene of La Borie (Southern France) and the origin of the genus

3343:, an abrupt shift from a greenhouse world characterizing much of the Palaeogene to a coolhouse/icehouse world of the early Oligocene onwards. The massive drop in temperatures stems from the first major expansion of the Antarctic 3333:

The Grande Coupure extinction and faunal turnover event of western Europe, dating back to the earliest Oligocene (MP20-MP21), is one of the largest and most abrupt faunal events in the Cenozoic record, which is coincident with

3536:"Suite des recherches sur les os fossiles des environs de Paris. Troisième mémoire, troisième section, les phalanges. Quatrième mémoire sur les os des extrémités, première section, les os longs des extrémités postérieures" 634:

differed from those of llamas by its slightly larger proportions. He put forward his argument that because its third phalanx more closely resembled those of ruminants, it was more closely related to the mammal group than

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Minwer-Barakat, Raef; Badiola, Ainara; Marigó, Judit; Moyà-Solà, Salvador (2013). "First record of the genus Microchoerus (Omomyidae, Primates) in the western Iberian Peninsula and its palaeobiogeographic implications".

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is known to have occurred only in MP17a localities. The former three genera lived up to the early Oligocene where they have been recorded to have all gone extinct as a result of the Grande Coupure faunal turnover event.

1365:" (or of new evolutionary traits) selenodont Eocene European artiodactyl families, making it uncertain whether they were closer to the Tylopoda or Ruminantia. Possibly, the Xiphodontidae may have arisen from an unknown 3468:"Suite des Recherches: Suite de recherches sur les os fossiles de la pierre à plâtre des environs de Paris. Troisième mémoire. Restitution des pieds. Première section. Restitution des différens pieds de derrière" 5177:

Solé, Floréal; Fischer, Valentin; Le Verger, Kévin; Mennecart, Bastien; Speijer, Robert P.; Peigné, Stéphane; Smith, Thierry (2022). "Evolution of European carnivorous mammal assemblages through the Paleogene".

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of the lineages in the phylogenetic analysis. However, the Xiphodontidae was still found to compose part of a wider clade with the three other groups. Within the Xiphodontidae, Weppe's phylogeny tree classified

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Badiola, Ainara; Perales-Gogenola, Leire; Astibia, Humberto; Suberbiola, Xabier Pereda (2022). "A synthesis of Eocene equoids (Perissodactyla, Mammalia) from the Iberian Peninsula: new signs of endemism".

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had pacing locomotion like camelids cannot be proven. Due to the lack of postcranial evidence of other xiphodonts, it is not possible to prove that their postcranial morphologies are similar to those of

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Licht, Alexis; Métais, Grégoire; Coster, Pauline; İbilioğlu, Deniz; Ocakoğlu, Faruk; Westerweel, Jan; Mueller, Megan; Campbell, Clay; Mattingly, Spencer; Wood, Melissa C.; Beard, K. Christopher (2022).

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Zoologie et paléontologie générales. Nouvelles recherches sur les animaux vertébrés dont on trouve les ossements enfouis dans le sol et sur leur comparaison avec les espèces actuellement existantes

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continent was separated into three landmasses, the former two of which were isolated by seaways: western Europe (an archipelago), Balkanatolia, and eastern Eurasia (Balkanatolia was in between the

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is narrow plus elongated in form, its tibial groove appearing narrow but deep. The back calcaneal facet, occupying a significant portion of the astragalus' back face, is wide compared to those of

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and many other mammals have been attributed to negative interactions with immigrant faunas (competition, predations), environmental changes from cooling climates, or some combination of the two.

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Perales-Gogenola, Leire; Badiola, Ainara; Gómez-Olivencia, Asier; Pereda-Suberbiola, Xabier (2022). "A remarkable new paleotheriid (Mammalia) in the endemic Iberian Eocene perissodactyl fauna".

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by MP18. The xiphodont largely coexisted with the same artiodactyl families as well as the Palaeotheriidae within western Europe, although the Cainotheriidae and the derived anoplotheriids

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The third incisors resemble canines but project slightly forward and are separated from the canines by tiny diastemata. The first two other incisors are not known, but based on their round

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is also the only xiphodontid to be known from postcranial fossils. Its skull morphology, combined with slender and elongated limbs, suggest similar behaviours to North American Palaeogene

3769:"Description of the Lower Jaw and Teeth of an anoplotherioid quadruped (Dichobune ovina, Ow.) of the size of the Xiphodon gracilis, Cuv., from the Upper Eocene Mart, Isle of Wight" 998:. Its design and intended representation as a herd were likely inspired by South American llama appearances and behaviours. The illustration of Hawkins' workshop implies that the 715:

but that he had fossils of its skull, neck, tibia, and tarsus bone, adding to the hind foot evidence that he described years prior. He stated that in contrast to the more robust

4376:"A new Cainotherioidea (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from Palembert (Quercy, SW France): Phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of the dental pattern of Cainotheriidae" 2209: 487:(running adaptations). However, the full extent of its behaviour and evolutionary relationships remain uncertain, and its resemblances to camelids are probably an instance of 970:", the result of both species having been listed in the earliest Crystal Palace guidebooks. An illustration of Hawkins' workshop reveals that four sculptures representing " 3594:

Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes: où l'on rétablit les caractères de plusieurs espèces d'animaux que les révolutions du globe paroissent avoir détruites

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that the proposed superfamily Anoplotherioidea, composing of the Anoplotheriidae and Xiphodontidae as proposed by Alan W. Gentry and Hooker in 1988, is invalid due to the

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Solé, Floréal; Fischer, Fischer; Denayer, Julien; Speijer, Robert P.; Fournier, Morgane; Le Verger, Kévin; Ladevèze, Sandrine; Folie, Annelise; Smith, Thierry (2020).

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because he felt that it was a more fitting species name. He argued that the species has a head roughly the shape plus shape of the "corinne" (an archaic term for the

1291:(~44 Ma to 33 Ma). Like the other contemporary endemic artiodactyl families of western Europe, the evolutionary origins of the Xiphodontidae are poorly known. While 5910: 5207:"Cainotheriidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from Dams (Quercy, SW France): phylogenetic relationships and evolution around the Eocene–Oligocene transition (MP19–MP21)" 4312:"Cainotheriidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from Dams (Quercy, SW France): phylogenetic relationships and evolution around the Eocene–Oligocene transition (MP19–MP21)" 2772:

For much of the Eocene, a hothouse climate with humid, tropical environments with consistently high precipitations prevailed. Modern mammalian orders including the

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closer they are to the canine, with the first premolar appearing to be the sharpest as a result. The similarities of the third incisors, canines, and premolars of

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displayed the evolutionary trend of the molars becoming more quadrangular in shape and that their selenodont forms were already present in the most basal species

2784:". By the late Eocene (approx. 37–33 Ma), most of the ungulate form dentitions shifted from bunodont cusps to cutting ridges (i.e. lophs) for folivorous diets. 990:

sculpture's appearance overall matches up with Cuvier's anatomical description of the species, the main inaccuracy being the reconstruction of additional small

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but differs from it by its elongation plus rounded appearance and the maxillae constituting part of the snout being less extensive in height. The snout of

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all made their first fossil record appearances by MP18. In addition, several migrant mammal groups had reached western Europe by MP17a-MP18, namely the

4792:"Western European middle Eocene to early Oligocene Chiroptera: systematics, phylogeny and palaeoecology based on new material from the Quercy (France)" 4656:

Sudre, Jean; Martinez, Jean-Noël (1995). "The astragalus of Paleogene artiodactyls: comparative morphology, variability and prediction of body mass".

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By MP16, a faunal turnover occurred, marking the disappearances of the lophiodonts and European hyrachyids as well as the extinctions of all European

958:. Benjamin apparently either refused to acknowledge the genus name or was unaware of it, meaning that sculptures of the species were referred to as " 5979: 5897: 4310:

Weppe, Romain; Blondel, Cécile; Vianey-Liaud, Monique; Escarguel, Gilles; Pélissié, Thierry; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier; Orliac, Maëva Judith (2020).

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Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles, où l'on rétablit les caractères de plusieurs animaux dont les révolutions du globe ont détruit les espèces

5994: 5642:

Toumoulin, Agathe; Tardif, Delphine; Donnadieu, Yannick; Licht, Alexis; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Kunzmann, Lutz; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume (2022).

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Weppe, Romain; Blondel, Cécile; Vianey-Liaud, Monique; Escarguel, Gilles; Pelissie, Thierry; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier; Orliac, Maeva J. (2020).

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having sharp edges for cutting through higher vegetation such as leaves and shrubs. It also retained primitive molars compared to its relative

5989: 3641: 3598: 3547: 3479: 5495:"Unearthing deep-time biodiversity changes: The Palaeogene mammalian metacommunity of the Quercy and Limagne area (Massif Central, France)" 3513: 549: 5351:"Eocene–Oligocene mammalian faunal turnover in the Hampshire Basin, UK: calibration to the global time scale and the major cooling event" 4928:

Schmidt-Kittler, Norbert; Godinot, Marc; Franzen, Jens L.; Hooker, Jeremy J. (1987). "European reference levels and correlation tables".

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Catalogue of the fossil Mammalia in the British museum, (Natural History): Part II. Containing the Order Ungulata, Suborder Artiodactyla

5685:"Age and driving mechanisms of the Eocene–Oligocene transition from astronomical tuning of a lacustrine record (Rennes Basin, France)" 2235: 5974: 5593:

Pound, Matthew J.; Salzmann, Ulrich; Scher, Howie D.; Sijp, Willem P.; Śliwińska, Kasia K; Wilson, Paul A.; Zhang, Zhongshi (2021).

4740:"Mountain uplift explains differences in Palaeogene patterns of mammalian evolution and extinction between North America and Europe" 4085: 3340: 2414: 3722:

Zoologie et paléontologie françaises (animaux vertébrés): ou nouvelles recherches sur les animaux vivants et fossiles de la France

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Zoologie et paléontologie françaises (animaux vertébrés): ou nouvelles recherches sur les animaux vivants et fossiles de la France

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Georges Cuvier's published sketch (left) and unpublished sketch with outline (right) of an incomplete skeletal reconstruction of "

622:. In 1807, Cuvier gave further elaboration to his thoughts on the limb bones, suggesting that it superficially resembles those of 113: 5389: 4044:

Erfurt, Jörg; Métais, Grégoire (2007). "Endemic European Paleogene Artiodactyls". In Prothero, Donald R.; Foss, Scott E. (eds.).

5644:"Evolution of continental temperature seasonality from the Eocene greenhouse to the Oligocene icehouse –a model–data comparison" 2433: 540: 5494: 1010: 2394:

the neocortex, giving it a hill-like appearance. The neocortex has a similar appearance to those of Palaeogene tylopods like

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metastyle cusps, respectively. The protocone cusp is more isolated from other cuspids and has a short preprotocrista ridge.

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is the only member of its family for which postcranial evidence is known, primarily represented by the gypsum quarries of

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Legendre, Serge; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile; Hugueney, Marguerite; Maitre, Elodie; Sigé, Bernard; Escarguel, Gilles (2006).

2385:(or suprasylvia) has a high position within the neocortex but may have had an even higher position within the brain. The 5969: 3358:

drying of the seaways previously acting as major barriers to eastern migrants from Balkanatolia and western Europe. The

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are not fused with each other. The long legs may have supported a high-hanging body. The postcranial characteristics of

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of MP17a, where it is exclusive to. After a brief fossil record gap in MP17b, the latest species to have appeared was

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The Xiphodontidae is a selenodont artiodactyl group in western Europe, meaning that the family was likely adapted for

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for a total of 44 teeth. As members of the Xiphodontidae, they share both small incisors and the absences of distinct

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and forming with it a narrow bony strip. In the back view, the snout appears to have a U-shaped outline. The snout of

955: 4205: 5824:"The upper Eocene-Oligocene carnivorous mammals from the Quercy Phosphorites (France) housed in Belgian collections" 3621:

Georges Cuvier, Fossil Bones, and Geological Catastrophes: New Translations and Interpretations of the Primary Texts

5984: 5595:"The Eocene-Oligocene transition: A review of marine and terrestrial proxy data, models and model-data comparisons" 5472:"Dynamique de la diversité des mammifères et des oiseaux paléogènes du Massif Central (Quercy et Limagnes, France)" 3125: 2665:

was the largest of the three. Sudre pointed out that the size trends point towards evolutionary increases in size.

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The Xiphodontidae is characterized by its species being very small to medium in size. Speciose xiphodonts such as

5206: 4311: 3958:"Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Stammesgeschichte der Hufthiere und Versucheiner Systematik der Paar- und Unpaarhufer" 1362: 1148: 137: 5783:"Earliest record of rhinocerotoids (Mammalia: Perissodactyla) from Switzerland: systematics and biostratigraphy" 4607:

Rodrigues, Helder Gomes; Lihoreau, Fabrice; Orliac, Maëva; Thewissen, J. G. M.; Boisserie, Jean-Renaud (2019).

4122:(in French). École Pratique des Hautes Études-Sciences de la Vie et de la Terre, Montpellier. pp. 769–850. 2243: 943: 932: 3884:"Monographie der gattung Anthracotherium Cuv. und Versuch ein natürlich Classification der fossilen Hufthiere" 2567:

have two prominent digits: digit III and digit IV. The side digits II and V are heavily reduced. As a result,

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justified the genus etymology "sword tooth". Gervais erected another species that he tentatively assigned to

4947:"Small artiodactyls with tapir-like teeth from the middle Eocene of the Erlian Basin, Inner Mongolia, China" 4845:"Balkanatolia: The insular mammalian biogeographic province that partly paved the way to the Grande Coupure" 2751: 600:

had didactyl hooves instead of tridactyl (three-toed) hooves, which would have separated it from the other "

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The Grande Coupure event also marked a large faunal turnover marking the arrivals of later anthracotheres,

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retained the primitive trait of having molars with five cusps and shifted towards cutting dentition, while

5964: 5865: 4493:

Dechaseaux, Colette (1963). "Une forme européenne du groupe des chameaux (Tylopodes): le genre Xiphodon".

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although some estimate that the event began 33.6-33.4 Ma. The event correlates directly with or after the

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and two proceeding vertebrae, reach nearly 70% of the total length of the skull, indicating a long neck.

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under the direction of Cuvier, although the restorations were not as detailed as Cuvier's. The genus name

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Boulila, Slah; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume; Galbrun, Bruno; Bauer, Hugues; Châteauneuf, Jean-Jacques (2021).

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Aguilar, Jean-Pierre; Legendre, Serge; Michaux, Jacques (1997). "Synthèses et tableaux de corrélations".

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of Europe and Asia during the middle Eocene with possible artiodactyl and perissodactyl dispersal routes.

5936: 4512:

Dechaseaux, Colette (1965). "Artiodactyles des phosphorites du Quercy. I. Étude sur le genre Dichodon".

3322: 3223: 3015: 2382: 979: 4374:

Weppe, Romain; Blondel, Cécile; Vianey-Liaud, Monique; Pélissié, Thierry; Orliac, Maëva Judith (2020).

859: 787:. However, he also suggested that the two species do not differ on the genus level. It alongside other 3237: 3227: 3079: 2853:, Mixtotheriidae, Anoplotheriidae, Amphimerycidae, and other members of Xiphodontidae), and primates ( 2825:. The species is restricted to MP16 localities. By then, it would have coexisted with perissodactyls ( 2417:

within the periotic bone of the ear. It also gives off an enclosed appearance within its outer edges.

5745: 5696: 5655: 5606: 5556: 5506: 5426: 5365: 5308: 5264: 5255:

Rage, Jean-Claude (2012). "Amphibians and squamates in the Eocene of Europe: what do they tell us?".

5221: 5143: 5108: 4996: 4958: 4894: 4856: 4803: 4712: 4665: 4544: 4474:

Dechaseaux, Colette (1967). "Artiodactyles des Phosphorites du Quercy: Étude sur le genre Xiphodon".

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possibly been synchronous with the Oi-1 glaciation (33.5 Ma), which records a decline in atmospheric

3089: 1730: 1377: 1370: 1042: 488: 4591: 3923: 3883: 3768: 3737: 3592: 2874: 2609: 2455:, 4 premolars, and 3 molars on each half of the upper and lower jaws, consistent with the primitive 1946: 1301: 4004:

Eocene Mammal Faunas of Mormont, Switzerland: Systematic Revision and Resolution of Dating Problems

3957: 3906: 3703: 3635: 3569: 3057: 3039: 2957: 2870: 2850: 1023: 947: 268: 4140:"Drivers of the artiodactyl turnover in insular western Europe at the Eocene–Oligocene Transition" 4138:

Weppe, Romain; Condamine, Fabien L.; Guinot, Guillaume; Maugoust, Jacob; Orliac, Maëva J. (2023).

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led to better understandings of faunal chronologies from the Late Eocene up to the Grande Coupure.

3243: 3179:, rich assemblage of lizards are known in western Europe as well from MP16-MP20, representing the 3005: 1840: 1740: 1382: 1157: 5845: 5804: 5763: 5714: 5624: 5381: 5280: 5237: 5159: 5053: 5012: 4910: 4821: 4393: 4342: 4289: 3535: 3501: 3467: 3326: 3045: 3027: 3021: 2969: 2842: 2834: 2673: 2541: 2068: 2051: 2036: 1860: 1602: 1366: 1165: 855: 293: 282: 132: 5032:"A sebecosuchian in a middle Eocene karst with comments on the dorsal shield in Crocodylomorpha" 2987: 2939: 2013: 1996: 1981: 1898: 1874: 1451: 1174: 723:

was more gracile in form and therefore would have been built for cursoriality similar to extant

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Cuvier, Geoges (1812). "Résumé général et rétablissement des Squelettes des diverses espèces".

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is diagnosed as having an elongated skull that is convex in the upwards area leading up to the

1795: 1778: 1754: 1517: 1420: 1403: 5923: 5915: 5452: 5413:

Sun, Jimin; Ni, Xijun; Bi, Shundong; Wu, Wenyu; Ye, Jie; Meng, Jin; Windley, Brian F. (2014).

5324: 4769: 4638: 4572: 4177: 4081: 3402: 3255: 3164: 2596: 2358: 2339:. A ridge above the external area of the ear canal extends up to the upper convex edge of the 1376:

In an article published in 2019, Romain Weppe et al. conducted a phylogenetic analysis on the

890: 465: 5928: 3817: 3370:, boosting the Antarctic glaciation that already started by the Eocene-Oligocene transition. 3293: 2951: 2709:, which displayed specialized dentition made for feeding on leaves, tree shoots, and shrubs. 2672:

has been calculated by Helder Gomes Rodrigues et al. in 2019 based on an astragalus from the

2595:

is more primitive or more derived in relation to the North American tylopods is unclear. The

1915: 1108:

in 1885, confirming that both are distinct genera. He also reaffirmed the validities of both

1053:. As he disliked the concept of having multiple closely related genera, he chose to place in 411:

was promoted to genus rank by other naturalists in later decades. It is today defined by the

5835: 5794: 5753: 5704: 5663: 5614: 5572: 5564: 5514: 5442: 5434: 5415:"Synchronous turnover of flora, fauna, and climate at the Eocene-Oligocene Boundary in Asia" 5373: 5316: 5272: 5229: 5187: 5151: 5116: 5043: 5004: 4966: 4902: 4864: 4811: 4759: 4751: 4720: 4673: 4628: 4620: 4562: 4552: 4383: 4334: 4281: 4243: 4167: 4159: 4073: 3864: 3780: 3749: 3719:

Gervais, Paul (1848–1852). "Note sur les genres Anthracotherium, Hyopotamus et Bothriodon".

2945: 2924: 2866: 2354: 2293: 2262: 2234:(or snout) is elongated and has a rounded appearance. In the xiphodont genus also are large 2231: 1097: 652: 4593:

Monographie de la faune de mammifères fossiles du Ludien inférieur d'Euzet-les-Bains (Gard)

4006:. Vol. 120. Kommission der Schweizerischen Paläontologischen Abhandlungen. p. 95. 2963: 4064:

Franzen, Jens Lorenz (2003). "Mammalian faunal turnover in the Eocene of central Europe".

3619:

Rudwick, Martin J. S. (1997). "Chapter 6: The Animals from the Gypsum Beds around Paris".

3386: 3335: 2902: 2890: 2846: 2826: 2793: 2765: 2629: 2323:

has elevated edges and opens in a slanted position slightly in front of the suture of the

2269:

are narrow and elongated, its passages barely extending over the openings of the external

2227: 1677: 1352:

morphologies (or having crescent-shaped ridges) of the molars, which were convergent with

1337: 991: 514:

was the last and largest species within the genus in an evolutionary size increase trend.

4738:

Eronen, Jussi T.; Janis, Christine M.; Chamberlain, Charles Page; Mulch, Andreas (2015).

4609:"Unexpected evolutionary patterns of dental ontogenetic traits in cetartiodactyl mammals" 558:

Sketches of limb bones (fig. 1, left, 1804) and various fossil remains (right, 1812) of "

5749: 5700: 5659: 5610: 5560: 5510: 5430: 5369: 5312: 5268: 5225: 5147: 5112: 5000: 4962: 4898: 4860: 4807: 4716: 4669: 4548: 4330: 4277: 4172: 4155: 4139: 3833: 3678: 2821:

made its earliest known appearance in MP16 based on the locality of Robiac in France as

5734:"Hogs, hippos or bears? Paleodiet of European Oligocene anthracotheres and entelodonts" 5447: 5414: 4764: 4739: 4677: 4633: 4608: 4567: 4532: 4119:

Actes du Congrès Bio-chroM'97. Mémoires et Travaux de l'EPHE Institut de Montpellier 21

3868: 3398: 3390: 3364: 3200: 3168: 3105: 3073: 2830: 2789: 2773: 2580: 2545: 2501:, they would be projected slightly forward just like the third incisors. The canine of 2479: 2460: 2386: 2353:. The back area of the zygomatic arches are narrow and close to the cranial vault. The 2340: 2328: 2324: 2316: 1826: 1345: 1341: 951: 772: 579: 570: 518: 394: 370: 222: 5732:

Rivals, Florent; Belyaev, Ruslan I.; Basova, Vera B.; Prilepskaya, Natalya E. (2023).

4724: 4697: 3784: 3753: 596:, which he said had slender, elongated, and didactyl (two-toed) feet. He thought that 5958: 5849: 5767: 5718: 5628: 5471: 5385: 5350: 5284: 5241: 5163: 5016: 4929: 4914: 4397: 4346: 4293: 4248: 4227: 4117: 3394: 3359: 3176: 3172: 2993: 2906: 2552: 2349: 2332: 2296:

extending from the outer edge of the jaw to the back. Both palatine foramen types of

2239: 1691: 1578: 1358: 1273: 1061:. The same year, Kovalevsky erected a newly determined smaller species that he named 800: 784: 606: 584: 560: 479: 436: 399: 366: 202: 71: 5808: 5072: 5057: 4869: 4844: 4825: 4228:"Bipedal browsing adaptations of the unusual Late Eocene–earliest Oligocene tylopod 2725:

appear to be similar to those of Palaeogene camelids, which had adaptations towards

2174:

that the Anoplotheriidae, Mixtotheriidae, and Cainotherioidea form a clade based on

4531:

Lihoreau, Fabrice; Boisserie, Jean-Renaud; Viriot, Laurent; Brunet, Michel (2006).

3113: 3109: 2882: 2838: 2726: 2452: 1960: 1708: 1664: 1657: 1619: 1328: 1304:. More specifically, the first xiphodont representatives to appear were the genera 1203: 1138: 1082: 885: 831: 640: 627: 601: 484: 456: 412: 336: 231: 5233: 5155: 5120: 5008: 4906: 4338: 4285: 5758: 5733: 5568: 5320: 5191: 3207:, most of which were able to thrive in the warm temperatures of western Europe. 3502:"Troisième mémoire. Deuxième section. Restitution des différens pieds de devant" 3426: 3249: 3051: 2918: 2886: 2781: 2576: 2490: 2289: 1500: 1280: 985: 927: 788: 676: 498: 448: 362: 189: 46: 5888: 5518: 4971: 4946: 3801:

Witton, Mark P.; Michel, Ellinor (2022). "Chapter 4: The sculptures: mammals".

3680:

An etymological and explanatory dictionary of the terms and language of geology

3664:

Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World

2425: 5799: 5782: 5276: 4816: 4791: 4533:"Anthracothere dental anatomy reveals a late Miocene Chado-Libyan bioprovince" 4077: 3422: 3418: 3406: 3374: 3344: 3261: 3204: 3188: 3184: 2999: 2975: 2935: 2930: 2898: 2862: 2810: 2702: 2572: 2533: 2410: 2266: 2258: 1564: 1349: 1310: 1269: 868: 444: 407:

by its dentition and limb bones, later moving it to its own subgenus in 1822.

382: 355: 91: 56: 2292:

for the upper mouth appears concave and has a visible premaxillary-maxillary

850:

but was slightly smaller than dorcas gazelles. He erected the second species

5709: 5684: 5377: 4557: 4163: 3378: 3287: 3196: 3180: 3131: 3033: 2858: 2797: 2614: 2456: 2402: 2378: 2320: 2180: 1288: 1277: 1253: 791:

fossil species were depicted in 1822 drawings by the French palaeontologist

752:, according to the naturalist, had short fur and probably did not ruminate. 699:

Cuvier published his drawings of skeletal reconstructions of two species of

522:

environmental turnover from climate change, or some combination of the two.

460: 378: 359: 149: 96: 40: 34: 5668: 5643: 5619: 5594: 5456: 5328: 5048: 5031: 4773: 4755: 4642: 4624: 4576: 4181: 2804: 4698:"The Eocene-Oligocene ungulates from Western Europe and their environment" 4199: 3354:

decreases and an estimated drop of ~70 m (230 ft) in sea level.

2469: 2466: 5882: 5840: 5823: 3414: 3192: 2894: 2878: 2854: 2777: 2498: 2475: 2406: 2247: 1486: 1070: 1032: 847: 732: 724: 639:

was to them. Cuvier also said that other postcranial morphologies of the

615: 169: 86: 81: 66: 61: 51: 4201:

Déclin des artiodactyles endémiques européens, autopsie d'une extinction

5902: 3925:

Descriptions de Quelques Mammifères Fossiles des Phosphorites du Quercy

3410: 2649:

tended to display evolutionary increases in size. Species belonging to

2560: 2448: 2270: 2254: 1353: 1066: 974:" were constructed by him, three of which vanished without any traces. 728: 619: 474: 452: 101: 76: 5577: 5438: 2377:

was first observed by Colette Dechaseaux in 1963, which had a visible

1089:

based on a lower jaw fossil, arguing that the species was larger than

5349:

Hooker, Jerry J.; Collinson, Margaret E.; Sille, Nicholas P. (2004).

4422:

Les Artiodactyles de l'Eocéne moyen et supérieur d'Europe occidentale

2981: 1284: 822: 810: 748:

and that it had mobile ears like deer for hearing danger in advance.

374: 179: 159: 30: 5859: 2733:

could have been a European ecological counterpart. However, whether

2653:

are diagnosed as being medium-sized artiodactyls. The basal species

2409:

from the same endocast in 1967. The flocculus is separated from the

954:, open to the public since 1854 and constructed by English sculptor 3317: 4945:

Bai, Bin; Wang, Yuan-Qing; Theodor, Jessica M.; Meng, Jin (2023).

4388: 4375: 3683:. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longmans. p. 183 3662:

Rudwick, Martin J.S. (1992). "Chapter 2: Keyholes into the Past".

3570:"Cinquième mémoire. Troisième section. Vertèbres et côtes isolées" 3316: 3124: 2803: 2760: 2688: 2628: 2424: 2390: 2308:

are greater in length and have different morphologies to those of

2300:

have similar proportions and positions to the palatine foramen of

2257:

constitutes the majority of the side areas of the skull while the

2250:

appears to be low horizontally, giving off a rectilinear outline.

2208: 1252: 1009: 912: 776: 708: 648: 644: 623: 386: 2510:

reveal that the artiodactyl had specialized bladelike dentition.

3348: 2916:

were found with those of other mammals like the herpetotheriids

2705:(leaf-eating) dietary habits. This was especially the case with 2556: 1014:

Illustrations of the front foot (left) and dentition (right) of

5863: 3985:

Abhandlungen der Schweizerischen Paläontologischen Gesellschaft

2587:

are thought to be similar to those of Palaeogene camelids like

2230:. The orbits themselves are wide open in their back areas. The 1336:

The phylogenetic relations of the Xiphodontidae as well as the

1369:

group, thus making its resemblance to tylopods an instance of

1357:

ruminants than tylopods based on dental morphology. Different

1245:

lack definite differential diagnoses other than dental sizes.

1218:

based on dental measurements intermediate between the smaller

582:

established multiple fossil species as belonging to the genus

2661:

with slightly larger dental measurements. The latest species

816: 804: 1283:

family endemic to western Europe that lived from the middle

2551:

The forelimbs of the xiphodont are thin and elongated. The

5493:

Escarguel, Gilles; Legendre, Serge; Sigé, Bernard (2008).

3640:. Vol. 3. G. Dufour and E. d'Ocagne. pp. 69–70. 1295:

had been thought to have appeared as early as MP10 of the

5073:"Lower Paleogene Crocodilians from Silveirinha, Portugal" 3822:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

3773:

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London

3742:

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London

16:

Extinct genus of endemic Palaeogene European artiodactyls

1237:. According to Jörg Erfurt and Grégoire Métais in 2007, 884:

as a genus was also supported by the British naturalist

647:

more closely resembled those of ruminants than those of

510:

having an estimated weight of 4.6 kg (10 lb).

506:

were relatively small with the second-appearing species

4744:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2814:, which was endemic to western Europe during the Eocene 610:. Based on the hooves and dentition, he concluded that 3506:

Annales du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris

3472:

Annales du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris

2729:. Because of the dental and postcranial similarities, 2357:

appears flat and horizontal, with a small postglenoid

1147:

in his catalogue. In 1886, the German palaeontologist

1002:

sculptures were intended to represent a relaxed herd.

3325:

in the Isle of Wight. The stratigraphy of it and the

1326:

made its first appearance by MP16. Another xiphodont

238: 5872: 3803:

The Art and Science of the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs

1229:In 2000, Jerry J. Hooker and Marc Weidmann listed 517:It and other xiphodont genera went extinct by the 5738:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5549:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4705:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4305: 4303: 4204:(Thesis) (in French). University of Montpellier. 4048:. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 59–84. 2621:but differs by a more elongated back tuberosity. 2246:are extensive in size from the I to P teeth. The 4415: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4407: 1322:continued to persist into the late Eocene while 703:in 1812 based on known fossil remains including 469:, indicating different dietary specializations. 4837: 4835: 4537:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4144:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3928:. Vialelle Printing Company and Co. p. 40. 3857:Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 3708:. Vol. 1. Arthus Bertrand. pp. 90–91. 4931:Münchner geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen A10 393:were first described by the French naturalist 4785: 4783: 2401:Dechaseaux later uncovered a large spherical 2361:(or projection) taking the shape of a spoon. 2347:is similar to that of the Palaeogene camelid 2188:as a sister taxon to the clade consisting of 1120:, erected previously by Filhol in 1877, with 799:means "sword tooth" and is a compound of the 397:in 1804. Although he assigned the species to 8: 5344: 5342: 5340: 5338: 4691: 4689: 4687: 4066:Geological Society of America Special Papers 2571:is a didactyl, or two-toed, genus. Its side 942:was amongst the fossil taxa depicted in the 497:lived in western Europe back when it was an 369:. It, like other xiphodonts, was endemic to 4059: 4057: 4055: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4033: 3597:(in French). Vol. 3. Chez Deterville. 5860: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4013: 3849:"Description of the Skull of a Species of 3796: 3794: 3725:. Vol. 2. Arthus Bertrand. p. 2. 2375:National Museum of Natural History, France 2218:National Museum of Natural History, France 739:which he thought had semi-aquatic habits, 735:. He hypothesized, therefore, that unlike 126:National Museum of Natural History, France 112: 20: 5839: 5798: 5757: 5708: 5667: 5618: 5576: 5446: 5257:Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments 5180:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 5047: 4970: 4868: 4815: 4763: 4632: 4566: 4556: 4495:Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences 4469: 4387: 4247: 4236:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 4193: 4191: 4171: 4002:Hooker, Jerry J.; Weidmann, Marc (2000). 2657:is the smallest of the genus followed by 1361:have produced different results for the " 755:In 1822, Cuvier established the subgenus 4934:. Pfeil Verlag, München. pp. 13–31. 4467: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4433: 4431: 1257:Portrait of Georges Cuvier, who erected 3458: 3135:, an anoplotheriid that coexisted with 2681:was not included in the initial study. 2540:as previously described by Cuvier. The 2285:in comparison is shorter and narrower. 977:The fourth sculpture was mistaken as a 707:. He noted that he had no evidence for 330: 311: 5541: 5539: 3818:"On the Osteology of the Hyopotamidae" 3574:Annales du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle 3540:Annales du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle 2482:, and crescent-shaped labial cuspids. 2343:. The upper ear canal's morphology in 1026:rejected Gervais' reclassification of 931:fawn, of the "Tertiary Island" of the 403:, he recognized that it differed from 4111: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 3922:Filhol, Henri (1884). "Pachydermes". 3401:), carnivorans (later Amphicyonidae, 2637:species based on known fossil remains 259: 7: 4438:Viret, Jean (1961). "Artiodactyla". 3805:. The Crowood Press. pp. 68–91. 3241:, various bats and rodents, omomyid 3175:. In addition to snakes, frogs, and 2315:In addition to the large and hollow 5214:Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 4514:Annales de Paléontologie. Vertébrés 4476:Annales de Paléontologie. Vertébrés 4319:Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 4266:Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 3147:to appear in the fossil record was 2236:tympanic parts of the temporal bone 2043: 1988: 1976: 1952: 1890: 1866: 1856: 1832: 1770: 1746: 1736: 1683: 1653: 1594: 1570: 1560: 1492: 1467: 1443: 1436: 1395: 1388: 1164:In 1910, the Swiss palaeontologist 435:Literally meaning "sword tooth" in 5136:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 4989:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 4678:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01423.x 4613:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 3869:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1876.tb02534.x 2849:(possibly polyphyletic, however), 2845:), endemic European artiodactyls ( 592:. One of the species he named was 14: 5358:Journal of the Geological Society 3785:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1857.013.01-02.38 3754:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1848.004.01-02.21 2633:Estimated size comparison of all 2447:display complete sets of 3 three 2415:petrous part of the temporal bone 1081:. In 1884, the French naturalist 1077:the same year as well, naming it 983:fawn and was associated with the 966:were historically confused with " 917:The sole surviving sculpture of " 4249:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00352.x 3945:. Order of the Trustees, London. 1194:was most likely synonymous with 1069:. He also stated that its sharp 888:the same year, who also erected 675: 666: 548: 539: 136: 5980:Prehistoric Artiodactyla genera 5525:from the original on 2023-10-13 5395:from the original on 2023-08-08 5071:Antunes, Miguel Telles (2003). 4870:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103929 4356:from the original on 2022-03-07 4208:from the original on 2023-08-11 3644:from the original on 2023-08-19 3601:from the original on 2023-07-31 3550:from the original on 2023-09-02 3516:from the original on 2012-11-10 3482:from the original on 2023-07-27 2513:Jean Sudre in 1978 argued that 2434:Natural History Museum of Basel 2331:forms a major component of the 1206:name, and expressed doubt that 1190:in the process. He stated that 1045:expressed being unsure whether 1006:Additional species and synonyms 830:In 1848, the French naturalist 783:on the basis of long and sharp 578:In 1804, the French naturalist 4796:Swiss Journal of Palaeontology 3847:Flower, William Henry (1876). 3623:. University of Chicago Press. 3413:), eastern Eurasian rodents ( 2413:and occupies space within the 1214:. He also created the species 1100:reviewed the known species of 1041:. In 1876, British naturalist 626:. He explained that the third 1: 5995:Fossil taxa described in 1822 5234:10.1080/14772019.2019.1645754 5156:10.1080/02724634.2023.2189447 5121:10.1016/j.geobios.2014.11.003 5036:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 5009:10.1080/02724634.2023.2193828 4907:10.1080/08912963.2022.2060098 4725:10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00252-2 4339:10.1080/14772019.2019.1645754 4286:10.1080/14772019.2020.1799253 4046:The Evolution of Artiodactyls 3882:Kovalevsky, Vladimir (1876). 3816:Kovalevsky, Vladimir (1873). 2837:), non-endemic artiodactyls ( 2697:based on known fossil remains 1348:have been elusive due to the 842:. He similarly conveyed that 763:and changed the species name 5990:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier 5787:Swiss Journal of Geosciences 5759:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111363 5569:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.01.005 5321:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.07.002 4442:. Masson. pp. 887–1104. 4424:. University of Montpellier. 3979:Stehlin, Hans Georg (1910). 2559:are more elongated than the 2389:is long and distinct, and a 1065:after the French commune of 962:". The extant sculptures of 823: 811: 3702:Gervais, Paul (1848–1852). 3341:Eocene-Oligocene transition 3301:, and the other xiphodonts 3093:, and the other xiphodonts 2861:). It also cooccurred with 2668:The estimated body mass of 2617:appears similar to that of 1126:Xiphodontherium secundarius 956:Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins 925:), long misidentified as a 894:. Owen emended the species 6011: 5519:10.1016/j.crte.2007.11.005 5301:Journal of Human Evolution 5192:10.1093/biolinnean/blac002 5030:Martin, Jeremy E. (2015). 4972:10.3389/feart.2023.1117911 4951:Frontiers in Earth Science 4380:Palaeontologia Electronica 3939:Lydekker, Richard (1885). 3911:. A. Bertrand. p. 44. 3432:All three representatives 2912:Within Robiac, fossils of 2749: 1210:if valid truly belongs to 1057:the newly erected species 838:was a distinct genus from 817: 805: 793:Charles Léopold Laurillard 443:had specialized bladelike 389:, France that belonged to 373:and lived from the middle 5800:10.1007/s00015-009-1330-4 5499:Comptes Rendus Geoscience 5277:10.1007/s12549-012-0087-3 4817:10.1007/s13358-014-0069-3 4590:Depéret, Charles (1917). 4232:(Artiodactyla, Mammalia)" 4226:Hooker, Jerry J. (2007). 4078:10.1130/0-8137-2369-8.455 2065: 2048: 2041: 2010: 1993: 1986: 1974: 1961:Cainotherium laticurvatum 1957: 1950: 1912: 1895: 1888: 1871: 1864: 1854: 1837: 1830: 1792: 1775: 1768: 1751: 1744: 1734: 1705: 1688: 1681: 1661: 1651: 1616: 1599: 1592: 1575: 1568: 1558: 1514: 1497: 1490: 1472: 1465: 1448: 1441: 1434: 1417: 1400: 1393: 1132:. He also suggested that 1049:was distinct enough from 299: 292: 258: 253: 237: 230: 133:Scientific classification 131: 120: 111: 23: 5975:Eocene mammals of Europe 4696:Blondel, Cécile (2001). 3962:Morphologisches Jahrbuch 3677:Roberts, George (1839). 3634:Cuvier, Georges (1822). 3568:Cuvier, Georges (1808). 3534:Cuvier, Georges (1807). 3500:Cuvier, Georges (1805). 3466:Cuvier, Georges (1804). 944:Crystal Palace Dinosaurs 933:Crystal Palace Dinosaurs 910:, respectively in 1857. 651:. He attributed damaged 5781:Becker, Damien (2009). 5710:10.5194/cp-17-2343-2021 5378:10.1144/0016-764903-091 4790:Maitre, Elodie (2014). 4558:10.1073/pnas.0603126103 4440:Traitè de Palèontologie 4164:10.1073/pnas.2309945120 3956:Schlosser, Max (1886). 3425:), and eulipotyphlans ( 2752:Mammal Palaeogene zones 2052:Plesiomeryx cadurcensis 1665:Mixtotherium cuspidatum 1297:Mammal Palaeogene zones 1233:as an emended name for 1155:" into the newer genus 1143:. He did not reference 1136:may be synonymous with 1096:The British naturalist 862:. He also reclassified 420:and two other species, 29:Temporal range: Middle 5669:10.5194/cp-18-341-2022 5620:10.5194/cp-17-269-2021 5049:10.4202/app.00072.2014 4756:10.1098/rspb.2015.0136 4625:10.1098/rspb.2018.2417 4198:Weppe, Romain (2022). 3905:Gervais, Paul (1876). 3767:Owen, Richard (1857). 3736:Owen, Richard (1848). 3330: 3140: 2815: 2769: 2698: 2638: 2575:are reduced while the 2436: 2369:A partial endocast of 2277:is similar to that of 2220: 2069:Plesiomeryx huerzeleri 2014:Caenomeryx procommunis 1603:Lophiomeryx chalaniati 1262: 1019: 936: 5937:Paleobiology Database 4849:Earth-Science Reviews 3323:Headon Hill Formation 3320: 3128: 2807: 2792:of the north and the 2764: 2750:Further information: 2692: 2632: 2544:, represented by the 2428: 2411:cerebellar hemisphere 2212: 1755:Robiacina lavergnesis 1692:Anoplotherium latipes 1579:Parvitragulus priscus 1359:phylogenetic analyses 1256: 1124:, thus reclassifying 1013: 980:Megaloceros giganteus 916: 5841:10.20341/gb.2020.006 4420:Sudre, Jean (1978). 3347:that caused drastic 3143:The next species of 3132:Diplobune secundaria 2776:, Artiodactyla, and 2525:Postcranial skeleton 1841:Palembertina deplasi 1620:Archaeomeryx optatus 1371:convergent evolution 1085:erected the species 1043:William Henry Flower 765:Anoplotherium medium 489:convergent evolution 447:dentition, with its 314:Anoplotherium medium 5970:Eocene Artiodactyla 5750:2023PPP...61111363R 5701:2021CliPa..17.2343B 5689:Climate of the Past 5660:2022CliPa..18..341T 5648:Climate of the Past 5611:2021CliPa..17..269H 5599:Climate of the Past 5561:2011PPP...301...97C 5511:2008CRGeo.340..602E 5431:2014NatSR...4E7463S 5370:2004JGSoc.161..161H 5313:2013JHumE..65..313M 5269:2012PdPe...92..445R 5226:2020JSPal..18..541W 5148:2022JVPal..42E9447P 5113:2015Geobi..48...25R 5001:2022JVPal..42E3828M 4963:2023FrEaS..1117911B 4899:2022HBio...34.1623B 4861:2022ESRv..22603929L 4808:2014SwJP..133..141M 4717:2001PPP...168..125B 4670:1995Letha..28..197M 4549:2006PNAS..103.8763L 4331:2020JSPal..18..541W 4278:2020JSPal..18.1631L 4156:2023PNAS..12009945W 4150:(52): e2309945120. 3834:1873RSPT..163...19K 2796:of the south). The 2591:, although whether 2381:. The suprasylvian 1899:Paroxacron valdense 1709:Dacrytherium ovinum 1501:Paratoceras coatesi 1196:Dichodon cuspidatum 1024:Vladimir Kovalevsky 948:Crystal Palace Park 377:up to the earliest 333:Xiphodon tragulinum 278:X. intermedium 5419:Scientific Reports 4887:Historical Biology 4750:(1809): 20150136. 3331: 3327:Bouldnor Formation 3321:A panorama of the 3224:pseudorhyncocyonid 3141: 3139:in the late Eocene 2997:, carnivoraformes 2816: 2770: 2699: 2693:Reconstruction of 2674:University of Lyon 2639: 2542:cervical vertebrae 2437: 2263:alveolar processes 2221: 1997:Caenomeryx filholi 1916:Oxacron courtoisii 1875:Paroxacron bergeri 1475:Xiphodon castrense 1452:Amphimeryx murinus 1421:Dichobune leporina 1404:Eurodexis russelli 1263: 1166:Hans Georg Stehlin 1134:Xiphodon platyceps 1028:Hyopotamus crispus 1020: 946:assemblage in the 937: 880:. The validity of 860:Saint-Gély-du-Fesc 264:X. castrensis 5985:Fossils of France 5952: 5951: 5924:Open Tree of Life 5866:Taxon identifiers 5828:Geologica Belgica 5505:(9–10): 602–614. 5478:. 1 (in French). 5439:10.1038/srep07463 4543:(23): 8763–8767. 4272:(19): 1631–1656. 3888:Palaeontographica 3666:. pp. 27–58. 3403:Amphicynodontidae 3281:, anoplotheriids 3253:, hyainailourine 3165:Anthracotheriidae 3067:, anoplotheriids 2721:The forelimbs of 2485:The dentition of 2170: 2169: 2161: 2160: 2152: 2151: 2143: 2142: 2134: 2133: 2125: 2124: 2116: 2115: 2107: 2106: 2098: 2097: 2089: 2088: 2080: 2079: 2025: 2024: 1936: 1935: 1927: 1926: 1816: 1815: 1807: 1806: 1796:Robiacina quercyi 1720: 1719: 1640: 1639: 1631: 1630: 1547: 1546: 1538: 1537: 1529: 1528: 1116:then synonymized 1000:Xiphodon gracilis 846:was slender like 779:and differs from 711:or tail bones of 567:Xiphodon gracilis 347: 346: 327: 318: 308: 286: 272: 243:Xiphodon gracilis 226: 122:Xiphodon gracilis 6002: 5945: 5944: 5932: 5931: 5919: 5918: 5906: 5905: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5861: 5854: 5853: 5843: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5802: 5778: 5772: 5771: 5761: 5729: 5723: 5722: 5712: 5695:(6): 2343–2360. 5680: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5639: 5633: 5632: 5622: 5589: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5543: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5490: 5484: 5483: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5450: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5394: 5355: 5346: 5333: 5332: 5295: 5289: 5288: 5252: 5246: 5245: 5211: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5077:Palaeovertebrata 5068: 5062: 5061: 5051: 5027: 5021: 5020: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4925: 4919: 4918: 4893:(8): 1623–1631. 4881: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4839: 4830: 4829: 4819: 4787: 4778: 4777: 4767: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4711:(1–2): 125–139. 4702: 4693: 4682: 4681: 4653: 4647: 4646: 4636: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4570: 4560: 4528: 4522: 4521: 4509: 4503: 4502: 4490: 4484: 4483: 4471: 4444: 4443: 4435: 4426: 4425: 4417: 4402: 4401: 4391: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4361: 4355: 4316: 4307: 4298: 4297: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4223: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4213: 4195: 4186: 4185: 4175: 4135: 4124: 4123: 4113: 4092: 4091: 4061: 4050: 4049: 4041: 4008: 4007: 3999: 3993: 3992: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3919: 3913: 3912: 3902: 3896: 3895: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3813: 3807: 3806: 3798: 3789: 3788: 3779:(1–2): 254–260. 3764: 3758: 3757: 3748:(1–2): 103–141. 3733: 3727: 3726: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3631: 3625: 3624: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3606: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3555: 3531: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3521: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3488: 3487: 3463: 3277:, choeropotamid 3238:Amphidozotherium 3228:Pseudorhyncocyon 3220:Amphiperatherium 3080:Mouillacitherium 3055:, choeropotamid 3009:, palaeotheres ( 2925:Amphiperatherium 2867:Herpetotheriidae 2473: 2472: 2471: 2468: 2365:Endocast anatomy 2355:mandibular fossa 2244:palatine foramen 2044: 1989: 1977: 1953: 1891: 1867: 1857: 1833: 1779:Robiacina minuta 1771: 1747: 1737: 1684: 1654: 1595: 1571: 1561: 1493: 1468: 1444: 1437: 1396: 1389: 1186:synonymous with 1098:Richard Lydekker 854:from the French 826: 820: 819: 814: 808: 807: 769:Xiphodon gracile 679: 670: 653:lumbar vertebrae 552: 543: 526:Research history 340: 325: 316: 303: 281: 267: 240: 221: 214: 201: 141: 140: 116: 106: 43: 21: 6010: 6009: 6005: 6004: 6003: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5955: 5954: 5953: 5948: 5940: 5935: 5927: 5922: 5914: 5909: 5901: 5896: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5868: 5858: 5857: 5821: 5820: 5816: 5780: 5779: 5775: 5731: 5730: 5726: 5682: 5681: 5677: 5641: 5640: 5636: 5591: 5590: 5586: 5555:(1–4): 97–107. 5545: 5544: 5537: 5528: 5526: 5492: 5491: 5487: 5469: 5468: 5464: 5412: 5411: 5407: 5398: 5396: 5392: 5353: 5348: 5347: 5336: 5297: 5296: 5292: 5254: 5253: 5249: 5209: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5176: 5175: 5171: 5133: 5132: 5128: 5099:Cuvier, 1822". 5093: 5092: 5088: 5070: 5069: 5065: 5029: 5028: 5024: 4985: 4984: 4980: 4944: 4943: 4939: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4883: 4882: 4878: 4841: 4840: 4833: 4789: 4788: 4781: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4700: 4695: 4694: 4685: 4655: 4654: 4650: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4589: 4588: 4584: 4530: 4529: 4525: 4511: 4510: 4506: 4492: 4491: 4487: 4473: 4472: 4447: 4437: 4436: 4429: 4419: 4418: 4405: 4373: 4372: 4368: 4359: 4357: 4353: 4314: 4309: 4308: 4301: 4262: 4261: 4257: 4225: 4224: 4220: 4211: 4209: 4197: 4196: 4189: 4137: 4136: 4127: 4115: 4114: 4095: 4088: 4063: 4062: 4053: 4043: 4042: 4011: 4001: 4000: 3996: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3955: 3954: 3950: 3938: 3937: 3933: 3921: 3920: 3916: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3846: 3845: 3841: 3815: 3814: 3810: 3800: 3799: 3792: 3766: 3765: 3761: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3701: 3700: 3696: 3686: 3684: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3661: 3660: 3656: 3647: 3645: 3633: 3632: 3628: 3618: 3617: 3613: 3604: 3602: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3567: 3566: 3562: 3553: 3551: 3533: 3532: 3528: 3519: 3517: 3499: 3498: 3494: 3485: 3483: 3465: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3383:Lophiomerycidae 3368: 3352: 3336:climate forcing 3315: 3297:, amphimerycid 3265:, palaeotheres 3129:Restoration of 3123: 3108:except for the 3106:crocodylomorphs 3090:Pseudamphimeryx 3087:, amphimerycid 3043:, cebochoerids 2903:Hyainailourinae 2891:carnivoraformes 2847:Choeropotamidae 2827:Palaeotheriidae 2808:Restoration of 2794:Neotethys Ocean 2766:Palaeogeography 2759: 2754: 2748: 2687: 2627: 2536:in the case of 2527: 2465: 2464: 2423: 2367: 2317:tympanic bullae 2304:, but those of 2261:extends to the 2207: 2202: 2171: 2162: 2153: 2144: 2135: 2126: 2117: 2108: 2099: 2090: 2081: 2026: 1937: 1928: 1817: 1808: 1731:Cainotherioidea 1721: 1678:Anoplotheriidae 1641: 1632: 1548: 1539: 1530: 1518:Eotylopus reedi 1378:Cainotherioidea 1338:Anoplotheriidae 1251: 1222:and the larger 1170:Xiphodontherium 1118:Xiphodontherium 1008: 815:, 'sword') and 697: 696: 695: 694: 682: 681: 680: 672: 671: 614:was similar to 576: 575: 574: 573: 555: 554: 553: 545: 544: 533: 528: 381:. Fossils from 358:of the extinct 343: 335: 329: 328: 326:Dubious species 321: 310: 309: 249: 246: 220: 212: 199: 135: 107: 105: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 38: 37: 27: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6008: 6006: 5998: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5957: 5956: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5946: 5933: 5920: 5907: 5894: 5878: 5876: 5870: 5869: 5864: 5856: 5855: 5814: 5793:(3): 489–504. 5773: 5724: 5675: 5654:(2): 341–362. 5634: 5605:(1): 269–315. 5584: 5535: 5485: 5462: 5425:(7463): 7463. 5405: 5364:(2): 161–172. 5334: 5307:(3): 313–321. 5290: 5263:(4): 445–457. 5247: 5220:(7): 541–572. 5197: 5186:(4): 734–753. 5169: 5126: 5086: 5063: 5042:(3): 673–680. 5022: 4978: 4937: 4920: 4876: 4831: 4802:(2): 141–242. 4779: 4730: 4683: 4664:(3): 197–209. 4648: 4599: 4596:. Lyon A. Rey. 4582: 4523: 4504: 4485: 4445: 4427: 4403: 4366: 4325:(7): 541–572. 4299: 4255: 4242:(3): 609–659. 4218: 4187: 4125: 4093: 4086: 4051: 4009: 3994: 3971: 3948: 3931: 3914: 3897: 3874: 3839: 3808: 3790: 3759: 3728: 3711: 3694: 3669: 3654: 3626: 3611: 3583: 3560: 3526: 3492: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3399:Eggysodontidae 3391:Rhinocerotidae 3387:rhinocerotoids 3366: 3350: 3314: 3311: 3259:, amphicyonid 3231:, nyctitheres 3201:Helodermatidae 3169:Hyaenodontinae 3149:X. intermedium 3122: 3119: 3074:Catodontherium 3031:), lophiodont 2985:, hyaenodonts 2883:eulipotyphlans 2875:Theridomyoidea 2831:Lophiodontidae 2790:Paratethys Sea 2774:Perissodactyla 2758: 2755: 2747: 2744: 2686: 2683: 2670:X. intermedium 2659:X. intermedium 2626: 2623: 2610:Leptotheridium 2581:navicular bone 2563:. The feet of 2526: 2523: 2461:dental formula 2422: 2419: 2387:lateral sulcus 2366: 2363: 2341:zygomatic arch 2329:squamosal bone 2325:occipital bone 2240:periotic bones 2206: 2203: 2201: 2198: 2168: 2167: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2154: 2150: 2149: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2140: 2137: 2136: 2132: 2131: 2128: 2127: 2123: 2122: 2119: 2118: 2114: 2113: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2096: 2095: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2086: 2083: 2082: 2078: 2077: 2074: 2073: 2064: 2061: 2060: 2057: 2056: 2047: 2042: 2040: 2032: 2031: 2028: 2027: 2023: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2002: 2001: 1992: 1987: 1985: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1969: 1966: 1965: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1947:Cainotheriinae 1943: 1942: 1939: 1938: 1934: 1933: 1930: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1911: 1908: 1907: 1904: 1903: 1894: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1880: 1879: 1870: 1865: 1863: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1845: 1836: 1831: 1829: 1827:Cainotheriidae 1823: 1822: 1819: 1818: 1814: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1791: 1788: 1787: 1784: 1783: 1774: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1750: 1745: 1743: 1735: 1733: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1722: 1718: 1717: 1714: 1713: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1697: 1696: 1687: 1682: 1680: 1674: 1673: 1670: 1669: 1660: 1658:Mixtotheriidae 1652: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1638: 1637: 1634: 1633: 1629: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1598: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1584: 1583: 1574: 1569: 1567: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1531: 1527: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1496: 1491: 1489: 1483: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1471: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1456: 1447: 1442: 1440: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1425: 1416: 1413: 1412: 1409: 1408: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1387: 1346:Cainotheriidae 1342:Mixtotheriidae 1302:Amphimerycidae 1250: 1249:Classification 1247: 1243:X. intermedium 1216:X. intermedium 1184:X. secundarium 1178:, also making 1007: 1004: 952:United Kingdom 834:affirmed that 773:dorcas gazelle 759:for the genus 684: 683: 674: 673: 665: 664: 663: 662: 661: 580:Georges Cuvier 571:Georges Cuvier 557: 556: 547: 546: 538: 537: 536: 535: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 519:Grande Coupure 508:X. intermedium 451:(low-crowned) 429:X. intermedium 395:Georges Cuvier 371:Western Europe 345: 344: 342: 341: 324: 323: 322: 320: 319: 302: 301: 300: 297: 296: 290: 289: 288: 287: 273: 256: 255: 254:Other species 251: 250: 247: 235: 234: 228: 227: 210: 206: 205: 197: 193: 192: 187: 183: 182: 177: 173: 172: 167: 163: 162: 157: 153: 152: 147: 143: 142: 129: 128: 118: 117: 109: 108: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 45: 44: 28: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6007: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5965:Xiphodontidae 5963: 5962: 5960: 5943: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5899: 5895: 5890: 5884: 5880: 5879: 5877: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5862: 5851: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5834:(1–2): 1–16. 5833: 5829: 5825: 5818: 5815: 5810: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5777: 5774: 5769: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5728: 5725: 5720: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5679: 5676: 5670: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5638: 5635: 5630: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5588: 5585: 5579: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5542: 5540: 5536: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5489: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5466: 5463: 5458: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5409: 5406: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5352: 5345: 5343: 5341: 5339: 5335: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5294: 5291: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5251: 5248: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5208: 5201: 5198: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5173: 5170: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5130: 5127: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5090: 5087: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5067: 5064: 5059: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5026: 5023: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4982: 4979: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4941: 4938: 4933: 4932: 4924: 4921: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4880: 4877: 4871: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4775: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4734: 4731: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4692: 4690: 4688: 4684: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4652: 4649: 4644: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4603: 4600: 4595: 4594: 4586: 4583: 4578: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4527: 4524: 4519: 4515: 4508: 4505: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4486: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4468: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4446: 4441: 4434: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4416: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4389:10.26879/1081 4385: 4382:(23(3):a54). 4381: 4377: 4370: 4367: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4259: 4256: 4250: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4231: 4230:Anoplotherium 4222: 4219: 4207: 4203: 4202: 4194: 4192: 4188: 4183: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4134: 4132: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4120: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4094: 4089: 4087:9780813723693 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4052: 4047: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4005: 3998: 3995: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3975: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3952: 3949: 3944: 3943: 3935: 3932: 3927: 3926: 3918: 3915: 3910: 3909: 3901: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3852: 3843: 3840: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3812: 3809: 3804: 3797: 3795: 3791: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3763: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3729: 3724: 3723: 3715: 3712: 3707: 3706: 3698: 3695: 3682: 3681: 3673: 3670: 3665: 3658: 3655: 3643: 3639: 3638: 3630: 3627: 3622: 3615: 3612: 3600: 3596: 3595: 3587: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3564: 3561: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3527: 3515: 3511: 3508:(in French). 3507: 3503: 3496: 3493: 3481: 3477: 3474:(in French). 3473: 3469: 3462: 3459: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3430: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3395:Amynodontidae 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3377:, ruminants ( 3376: 3371: 3369: 3361: 3360:Turgai Strait 3355: 3353: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3328: 3324: 3319: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3295: 3291:, cainothere 3290: 3289: 3284: 3283:Anoplotherium 3280: 3279:Choeropotamus 3276: 3273:, dichobunid 3272: 3268: 3267:Palaeotherium 3264: 3263: 3258: 3257: 3252: 3251: 3246: 3245: 3240: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3173:Amphicyonidae 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3157:Anoplotherium 3154: 3150: 3146: 3138: 3134: 3133: 3127: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3086: 3083:, robiacinid 3082: 3081: 3077:, dichobunid 3076: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3065: 3060: 3059: 3058:Choeropotamus 3054: 3053: 3048: 3047: 3042: 3041: 3040:Chasmotherium 3036: 3035: 3030: 3029: 3024: 3023: 3018: 3017: 3012: 3011:Palaeotherium 3008: 3007: 3002: 3001: 2996: 2995: 2994:Cynohyaenodon 2990: 2989: 2984: 2983: 2978: 2977: 2972: 2971: 2966: 2965: 2960: 2959: 2958:Plesiarctomys 2954: 2953: 2948: 2947: 2942: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2932: 2927: 2926: 2921: 2920: 2915: 2914:X. castrensis 2910: 2908: 2907:Proviverrinae 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2887:apatotherians 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2871:Ischyromyidae 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2851:Cebochoeridae 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2823:X. castrensis 2820: 2813: 2812: 2806: 2802: 2801:as a result. 2799: 2795: 2791: 2785: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2767: 2763: 2757:Middle Eocene 2756: 2753: 2746:Palaeoecology 2745: 2743: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2696: 2691: 2685:Palaeobiology 2684: 2682: 2680: 2675: 2671: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2655:X. castrensis 2652: 2648: 2644: 2636: 2631: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2589:Poebrotherium 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2519:X. castrensis 2516: 2511: 2509: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2397: 2396:Poebrotherium 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2351: 2350:Poebrotherium 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2333:cranial vault 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2286: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2204: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2176:synapomorphic 2166: 2165: 2157: 2156: 2148: 2147: 2139: 2138: 2130: 2129: 2121: 2120: 2112: 2111: 2103: 2102: 2094: 2093: 2085: 2084: 2076: 2075: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2063: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2053: 2046: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2034: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2021: 2020: 2017: 2016: 2015: 2008: 2007: 2004: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1998: 1991: 1990: 1984: 1983: 1979: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1964: 1963: 1962: 1955: 1954: 1948: 1945: 1944: 1941: 1940: 1932: 1931: 1923: 1922: 1919: 1918: 1917: 1910: 1909: 1906: 1905: 1902: 1901: 1900: 1893: 1892: 1886: 1885: 1882: 1881: 1878: 1877: 1876: 1869: 1868: 1862: 1859: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1848: 1847: 1844: 1843: 1842: 1835: 1834: 1828: 1825: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1812: 1811: 1803: 1802: 1799: 1798: 1797: 1790: 1789: 1786: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1773: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1758: 1757: 1756: 1749: 1748: 1742: 1739: 1738: 1732: 1729: 1728: 1725: 1724: 1716: 1715: 1712: 1711: 1710: 1703: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1695: 1694: 1693: 1686: 1685: 1679: 1676: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1666: 1659: 1656: 1655: 1649: 1648: 1645: 1644: 1636: 1635: 1627: 1626: 1623: 1622: 1621: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1606: 1605: 1604: 1597: 1596: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1582: 1581: 1580: 1573: 1572: 1566: 1563: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1543: 1542: 1534: 1533: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1520: 1519: 1512: 1511: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1495: 1494: 1488: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1470: 1469: 1463: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1455: 1454: 1453: 1446: 1445: 1439: 1438: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1424: 1423: 1422: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1405: 1398: 1397: 1391: 1390: 1386: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1312: 1307: 1303: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1287:to the early 1286: 1282: 1279: 1275: 1274:Xiphodontidae 1271: 1267: 1260: 1255: 1248: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1239:X. castrensis 1236: 1232: 1231:X. castrensis 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1200:X? tragulinum 1198:, considered 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176: 1171: 1167: 1162: 1160: 1159: 1154: 1151:transferred " 1150: 1149:Max Schlosser 1146: 1142: 1140: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1079:X? tragulinum 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1034: 1029: 1025: 1017: 1012: 1005: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 988: 987: 982: 981: 975: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 934: 930: 929: 924: 920: 915: 911: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 892: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 870: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 840:Anoplotherium 837: 833: 828: 825: 813: 802: 801:Ancient Greek 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 775:) with sharp 774: 770: 766: 762: 761:Anoplotherium 758: 753: 751: 747: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 701:Anoplotherium 692: 688: 678: 669: 660: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 612:Anoplotherium 609: 608: 607:Palaeotherium 603: 599: 598:Anoplotherium 595: 591: 587: 586: 585:Anoplotherium 581: 572: 568: 564: 562: 561:Anoplotherium 551: 542: 531:Early history 530: 525: 523: 520: 515: 513: 509: 505: 500: 496: 492: 490: 486: 482: 481: 480:Poebrotherium 476: 472: 468: 467: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 437:Ancient Greek 433: 431: 430: 425: 424: 423:X. castrensis 419: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 401: 400:Anoplotherium 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 367:Xiphodontidae 364: 361: 357: 353: 352: 338: 334: 331: 315: 312: 307: 298: 295: 291: 284: 280: 279: 274: 270: 266: 265: 260: 257: 252: 245: 244: 236: 233: 229: 224: 219: 218: 211: 208: 207: 204: 203:Xiphodontidae 198: 195: 194: 191: 188: 185: 184: 181: 178: 175: 174: 171: 168: 165: 164: 161: 158: 155: 154: 151: 148: 145: 144: 139: 134: 130: 127: 123: 119: 115: 110: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 48: 42: 39:40–33.4 36: 32: 26: 22: 19: 5873: 5831: 5827: 5817: 5790: 5786: 5776: 5741: 5737: 5727: 5692: 5688: 5678: 5651: 5647: 5637: 5602: 5598: 5587: 5552: 5548: 5527:. Retrieved 5502: 5498: 5488: 5479: 5475: 5465: 5422: 5418: 5408: 5397:. Retrieved 5361: 5357: 5304: 5300: 5293: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5217: 5213: 5200: 5183: 5179: 5172: 5139: 5135: 5129: 5107:(1): 25–38. 5104: 5100: 5096: 5089: 5080: 5076: 5066: 5039: 5035: 5025: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4954: 4950: 4940: 4930: 4923: 4890: 4886: 4879: 4852: 4848: 4799: 4795: 4747: 4743: 4733: 4708: 4704: 4661: 4657: 4651: 4616: 4612: 4602: 4592: 4585: 4540: 4536: 4526: 4517: 4513: 4507: 4501:: 5607–5609. 4498: 4494: 4488: 4479: 4475: 4439: 4421: 4379: 4369: 4358:. Retrieved 4322: 4318: 4269: 4265: 4258: 4239: 4235: 4229: 4221: 4210:. Retrieved 4200: 4147: 4143: 4118: 4069: 4065: 4045: 4003: 3997: 3988: 3984: 3974: 3965: 3961: 3951: 3941: 3934: 3924: 3917: 3907: 3900: 3891: 3887: 3877: 3860: 3856: 3850: 3842: 3825: 3821: 3811: 3802: 3776: 3772: 3762: 3745: 3741: 3731: 3721: 3714: 3704: 3697: 3685:. Retrieved 3679: 3672: 3663: 3657: 3646:. Retrieved 3636: 3629: 3620: 3614: 3603:. 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Retrieved 3475: 3471: 3461: 3446: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3431: 3372: 3356: 3332: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3271:Plagiolophus 3270: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3244:Microchoerus 3242: 3236: 3232: 3226: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3209: 3177:salamandrids 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3114:Diplocynodon 3112: 3110:alligatoroid 3103: 3098: 3094: 3088: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3069:Dacrytherium 3068: 3062: 3061:, tapirulid 3056: 3050: 3044: 3038: 3037:, hyrachyid 3032: 3026: 3020: 3016:Plagiolophus 3014: 3010: 3006:Simamphicyon 3004: 2998: 2992: 2986: 2980: 2974: 2968: 2967:), omomyids 2962: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2929: 2928:, apatemyid 2923: 2917: 2913: 2911: 2869:), rodents ( 2863:metatherians 2839:Dichobunidae 2822: 2818: 2817: 2809: 2786: 2771: 2739: 2734: 2730: 2727:cursoriality 2722: 2720: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2678: 2669: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2640: 2634: 2619:Dacrytherium 2618: 2608: 2605:Dacrytherium 2604: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2568: 2564: 2550: 2537: 2529: 2528: 2518: 2514: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2496: 2486: 2484: 2444: 2440: 2438: 2429: 2400: 2395: 2370: 2368: 2348: 2344: 2336: 2314: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2287: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2252: 2238:and visible 2223: 2222: 2213: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2172: 2067: 2066: 2050: 2049: 2035: 2012: 2011: 1995: 1994: 1980: 1959: 1958: 1914: 1913: 1897: 1896: 1873: 1872: 1839: 1838: 1794: 1793: 1777: 1776: 1753: 1752: 1741:Robiacinidae 1707: 1706: 1690: 1689: 1663: 1662: 1618: 1617: 1601: 1600: 1577: 1576: 1516: 1515: 1499: 1498: 1474: 1473: 1450: 1449: 1419: 1418: 1402: 1401: 1383:Robiacinidae 1375: 1335: 1329:Paraxiphodon 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1309: 1305: 1292: 1265: 1264: 1258: 1242: 1238: 1235:X. castrense 1234: 1230: 1228: 1223: 1220:X. castrense 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1199: 1195: 1192:X. platyceps 1191: 1187: 1183: 1180:X. primaevum 1179: 1173: 1169: 1168:synonymized 1163: 1158:Phaneromeryx 1156: 1152: 1145:X. castrense 1144: 1139:Dacrytherium 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1114:X. gelyensis 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1095: 1090: 1086: 1083:Henri Filhol 1078: 1074: 1063:X. castrense 1062: 1059:X. platyceps 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1038: 1031: 1027: 1021: 1015: 999: 995: 984: 978: 976: 971: 967: 963: 959: 939: 938: 926: 922: 918: 908:X. Gelyensis 907: 903: 899: 895: 889: 886:Richard Owen 881: 877: 873: 867: 863: 851: 843: 839: 835: 832:Paul Gervais 829: 827:, 'tooth'). 796: 780: 768: 764: 760: 756: 754: 749: 745: 740: 736: 720: 716: 712: 704: 700: 698: 690: 686: 656: 641:femoral head 636: 631: 611: 605: 597: 593: 589: 583: 577: 566: 559: 516: 511: 507: 503: 494: 493: 485:cursoriality 483:, including 478: 470: 464: 440: 434: 428: 427: 422: 421: 416: 415: 413:type species 408: 404: 398: 390: 350: 349: 348: 332: 317:Cuvier, 1804 313: 305: 304:Synonyms of 277: 276: 263: 262: 248:Cuvier, 1822 242: 241: 232:Type species 216: 215: 190:Artiodactyla 121: 24: 18: 4072:: 455–461. 3687:29 December 3512:: 253–283. 3478:: 442–472. 3427:Erinaceidae 3375:entelodonts 3250:Palaeolemur 3216:Peratherium 3211:X. gracilis 3153:X. gracilis 3121:Late Eocene 3052:Cebochoerus 3046:Acotherulum 3028:Leptolophus 3022:Anchilophus 2970:Pseudoloris 2943:, rodents ( 2919:Peratherium 2899:hyaenodonts 2843:Tapirulidae 2835:Hyrachyidae 2782:condylarths 2695:X. gracilis 2663:X. gracilis 2577:cuboid bone 2573:metapodials 2538:X. gracilis 2491:brachyodont 2430:X. gracilis 2371:X. gracilis 2290:hard palate 2267:nasal bones 2214:X. gracilis 2200:Description 2037:Plesiomeryx 1861:Oxacroninae 1367:dichobunoid 1281:artiodactyl 1153:X. gelyense 1110:X. gracilis 1091:X. gracilis 1018:, 1891–1893 1016:X. gracilis 994:similar to 986:Megaloceros 940:X. gracilis 928:Megaloceros 923:X. gracilis 904:X. gracilis 900:X. gelyense 852:X. gelyense 789:Paris Basin 691:X. gracilis 588:other than 512:X. gracilis 499:archipelago 449:brachyodont 417:X. gracilis 391:X. gracilis 363:artiodactyl 306:X. gracilis 5959:Categories 5744:: 111363. 5578:2445/34510 5529:2024-03-06 5482:: 275–282. 5399:2024-03-06 4855:: 103929. 4520:: 191–208. 4360:2024-03-06 4212:2024-03-06 3894:: 241–247. 3648:2024-03-06 3605:2024-03-06 3580:: 271–284. 3554:2024-03-06 3520:2024-03-06 3486:2024-03-06 3453:References 3442:Haplomeryx 3423:Castoridae 3419:Cricetidae 3407:Nimravidae 3345:ice sheets 3313:Extinction 3307:Haplomeryx 3299:Amphimeryx 3262:Cynodictis 3233:Saturninia 3205:Varanoidea 3189:Gekkonidae 3185:Lacertidae 3099:Haplomeryx 3000:Paramiacis 2988:Paroxyaena 2976:Necrolemur 2940:Saturninia 2936:nyctithere 2931:Heterohyus 2811:Necrolemur 2703:folivorous 2647:Haplomeryx 2597:astragalus 2534:Montmartre 2476:diastemata 2432:mandible, 2259:premaxilla 2216:mandible, 2186:Haplomeryx 1982:Caenomeryx 1565:Ruminantia 1350:selenodont 1320:Haplomeryx 1311:Haplomeryx 1278:Palaeogene 1270:type genus 1224:X. gracile 1188:A. murinus 1175:Amphimeryx 996:A. commune 972:A. gracile 968:A. gracile 964:A. commune 960:A. gracile 935:assemblage 919:A. gracile 896:X. gracile 869:Bothriodon 864:Hyopotamus 844:X. gracile 781:A. commune 746:A. commune 737:A. commune 717:A. commune 637:A. commune 590:A. commune 445:selenodont 405:A. commune 383:Montmartre 360:Palaeogene 356:type genus 269:Kovalevsky 5850:224860287 5768:254801829 5719:244097729 5629:234099337 5386:140576090 5285:128651937 5242:202026238 5164:258663753 5097:Lophiodon 5017:258361595 4915:248164842 4398:229490410 4347:202026238 4294:221468663 3853:, Cuvier" 3828:: 19–94. 3546:: 10–44. 3379:Gelocidae 3288:Diplobune 3275:Dichobune 3247:, adapid 3197:Scincidae 3181:Iguanidae 3161:Diplobune 3085:Robiacina 3064:Tapirulus 3034:Lophiodon 2979:, adapid 2859:Omomyidae 2798:Holarctic 2615:calcaneum 2499:alveolars 2457:placental 2421:Dentition 2403:flocculus 2379:neocortex 2373:from the 2321:ear canal 2181:polyphyly 1289:Oligocene 1208:X. magnum 1087:X. magnum 1071:premolars 1022:In 1873, 848:antelopes 750:A. medium 741:A. medium 725:ungulates 721:A. medium 713:A. medium 705:A. medium 687:A. medium 659:in 1808. 657:A. medium 632:A. medium 616:ruminants 602:pachyderm 594:A. medium 461:premolars 379:Oligocene 156:Kingdom: 150:Eukaryota 35:Oligocene 5889:Q8044739 5883:Wikidata 5874:Xiphodon 5809:67817430 5523:Archived 5457:25501388 5390:Archived 5329:23916791 5058:54002673 4957:: 1–20. 4826:84066785 4774:26041349 4643:30963938 4619:(1896). 4577:16723392 4482:: 27–47. 4351:Archived 4206:Archived 4182:38109543 4173:10756263 3851:Xiphodon 3642:Archived 3599:Archived 3548:Archived 3514:Archived 3480:Archived 3447:Xiphodon 3438:Dichodon 3434:Xiphodon 3415:Eomyidae 3303:Dichodon 3256:Pterodon 3193:Agamidae 3145:Xiphodon 3137:Xiphodon 3095:Dichodon 2895:Miacidae 2885:, bats, 2879:Gliridae 2855:Adapidae 2819:Xiphodon 2778:Primates 2740:Xiphodon 2735:Xiphodon 2731:Xiphodon 2723:Xiphodon 2715:Dichodon 2711:Xiphodon 2707:Xiphodon 2679:Xiphodon 2651:Xiphodon 2643:Dichodon 2635:Xiphodon 2601:Xiphodon 2593:Xiphodon 2585:Xiphodon 2569:Xiphodon 2565:Xiphodon 2530:Xiphodon 2515:Xiphodon 2508:Xiphodon 2503:Xiphodon 2487:Xiphodon 2449:incisors 2445:Dichodon 2441:Xiphodon 2407:cerebrum 2345:Xiphodon 2337:Xiphodon 2310:Dichodon 2306:Xiphodon 2302:Dichodon 2298:Xiphodon 2283:Dichodon 2279:Dichodon 2275:Xiphodon 2271:nostrils 2248:mandible 2224:Xiphodon 2194:Dichodon 2190:Xiphodon 1487:Tylopoda 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