Youngest Toba eruption - Knowledge (XXG)

725:

exhibits evidence of a major population decline and it has been suggested that the abundant springs of the Jurreru Valley may have offered its inhabitants unique protection. At the Jurreru Valley in southern India, Middle Paleolithic stone tools below the Toba ash layer are dated by OSL to 77±4 kyr, while the age of stone tools above the ash layer is constrained to be no older than 55 kyr. This age gap is suspected to be due to the removal of post-eruption sediments or decimation of the local population until re-occupation at 55 kyr. Additional archaeological evidence from southern and northern India also suggests a lack of evidence for effects of the eruption on local populations, causing the authors of the study to conclude, "many forms of life survived the supereruption, contrary to other research which has suggested significant animal extinctions and genetic bottlenecks". However, some researchers have questioned the techniques utilized to date artifacts to the period subsequent to the Toba supervolcano. The Toba Catastrophe also coincides with the disappearance of the

545:. Maximum global mean cooling is 2.3 °C (4.1 °F) for the lower emission and 4.1 °C (7.4 °F) for the higher emission. Strong decrease in precipitation occurs in high emission. Negative temperature anomalies return to less than 1 °C (1.8 °F) within 3 and 6 years for each emission scenario after the eruption. But so far no model can simulate aerosol microphysical processes with sufficient accuracy, empirical constraints from historical eruptions suggest that aerosol size may substantially reduce magnitude of cooling to less than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) no matter how much sulfur emitted. 477:, whether the eruption played any role in accelerating these events is much more debated. South China Sea marine records of climate, sampled at every centennial interval, shows 1 °C (1.8 °F) cooling above Toba ash layer for a thousand years but the authors concede that it may just be GS20. Arabian Sea marine records confirm that Toba ash occurred after the onset of GS20 but also that GS20 is not colder than GS21 in the records, from which authors conclude that the eruption did not intensify GS20 cooling. Dense sampling of environmental records, at every 6 773: 787: 29: 143: 505:

sulfate loadings that have ever been identified. In the ice core records, GS20 cooling was already underway by the time of sulfate deposition, nonetheless a 110-year period of accelerated cooling followed the sulfate event, and the authors interpret this acceleration as AMOC weakened by the Toba eruption.

504:

No Toba ash has been identified in ice core records, but four sulfate events within the ice strata have been proposed to possibly represent the deposition of aerosols from Toba eruption. One sulfate event at 73.75–74.16 kyr, which has all the characteristics of the Toba eruption, is among the largest

440:

5 to glacial MIS 4, experiencing cooling and glacial expansion. This transition is a part of Pleistocene interglacial-glacial cycle driven by variations in the earth's orbit. Ocean temperature cooled by 0.9 °C (1.6 °F). Sea level fell 60 m (200 ft). Northern Hemisphere ice sheets

577:

found very few variants, and to account for the low frequency of variation human population must have been as low as a few thousand until very recently. More genetic studies confirmed an effective population on the order of 10,000 for much of human history. Subsequent research on the differences in

724:

at the Jurreru Valley in southern India were found above and below a thick layer of ash from the Toba eruption and were very similar across these layers, suggesting that the dust clouds from the eruption did not wipe out this local population. However, another site in India, the Middle Son Valley,

589:

In 1993, science journalist Ann Gibbons posited that population growth was suppressed by the cold climate of the last Pleistocene Ice Age, possibly exacerbated by the Toba super-eruption which at the time was dated to between 73 and 75 kyr near the beginning of glacial period MIS 4. The subsequent

692:

reached a nadir around 50 kyr, though the long-term declining trend already started before 200 kyr. The estimated remaining effective population sizes are around 10,000 individuals, larger than the estimated non-African size during their bottleneck. Unlike the non-African populations, there is no

711:

subspecies. Whole-genome analysis similarly recovers very low African population sizes around 1 million years ago. This 1 million year old bottleneck is thought to have been caused by severe ice age MIS 22 which marked the mid-Pleistocene climate transition with widespread aridity across Africa.

606:

hypothesized that the Toba eruption caused a human population crash to only a few thousand surviving individuals, and the subsequent recovery was suppressed by the global glacial condition of MIS 4 until the climate eventually transitioned to the warmer condition of MIS 3 about 60,000 years ago,

666:

to the complete set of genetic material to infer human population history. In non-African populations, studies recover a long-term steep decline in numbers starting 200 kyr and reaching the lowest point around 40–60 kyr. During this bottleneck non-African populations experienced 5- to 15-fold

676:

related to cold adaptations in non-African populations, of which 31 sweeps occurred during 72–97 kyr. This event of closely timed selections is named Arabian Standstill and may have been caused by the severe cold arid conditions from the onset of MIS 4 and exacerbated by Toba super-eruption.

4586:

Fan, Shaohua; Spence, Jeffrey P.; Feng, Yuanqing; Hansen, Matthew E.B.; Terhorst, Jonathan; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Ranciaro, Alessia; Hirbo, Jibril; Beggs, William; Thomas, Neil; Nyambo, Thomas; Mpoloka, Sununguko Wata; Mokone, Gaonyadiwe George; Njamnshi, Alfred K.; Fokunang, Charles (2023).

2733:

Schaefer, Joerg M.; Putnam, Aaron E.; Denton, George H.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Birkel, Sean; Doughty, Alice M.; Kelley, Sam; Barrell, David J.A.; Finkel, Robert C.; Winckler, Gisela; Anderson, Robert F.; Ninneman, Ulysses S.; Barker, Stephen; Schwartz, Roseanne; Andersen, Bjorn G. (2015).

525:, volcanic winter has a maximum global mean cooling of 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) and returns gradually within the range of natural variability 5 years after the eruption. An initiation of 1,000-year cold period or ice age is not supported by the model. Two other emission scenarios, 4156:

Higham, Tom; Douka, Katerina; Wood, Rachel; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Brock, Fiona; Basell, Laura; Camps, Marta; Arrizabalaga, Alvaro; Baena, Javier; Barroso-Ruíz, Cecillio; Bergman, Christopher; Boitard, Coralie; Boscato, Paolo; Caparrós, Miguel; Conard, Nicholas J. (2014).

493:. The Lake Malawi studies concluded that the environmental effects of the eruption were mild and limited to less than a decade in East Africa, but these studies are questioned due to sediment mixing which would have diminished the cooling signal. Environmental records from a 5078:

Fan, Shaohua; Kelly, Derek E.; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Hansen, Matthew E. B.; Mallick, Swapan; Ranciaro, Alessia; Hirbo, Jibril; Thompson, Simon; Beggs, William; Nyambo, Thomas; Omar, Sabah A.; Meskel, Dawit Wolde; Belay, Gurja; Froment, Alain; Patterson, Nick (2019-04-26).

6662:

ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005) – By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an African origin of modern

3011: 1861:

Kappelman, John; Todd, Lawrence C.; Davis, Christopher A.; Cerling, Thure E.; Feseha, Mulugeta; Getahun, Abebe; Johnsen, Racheal; Kay, Marvin; Kocurek, Gary A.; Nachman, Brett A.; Negash, Agazi; Negash, Tewabe; O'Brien, Kaedan; Pante, Michael; Ren, Minghua (2024).

4644:

Petraglia, Michael; Korisettar, Ravi; Boivin, Nicole; Clarkson, Christopher; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Koshy, Jinu; Lahr, Marta Mirazón; Oppenheimer, Clive; Pyle, David; Roberts, Richard; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Arnold, Lee; White, Kevin (2007-07-06).

4268:

Sutikna, Thomas; Tocheri, Matthew W.; Morwood, Michael J.; Saptomo, E. Wahyu; Jatmiko; Awe, Rokus Due; Wasisto, Sri; Westaway, Kira E.; Aubert, Maxime; Li, Bo; Zhao, Jian-xin; Storey, Michael; Alloway, Brent V.; Morley, Mike W.; Meijer, Hanneke J. M. (2016).

234: 4463:

Mallick, Swapan; Li, Heng; Lipson, Mark; Mathieson, Iain; Gymrek, Melissa; Racimo, Fernando; Zhao, Mengyao; Chennagiri, Niru; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Tandon, Arti; Skoglund, Pontus; Lazaridis, Iosif; Sankararaman, Sriram; Fu, Qiaomei; Rohland, Nadin (2016).

704:

has shown that the effective human population size was less than 26,000 at 1.2 million years ago; possible explanations for the low population size of human ancestors may include repeated population crashes or periodic replacement events from competing

671:

caused by Out-of-Africa dispersal. As a small group with a size of a few thousand people migrated from the African continent into the Near East, the drastic reduction in numbers imprinted on non-African genomic diversity. Genetic analysis identified 56

693:

consensus as to the cause of African bottleneck. Proposed causes include climatic deterioration (from MIS 5, Toba eruption, GS20 and/or MIS 4), reduction in substructure across African populations, and founder effects from the dispersal within Africa.

313:

that flowed over the ground, and approximately 800 km (190 cu mi) that fell as ash mostly to the west. However, as more outcrops become available, the most recent estimate of eruptive volume is 3,800 km (910 cu mi)

729:. Evidence from pollen analysis has suggested prolonged deforestation in South Asia, and some researchers have suggested that the Toba eruption may have forced humans to adopt new adaptive strategies, which may have permitted them to replace 351:

in 3.5 cm (1.4 in), and Central Indian Ocean Basin in 10 cm (3.9 in). Its horizon of ashfall covered an area of more than 38,000,000 km (15,000,000 sq mi) in 1 cm (0.39 in) or more thickness. In

3226:

Crick, Laura; Burke, Andrea; Hutchison, William; Kohno, Mika; Moore, Kathryn A.; Savarino, Joel; Doyle, Emily A.; Mahony, Sue; Kipfstuhl, Sepp; Rae, James W. B.; Steele, Robert C. J.; Sparks, R. Stephen J.; Wolff, Eric W. (2021-10-18).

4212:

Jacobs, Zenobia; Li, Bo; Shunkov, Michael V.; Kozlikin, Maxim B.; Bolikhovskaya, Nataliya S.; Agadjanian, Alexander K.; Uliyanov, Vladimir A.; Vasiliev, Sergei K.; O'Gorman, Kieran; Derevianko, Anatoly P.; Roberts, Richard G. (2019).

6488:

Williams, Martin A.J.; Stanley H. Ambrose; Sander van der Kaars; Carsten Ruehlemann; Umesh Chattopadhyaya; Jagannath Pal; Parth R. Chauhan (30 December 2009). "Environmental impact of the 73 ka Toba super-eruption in South Asia".

3169:

Ambrose, S. H. (2019), "Chapter 6 chronological calibration of Late Pleistocene Modern Human dispersals, climate change and Archaeology with Geochemical Isochrons", in Sahle, Yonatan; Reyes-Centeno, Hugo; Bentz, Christian (eds.),

2280:

Svensson, A.; Bigler, M.; Blunier, T.; Clausen, H. B.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Fischer, H.; Fujita, S.; Goto-Azuma, K.; Johnsen, S. J.; Kawamura, K.; Kipfstuhl, S.; Kohno, M.; Parrenin, F.; Popp, T.; Rasmussen, S. O. (2013-03-19).

2130:

Du, Wenjing; Cheng, Hai; Xu, Yao; Yang, Xunlin; Zhang, Pingzhong; Sha, Lijuan; Li, Hanying; Zhu, Xiaoyan; Zhang, Meiliang; Stríkis, Nicolás M.; Cruz, Francisco W.; Edwards, R. Lawrence; Zhang, Haiwei; Ning, Youfeng (2019).

330:

is over 600 m (2,000 ft). The outflow sheet originally covered an area of 20,000–30,000 km (7,700–11,600 sq mi) with thickness nearly 100 m (330 ft), likely reaching into the

896: 428:. The start of GS20 cooling event corresponds to the start of Antarctic Isotope Maxima 19 (AIM19) warming event. GS20 was associated with iceberg discharges into the North Atlantic, thus it was also named 2413:

Menking, James A.; Shackleton, Sarah A.; Bauska, Thomas K.; Buffen, Aron M.; Brook, Edward J.; Barker, Stephen; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P.; Dyonisius, Michael N.; Petrenko, Vasilii V. (2022-09-16).

5480: 3657:"Had Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT, ca. 75 ka) eruption really destroyed living media explicitly in entire Southeast Asia or just a theoretical debate? An extensive review of its catastrophic event" 1797:; Johnsen, Racheal; Ren, Minghua; Fisher, Erich C.; Oestmo, Simen; Wilkins, Jayne; Harris, Jacob A.; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Fitch, Shelby; Ciravolo, Amber; Keenan, Deborah; Cleghorn, Naomi; 6708: 5518:

Shea, John. (2008). Transitions or Turnovers? Climatically-forced Extinctions of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals in the East Mediterranean Levant. Quaternary Science Reviews 27: 2253-2270.

408:

that started around the time of Toba eruption. The timing of the initiation of GS20 is dated to 74.0–74.2 kyr, and the entire event lasted about 1,500 years. It is the stadial part of

5926:

Luo, Shu-Jin; Zhang, Yue; Johnson, Warren E.; Miao, Lin; Martelli, Paolo; et al. (2014). "Sympatric Asian felid phylogeography reveals a major Indochinese-Sundaic divergence".

5422:

Jones, Sacha. (2012). Local- and Regional-scale Impacts of the ~74 ka Toba Supervolcanic Eruption on Hominin Population and Habitats in India. Quaternary International 258: 100-118.

4546:

A, Bergstrom; SA, McCarthy; R, Hui; MA, Almarri; Q, Ayub; P, Danecek; Y, Chen; S, Felkel; P, Hallast; J, Kamm; H, Blanche; JF, Deleuze; H, Cann; S, Mallick; D, Reich (2020-10-23).

262:

flows. The ignimbrite phase is characterized by low eruption fountain, but co-ignimbrite column developed on top of pyroclastic flows reached a height of 32 km (20 mi).

2867:

De Deckker, Patrick; Arnold, Lee J.; van der Kaars, Sander; Bayon, Germain; Stuut, Jan-Berend W.; Perner, Kerstin; Lopes dos Santos, Raquel; Uemura, Ryu; Demuro, Martina (2019).

2668:

Batchelor, Christine L.; Margold, Martin; Krapp, Mario; Murton, Della K.; Dalton, April S.; Gibbard, Philip L.; Stokes, Chris R.; Murton, Julian B.; Manica, Andrea (2019-08-16).

6519: 2572:

Shackleton, Sarah; Menking, James A.; Brook, Edward; Buizert, Christo; Dyonisius, Michael N.; Petrenko, Vasilii V.; Baggenstos, Daniel; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P. (2021-10-27).

326:

period. Previous volume estimates have ranged from 2,000 km (480 cu mi) to 6,000 km (1,400 cu mi). Inside the caldera, the maximum thickness of

5333: 309:

have estimated that the total amount of material released in the eruption was at least 2,800 km (670 cu mi)—about 2,000 km (480 cu mi) of

654:

and discoveries of archaeological cultures with Toba ash layer add further light to how humans had fared during the eruption and the following GS20 and MIS 4 ice age.

6669:

ScienceDaily (Feb. 16, 2007) – When man made his way out of Africa some 60,000 years ago to populate the world, he was not alone: He was accompanied by the bacterium

667:

reduction, with only 1,000–3,000 remaining individuals at 50 kyr, consistent with the earliest mtDNA studies. This severe non-African contraction is consistent with

4324:

Détroit, Florent; Mijares, Armand Salvador; Corny, Julien; Daver, Guillaume; Zanolli, Clément; Dizon, Eusebio; Robles, Emil; Grün, Rainer; Piper, Philip J. (2019).

6010:

Ninkovich, D.; N.J. Shackleton; A.A. Abdel-Monem; J.D. Obradovich; G. Izett (7 December 1978). "K−Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra".

3333:

Timmreck, Claudia; Graf, Hans-F.; Lorenz, Stephan J.; Niemeier, Ulrike; Zanchettin, Davide; Matei, Daniela; Jungclaus, Johann H.; Crowley, Thomas J. (2010-12-22).

258:

were activated within a few centuries before the eruption. The eruption commenced with small and limited air-fall and was directly followed by the main phase of

6701: 565:. However, some physical evidence disputes the association with the millennium-long cold event and genetic bottleneck, and some consider the theory disproven. 282:, depending on the existence of separate sulfur gas in the Toba magma chamber. The lower end of estimate is due to the low solubility of sulfur in the magma. 73: 2527:"Variations in the Earth's Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages: For 500,000 years, major climatic changes have followed variations in obliquity and precession" 413: 2084: 1143:"Tephra glass chemistry provides storage and discharge details of five magma reservoirs which fed the 75 ka Youngest Toba Tuff eruption, northern Sumatra" 6650:

by Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, Department of Anthropology, University Of Illinois, Urbana, USA; Extract from "Journal of Human Evolution" 34, 623–651

513:

The modeled climate effects of the Toba eruption hinges on the mass of sulfurous gases and aerosol microphysical processes. Modeling on an emission of

5488: 634:, survived the Toba eruption and subsequent MIS 4 ice age, as their latest presence are dated to ca. 40 kyr, and ca. 55 kyr. Other lineages including 3120:"Subdecadal phytolith and charcoal records from Lake Malawi, East Africa imply minimal effects on human evolution from the ~74 ka Toba supereruption" 6919: 6694: 199:-forming eruptions at this location, with the earlier known caldera having formed around 1.2 million years ago. This last eruption had an estimated 127: 6909: 603: 6819: 4379:

Chang, Chun-Hsiang; Kaifu, Yousuke; Takai, Masanaru; Kono, Reiko T.; Grün, Rainer; Matsu'ura, Shuji; Kinsley, Les; Lin, Liang-Kong (2015-01-27).

246:

The exact year of the eruption is unknown, but the pattern of ash deposits suggests that it occurred during the northern summer because only the

3070:"High-resolution paleoecological records from Lake Malawi show no significant cooling associated with the Mount Toba supereruption at ca. 75 ka" 818: 2869:"Marine Isotope Stage 4 in Australasia: A full glacial culminating 65,000 years ago – Global connections and implications for human dispersal" 6000: 5867: 982:"The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, sumatra: An example of the use of deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool" 5387: 5213:

Hu, Wangjie; Hao, Ziqian; Du, Pengyuan; Di Vincenzo, Fabio; Manzi, Giorgio; Cui, Jialong; Fu, Yun-Xin; Pan, Yi-Hsuan; Li, Haipeng (2023).

599: 387:

The subsequent collapse formed a caldera that filled with water, creating Lake Toba. The island in the center of the lake is formed by a

6611: 2085:"Rapid speleothem δ13C change in southwestern North America coincident with Greenland stadial 20 and the Toba (Indonesia) supereruption" 6219: 6165: 3012:"The Toba Volcanic Event and Interstadial/Stadial Climates at the Marine Isotopic Stage 5 to 4 Transition in the Northern Indian Ocean" 473:

While Toba eruption occurred in the backdrop of rapid climate transitions of GS20 and MIS 4 triggered by changes in ocean currents and

250:

could have deposited Toba ashfall in the South China Sea. The eruption lasted perhaps 9 to 14 days. The most recent two high-precision

6899: 6581: 1982:

Baxter, A. J.; Verschuren, D.; Peterse, F.; Miralles, D. G.; Martin-Jones, C. M.; Maitituerdi, A.; Van der Meeren, T.; Van Daele, M.;

212: 4956:

Tobler, Raymond; Souilmi, Yassine; Huber, Christian D.; Bean, Nigel; Turney, Chris S. M.; Grey, Shane T.; Cooper, Alan (2023-05-30).

6550: 6151: 1438: 306: 5405: 228: 5341: 720:

Other research has cast doubt on an association between the Toba Caldera Complex and a genetic bottleneck. For example, ancient

6889: 6766: 6316: 1462:

Lin, Jiamei; Abbott, Peter M.; Sigl, Michael; Steffensen, Jørgen P.; Mulvaney, Robert; Severi, Mirko; Svensson, Anders (2023).

522: 930:"Toba ash layers in the South China Sea: Evidence of contrasting wind directions during eruption ca. 74 ka: Comment and Reply" 6904: 6884: 6807: 6784: 6760: 6717: 5434:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years" 1651:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years" 1037:"Astronomically calibrated 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age for the Toba supereruption and global synchronization of late Quaternary records" 851:"The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years" 824: 432:. Heinrich events tend to be longer, colder and with weaker AMOC in the Atlantic ocean than other DO stadials. From 74 to 58 741:

Some evidence indicates population crashes of other animals after the Toba eruption. The populations of the Eastern African

497:

site in Ethiopia, however, shows that a severe drought occurred concurrently with Toba ash layer which altered early human

6837: 6790: 3457:

McGraw, Zachary; DallaSanta, Kevin; Polvani, Lorenzo M.; Tsigaridis, Kostas; Orbe, Clara; Bauer, Susanne E. (2024-02-15).

1698:"Discovery of the Toba Ash ( c. 70 ka) in a high-resolution core recovering millennial monsoonal variability off Pakistan" 478: 409: 318:(DRE), of which 1,800 km (430 cu mi) was deposited as ash fall and 2,000 km (480 cu mi) as 6859: 3583:"Understanding the overestimated impact of the Toba volcanic super-eruption on global environments and ancient hominins" 2822:"The Last Interglacial–Glacial cycle (MIS 5–2) re-examined based on long proxy records from central and northern Europe" 812: 542: 3294:

Timmreck, Claudia; Graf, Hans-F.; Zanchettin, Davide; Hagemann, Stefan; Kleinen, Thomas; Krüger, Kirstin (2012-05-01).

6630: 6047:

Oppenheimer, Clive (August 2002), "Limited global change due to largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?",

2350:"A new view on abrupt climate changes and the bipolar seesaw based on paleotemperatures from Iberian Margin sediments" 806: 792: 302: 176: 4589:"Whole-genome sequencing reveals a complex African population demographic history and signatures of local adaptation" 3637: 2621:

Cutler, K.B; Edwards, R.L; Taylor, F.W; Cheng, H; Adkins, J; Gallup, C.D; Cutler, P.M; Burr, G.S; Bloom, A.L (2003).

5270:"Hominin population bottleneck coincided with migration from Africa during the Early Pleistocene ice age transition" 6929: 6864: 5612: 1464:"Bipolar ice-core records constrain possible dates and global radiative forcing following the ∼74 ka Toba eruption" 200: 105: 6676: 5727: 2963:"Cooling of the South China Sea by the Toba Eruption and correlation with other climate proxies ~71,000 years ago" 1573:"The Young Toba Tuff (73.9 ka) Magma Body – True Size and the most Extensive and Voluminous Ignimbrite Yet Known?" 6924: 6869: 6825: 6772: 4958:"The role of genetic selection and climatic factors in the dispersal of anatomically modern humans out of Africa" 726: 583: 454: 6648:

Mount Toba: Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans

5677: 3390:

Black, Benjamin A.; Lamarque, Jean-François; Marsh, Daniel R.; Schmidt, Anja; Bardeen, Charles G. (2021-07-20).

6914: 6874: 6132:"Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash" 3523:"Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash" 2060:

Guo, Z., Liu, J., Chu, G., & JFW, N. (2002). Composition and origin of tephra of the Huguangyan Maar Lake.

953: 650:

may have also survived through the eruption. More recently, reconstructions of human demographic history using

6375: 1425:, Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 139, Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, pp. 11–40, 1141:

Pearce, Nicholas J.G.; Westgate, John A.; Gualda, Guilherme A.R.; Gatti, Emma; Muhammad, Ros F. (2019-10-14).

1104:"High-precision 40Ar/39Ar dating of Pleistocene tuffs and temporal anchoring of the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary" 6894: 6737: 5081:"African evolutionary history inferred from whole genome sequence data of 44 indigenous African populations" 1532:

Kutterolf, S.; Schindlbeck-Belo, J.C.; Müller, F.; Pank, K.; Lee, H.-Y.; Wang, K.-L.; Schmitt, A.K. (2023).

1192:"Constraining magma storage conditions of the Toba magmatic system: a plagioclase and amphibole perspective" 651: 5440:. The Toba Volcanic Super-eruption of 74,000 Years Ago: Climate Change, Environments, and Evolving Humans. 251: 800: 3184:

Zielinski, G. A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996-04-15).

1534:"Revisiting the occurrence and distribution of Indian Ocean Tephra: Quaternary marine Toba ash inventory" 6743: 5802: 558: 437: 315: 6644:, including bibliographic information on the two papers he has published on the Toba catastrophe theory 3069: 122:

in 5 cm (2.0 in) of ash, volcanic winter may have caused a severe human population bottleneck

6077:"Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-eruption" 5856:"The Toba Supervolcanic Eruption: Tephra-Fall Deposits in India and Paleoanthropological Implications" 5801:

Huff, Chad. D; Xing, Jinchuan; Rogers, Alan R.; Witherspoon, David; Jorde, Lynn B. (19 January 2010).

5608:"Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans" 5433: 4647:"Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption" 3582: 2231: 1744: 6831: 6534: 6498: 6425: 6392: 6363: 6325: 6282: 6234: 6180: 6091: 6056: 6019: 5988: 5935: 5814: 5771: 5698: 5665: 5621: 5445: 5281: 5226: 5151: 4969: 4840: 4658: 4477: 4392: 4337: 4282: 4226: 4170: 4114: 4044: 3668: 3594: 3470: 3403: 3346: 3307: 3240: 3197: 3131: 3081: 3023: 3010:

Schulz, Hartmut; Emeis, Kay-Christian; Erlenkeuser, Helmut; Rad, Ulrich von; Rolf, Christian (2002).

2974: 2927: 2880: 2833: 2786: 2747: 2681: 2634: 2585: 2491: 2426: 2361: 2294: 2243: 2196: 2144: 2096: 1999: 1936: 1875: 1814: 1756: 1709: 1662: 1615: 1584: 1545: 1475: 1391: 1341: 1253: 1203: 1167: 1048: 993: 941: 862: 442: 151: 6076: 6075:

Petraglia, M.; Korisettar, R.; Boivin, N.; Clarkson, C.; Ditchfield, P.; et al. (6 July 2007).

1697: 6813: 6670: 5432:

Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J. N. (2012-05-01).

4899:

Henn, Brenna M.; Botigué, Laura R.; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Clark, Andrew G.; Gravel, Simon (2015).

595: 340: 119: 5215:"Genomic inference of a severe human bottleneck during the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition" 3555: 1604:"Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia" 33:

Artist's impression of early stages of eruption from about 42 km (26 mi) above northern

6879: 6666: 6659: 6250: 6215: 6196: 6161: 6127: 6115: 6035: 5967: 5528: 5379: 5363: 4098: 4068: 4028: 4002: 3943: 3694: 3618: 3518: 3459:"Severe Global Cooling After Volcanic Super-Eruptions? The Answer Hinges on Unknown Aerosol Size" 3372: 3295: 3276: 3047: 2992: 2735: 2330: 1925:"Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka" 1533: 1379: 1017: 591: 353: 914:

Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia

216: 6518:

Zielinski, G.A.; Mayewski, P.A.; Meeker, L.D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M.S.; Taylor, K. (1996).

6348: 6587: 6577: 6476: 6441: 6298: 6147: 6107: 5996: 5959: 5951: 5914: 5863: 5855: 5842: 5789: 5714: 5637: 5461: 5315: 5297: 5250: 5242: 5175: 5167: 5120: 5102: 5060: 5042: 5003: 4985: 4938: 4920: 4876: 4858: 4806: 4788: 4742: 4724: 4682: 4674: 4626: 4608: 4563: 4521: 4503: 4436: 4418: 4361: 4353: 4306: 4298: 4250: 4242: 4194: 4186: 4138: 4130: 4060: 4010: 3994: 3935: 3897: 3847: 3829: 3810:"Drosophila melanogaster mitochondrial DNA: gene organization and evolutionary considerations" 3790: 3782: 3743: 3735: 3686: 3610: 3486: 3439: 3421: 3268: 3149: 3097: 3039: 2943: 2896: 2849: 2802: 2715: 2697: 2650: 2603: 2554: 2546: 2507: 2460: 2442: 2395: 2377: 2322: 2259: 2212: 2162: 2112: 2043: 2025: 2020: 1964: 1899: 1891: 1838: 1830: 1772: 1725: 1678: 1631: 1493: 1434: 1357: 1310: 1269: 1219: 1172: 1123: 1084: 1066: 1009: 957: 878: 746: 636: 579: 336: 204: 6667:

Out of Africa – Bacteria, As Well: Homo Sapiens And H. Pylori Jointly Spread Across The Globe

6615: 5754:

Hernandez, R.D.; Hubisz, M.J.; Wheeler, D.A.; Smith, D.G.; Ferguson, B.; et al. (2007).

4769:"Robust and scalable inference of population history from hundreds of unphased whole genomes" 680:

African populations experienced a slightly earlier, milder bottleneck and recovered earlier.

590:

explosive human expansion was believed to be the result of the end of the ice age. Geologist

6731: 6542: 6506: 6466: 6433: 6412:

Steiper, M.E. (2006). "Population history, biogeography, and taxonomy of orangutans (Genus:

6400: 6371: 6333: 6290: 6258: 6242: 6204: 6188: 6139: 6099: 6064: 6027: 5943: 5904: 5894: 5877:

Luo, S.-J.; Kim, J.-H.; Johnson, W.E.; Van der Walt, J.; Martenson, J.; et al. (2004).

5832: 5822: 5779: 5706: 5673: 5629: 5453: 5371: 5305: 5289: 5234: 5159: 5110: 5092: 5050: 5034: 4993: 4977: 4928: 4912: 4866: 4848: 4796: 4780: 4732: 4716: 4666: 4616: 4600: 4555: 4511: 4493: 4485: 4426: 4408: 4400: 4345: 4290: 4234: 4178: 4122: 4052: 3966: 3927: 3889: 3865: 3837: 3821: 3774: 3725: 3676: 3602: 3478: 3429: 3411: 3362: 3354: 3315: 3258: 3248: 3205: 3139: 3089: 3031: 2982: 2935: 2888: 2841: 2794: 2755: 2705: 2689: 2642: 2638: 2593: 2538: 2526: 2499: 2450: 2434: 2385: 2369: 2312: 2302: 2251: 2204: 2152: 2104: 2033: 2015: 2007: 1954: 1944: 1883: 1822: 1764: 1717: 1670: 1649:

Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J.N. (2012).

1623: 1553: 1483: 1426: 1419:"Petrological and volcanological constraints on volcanic sulfur emissions to the atmosphere" 1399: 1349: 1300: 1261: 1211: 1162: 1154: 1115: 1074: 1056: 1001: 949: 870: 849:

Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J.N. (2012).

778: 494: 474: 327: 180: 6656:

by The Bradshaw Foundation – includes discussion on Toba eruption, DNA and human migrations

6383:

Self, Stephen; Blake, Stephen (February 2008). "Consequences of Explosive Supereruptions".

3762: 3522: 3229:"New insights into the ~ 74 ka Toba eruption from sulfur isotopes of polar ice cores" 2623:"Rapid sea-level fall and deep-ocean temperature change since the last interglacial period" 2415:"Multiple carbon cycle mechanisms associated with the glaciation of Marine Isotope Stage 4" 132:(Potentially) almost all of humanity, leaving around 3,000–10,000 humans left on the planet 6569: 6270: 5650: 3778: 3367: 2232:"Compiled Southern Ocean sea surface temperatures correlate with Antarctic Isotope Maxima" 1511: 673: 642: 554: 348: 809: – Most recent individual from which all organisms in a group are directly descended 557:

of six to ten years and contributed to a 1,000-year-long cooling episode, resulting in a

6647: 6538: 6502: 6429: 6396: 6367: 6329: 6286: 6238: 6184: 6095: 6060: 6023: 5992: 5939: 5818: 5775: 5702: 5686: 5669: 5625: 5607: 5449: 5310: 5285: 5269: 5230: 5155: 4998: 4973: 4957: 4844: 4662: 4621: 4481: 4396: 4341: 4286: 4230: 4174: 4118: 4048: 3672: 3598: 3535: 3474: 3407: 3350: 3311: 3244: 3201: 3135: 3085: 3027: 2978: 2931: 2884: 2837: 2790: 2751: 2685: 2589: 2495: 2430: 2390: 2365: 2298: 2247: 2200: 2148: 2100: 2038: 2003: 1987: 1940: 1879: 1818: 1760: 1713: 1666: 1619: 1588: 1572: 1549: 1479: 1395: 1345: 1257: 1207: 1052: 997: 945: 866: 356:, microscopic glass shards from this eruption are also discovered on the south coast of 6605: 5837: 5803:"Mobile Elements Reveal Small Population Size in the Ancient Ancestors of Homo Sapiens" 5115: 5080: 5055: 5022: 4933: 4900: 4871: 4828: 4801: 4768: 4737: 4705:"Inferring human population size and separation history from multiple genome sequences" 4704: 4548:"Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes" 4516: 4465: 4431: 4380: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3962: 3931: 3915: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3842: 3434: 3391: 2710: 2669: 2455: 2414: 1983: 1959: 1924: 1920: 1798: 1794: 1745:"New occurrence of Youngest Toba Tuff in abyssal sediments of the Central Indian Basin" 1079: 1036: 913: 750: 668: 482: 450: 446: 429: 417: 405: 388: 56: 6068: 5909: 5878: 5139: 4102: 3392:"Global climate disruption and regional climate shelters after the Toba supereruption" 2646: 1768: 6853: 6635: 6254: 6131: 5401: 5383: 4271:"Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia" 3698: 3622: 3280: 3051: 2996: 2868: 2821: 2479: 2283:"Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores at the Toba eruption (74 ka BP)" 2230:

Anderson, H. J.; Pedro, J. B.; Bostock, H. C.; Chase, Z.; Noble, T. L. (2021-03-01).

2184: 2183:

Menviel, Laurie C.; Skinner, Luke C.; Tarasov, Lev; Tzedakis, Polychronis C. (2020).

1863: 1557: 1403: 1021: 689: 685: 425: 255: 6310:

Robock, A.; Ammann, C.M.; Oman, L.; Shindell, D.; Levis, S.; Stenchikov, G. (2009).

6119: 5971: 5756:"Demographic histories and patterns of linkage disequilibrium in Chinese and Indian 5651:"Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified" 4325: 4214: 3947: 3376: 2892: 2845: 2759: 2503: 2334: 2255: 1488: 1463: 6200: 6039: 4072: 3228: 3068:

Jackson, Lily J.; Stone, Jeffery R.; Cohen, Andrew S.; Yost, Chad L. (2015-09-01).

2622: 2573: 829: 701: 697: 681: 663: 489:

after the deposition of Toba ash, but cooling-forced aridity killed high elevation

357: 332: 173: 6686: 2542: 1721: 1241: 1103: 233: 6510: 6437: 5980: 5899: 5481:"Newly Discovered Archaeological Sites in India Reveals Ancient Life before Toba" 5457: 3825: 3606: 3525:, Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity, Floyd W. McCoy, Grant Heiken 3319: 3144: 3119: 2282: 2157: 2132: 1803:"Humans thrived in South Africa through the Toba eruption about 74,000 years ago" 1696:

Von Rad, Ulrich; Burgath, Klaus-Peter; Pervaz, Muhammad; Schulz, Hartmut (2002).

1674: 1305: 1288: 1265: 1119: 874: 6778: 6641: 5710: 4588: 3809: 3681: 3656: 1191: 730: 625: 490: 458: 377: 369: 344: 4604: 4466:"The Simons Genome Diversity Project: 300 genomes from 142 diverse populations" 2693: 2478:

Doughty, Alice M.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Peltier, Carly; Barker, Stephen (2021).

2438: 2208: 2011: 1887: 1650: 1215: 850: 772: 6681: 6591: 6404: 6166:"Volcanic Winter and Accelerated Glaciation following the Toba Super-eruption" 5649:

Chesner, C.A.; Westgate, J.A.; Rose, W.I.; Drake, R.; Deino, A. (March 1991).

5097: 5023:"Inference of human population history from individual whole-genome sequences" 4349: 4270: 4238: 4158: 4033:"Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption" 3730: 3713: 3458: 2916:"Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption" 2736:"The Southern Glacial Maximum 65,000 years ago and its Unfinished Termination" 1864:"Adaptive foraging behaviours in the Horn of Africa during Toba supereruption" 1802: 768: 742: 721: 574: 421: 373: 323: 319: 310: 259: 208: 6653: 6143: 5955: 5465: 5301: 5246: 5214: 5171: 5106: 5046: 4989: 4924: 4862: 4792: 4728: 4678: 4646: 4612: 4567: 4507: 4422: 4357: 4302: 4246: 4190: 4134: 4064: 3998: 3901: 3833: 3786: 3739: 3690: 3614: 3490: 3482: 3425: 3272: 3101: 3043: 2947: 2900: 2853: 2806: 2701: 2654: 2607: 2550: 2511: 2446: 2381: 2349: 2326: 2263: 2216: 2166: 2133:"Timing and structure of the weak Asian Monsoon event about 73,000 years ago" 2116: 2029: 1895: 1834: 1776: 1729: 1682: 1635: 1497: 1361: 1314: 1273: 1223: 1176: 1127: 1070: 1013: 961: 929: 882: 254:

dated the eruption to 73,880 ± 320 and 73,700 ± 300 years ago. Five distinct

88: 75: 6471: 6454: 6294: 6103: 5827: 5784: 5755: 5293: 5238: 5163: 4981: 4853: 4670: 4126: 3416: 3334: 3253: 2670:"The configuration of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets through the Quaternary" 2598: 2373: 1949: 1061: 631: 412:

20 (DO20), commonly explained by an abrupt reduction in the strength of the

263: 192: 184: 147: 45: 6574:

When Humans Nearly Vanished: The Catastrophic Explosion of the Toba Volcano

6480: 6445: 6246: 6111: 5963: 5918: 5846: 5793: 5718: 5633: 5319: 5254: 5179: 5124: 5064: 5007: 4942: 4880: 4810: 4746: 4686: 4630: 4525: 4440: 4365: 4310: 4254: 4215:"Timing of archaic hominin occupation of Denisova Cave in southern Siberia" 4198: 4032: 3983:"Mismatch Distributions of mtDNA Reveal Recent Human Population Expansions" 3939: 3443: 3153: 3035: 2915: 2719: 2558: 2464: 2399: 2047: 1988:"Reversed Holocene temperature–moisture relationship in the Horn of Africa" 1968: 1903: 1842: 1329: 1088: 761:, all expanded from very small populations around 70,000–55,000 years ago. 553:

The Toba catastrophe theory holds that the eruption caused a severe global

6520:"Potential Atmospheric Impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ~71,000 years ago" 6312:"Did the Toba Volcanic Eruption of ~74k BP Produce Widespread Glaciation?" 6302: 5641: 5375: 4142: 4014: 3851: 3794: 3747: 3186:"Potential atmospheric impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ~71,000 years ago" 2961:

Huang, Chi-Yue; Zhao, Meixun; Wang, Chia-Chun; Wei, Ganjian (2001-10-15).

2307: 786: 457:. Southern Hemisphere glaciation grew to its maximum extent during MIS 4. 28: 6338: 6311: 5140:"Late Pleistocene Demography and the Appearance of Modern Human Behavior" 4827:

Henn, Brenna M.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.; Feldman, Marcus W. (2012-10-30).

3539: 3358: 3185: 2987: 2962: 647: 498: 404:

Greenland stadial 20 (GS20) is a millennium-long cold event in the north

365: 361: 283: 6453:

Thalman, O.; Fisher, A.; Lankester, F.; Pääbo, S.; Vigilant, L. (2007).

5038: 4547: 4498: 4489: 4294: 4182: 4006: 3982: 1826: 602:

supported her theory. In 1998, anthropologist Stanley H. Ambrose of the

6220:"Climate–Volcanism Feedback and the Toba Eruption of ~74,000 Years ago" 5985:

Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society: an Interdisciplinary Approach

4559: 4404: 4159:"The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance" 3263: 2774: 2317: 2083:

Polyak, Victor J.; Asmerom, Yemane; Lachniet, Matthew S. (2017-09-01).

1627: 1005: 754: 486: 462: 247: 196: 188: 66: 34: 6546: 6138:. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America Special Paper 345. 5947: 5509:

National Geographic- Did early humans in India survive a supervolcano?

4413: 3209: 2798: 1142: 142: 6192: 6031: 4056: 3093: 2939: 2108: 1603: 1418: 1353: 1158: 981: 5529:"Supervolcano Eruption In Sumatra Deforested India 73,000 Years ago" 4916: 4784: 4720: 4326:"A new species of Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines" 3335:"Aerosol size confines climate response to volcanic super-eruptions" 2185:"An ice–climate oscillatory framework for Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles" 1430: 1035:

Storey, Michael; Roberts, Richard G.; Saidin, Mokhtar (2012-11-13).

897:"Surprisingly, Humanity Survived the Super-volcano 74,000 Years Ago" 3918:(1995). "Genetic Evidence for a Pleistocene Population Explosion". 3893: 1190:

Lubbers, Jordan; Kent, Adam J. R.; de Silva, Shanaka (2024-01-18).

481:

9 year interval, in Lake Malawi, show no cooling-induced change in

5981:"The GGE Threat: Facing and Coping with Global Geophysical Events" 758: 562: 541:, are investigated using state-of-art simulations provided by the 232: 6416:) based on a population genetic meta-analysis of multiple loci". 1515: 980:

Ninkovich, D.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Ledbetter, M. T. (1978-09-01).

707: 620: 461:, Africa and Europe were characterized by increasingly cold and 381: 6690: 3556:"Toba Supervolcano Not to Blame for Humanity's Near-Extinction" 3296:"Climate response to the Toba super-eruption: Regional changes" 2574:"Evolution of mean ocean temperature in Marine Isotope Stage 4" 821: – "Out of Africa" theory of the early migration of humans 5334:"Mount Toba Eruption – Ancient Humans Unscathed, Study Claims" 5138:

Powell, Adam; Shennan, Stephen; Thomas, Mark G. (2009-06-05).

1380:"A melt inclusion study of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia" 441:

embarked on significant expansion and surpassed the extent of

433: 6455:"The complex history of gorillas: insights from genomic data" 2775:"A climatic context for the out-of-Africa migration: COMMENT" 1986:; Haug, G. H.; Olago, D. O.; Sinninghe Damsté, J. S. (2023). 1417:

Scaillet, Bruno; Luhr, James F.; Carroll, Michael R. (2003),

5860:

The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia

815: – Extinctions of large mammals in the Late Pleistocene 5678:

10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2

2525:

Hays, J. D.; Imbrie, John; Shackleton, N. J. (1976-12-10).

1330:"Dimensions and dynamics of co-ignimbrite eruption columns" 954:

10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<1056:talits>2.0.co;2

6376:

10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2

6271:"Bottleneck in the Human Evolution and the Toba Eruption" 266:

constraints on sulfur emission yielded a wide range from

5742:"Genetics and biogeography of East African chimpanzees ( 4767:

Terhorst, Jonathan; Kamm, John A.; Song, Yun S. (2017).

607:

during which rapid human population expansion occurred.

6269:

Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (24 December 1993).

1743:

Pattan, J. N; Shane, Phil; Banakar, V. K (1999-03-01).

3502: 3500: 803: – Spread of humans from Africa through the world 688:

attained their lowest numbers around 70–80 kyr, while

4103:"Bottleneck in Human Evolution and the Toba Eruption" 286:

records estimate the sulfur emission on the order of

6349:"Dispersal of Ash in the Great Toba Eruption, 75 ka" 3878:"The Genetic Structure of Ancient Human Populations" 2773:

Stewart, John R.; Fenberg, Phillip B. (2018-05-01).

1289:"Petrogenesis of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia" 586:

of 1,000 to 10,000, sometime between 35 and 65 kyr.

16:

Volcanic supereruption 74,000 years ago in Indonesia

6800: 6753: 6724: 1571:Self, S.; Gouramanis, C.; Storey, M. (2019-12-01). 136: 126: 114: 104: 62: 51: 41: 21: 6677:Magma 'Pancakes' May Have Fueled Toba Supervolcano 1602:Chesner, Craig A.; Rose, William I. (1991-06-01). 832: – Line separating Asian and Australian fauna 6491:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6136:Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity 5268:Muttoni, Giovanni; Kent, Dennis V. (2024-03-26). 3536:"Toba super-volcano catastrophe idea 'dismissed'" 2480:"A maximum in global glacier extent during MIS 4" 5983:. In Bobrowsky, Peter T.; Rickman, Hans (eds.). 5879:"Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers ( 3655:Singh, Ajab; Srivastava, Ashok K. (2022-06-01). 3589:. Current Research on Prehistoric Central Asia. 1702:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 1378:Chesner, Craig A.; Luhr, James F. (2010-11-30). 179:that occurred about 74,000 years ago during the 5807:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5579: 5274:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4962:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4901:"Estimating the mutation load in human genomes" 4833:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3396:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2354:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1929:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1041:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 928:Bühring, Christian; Sarnthein, Michael (2000). 343:in a layer of 5 cm (2.0 in) ash, the 195:. It was the last in a series of at least four 5545: 3714:"Population size and protein variation in man" 1538:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 1384:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 339:. The air-fall of this eruption blanketed the 322:, making this eruption the largest during the 6702: 3638:"The so-called Toba bottleneck didn't happen" 8: 5728:"Human Ancestors Were an Endangered Species" 4703:Schiffels, Stephan; Durbin, Richard (2014). 582:sequences dated a rapid growth from a small 203:of 8, making it the largest-known explosive 5858:. In Petraglia, M. D.; Allchin, B. (eds.). 5406:"At last, the death of the Toba bottleneck" 2914:Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (1992). 2348:Davtian, Nina; Bard, Edouard (2023-03-13). 1328:Woods, Andrew W.; Wohletz, Kenneth (1991). 414:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 6709: 6695: 6687: 6660:Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity 6606:Population Bottlenecks and Volcanic Winter 6347:Rose, W.I.; Chesner, C.A. (October 1987). 5193: 975: 973: 971: 141: 27: 6470: 6337: 5908: 5898: 5836: 5826: 5783: 5590: 5309: 5114: 5096: 5054: 4997: 4932: 4870: 4852: 4800: 4736: 4620: 4515: 4497: 4430: 4412: 3841: 3729: 3712:Haigh, John; Smith, John Maynard (1972). 3680: 3433: 3415: 3366: 3262: 3252: 3143: 2986: 2709: 2597: 2454: 2389: 2316: 2306: 2156: 2037: 2019: 1958: 1948: 1487: 1304: 1196:Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 1168:2160/dba3b012-8369-4dbb-8a89-1102f11e92c3 1166: 1078: 1060: 237:Location of Lake Toba shown in red on map 6642:Homepage of Professor Stanley H. Ambrose 5557: 1512:"Supersized eruptions are all the rage!" 5749:(PhD). Harvard University, unpublished. 5568: 5197: 4085: 3763:"Allelic genealogy and human evolution" 3506: 1923:; Chorn, B. T.; Johnson, T. C. (2013). 1102:Channell, J.E.T.; Hodell, D.A. (2017). 841: 604:University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 436:, Earth transitioned from interglacial 6134:. In McCoy, F. W.; Heiken, G. (eds.). 5390:from the original on December 7, 2008. 5208: 5206: 4894: 4892: 4890: 4822: 4820: 4762: 4760: 4758: 4756: 4698: 4696: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4458: 4456: 4454: 4452: 4450: 3165: 3163: 3118:Yost, Chad; et al. (March 2018). 3063: 3061: 2189:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 2178: 2176: 2078: 2076: 2074: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1457: 1455: 1235: 1233: 819:Recent African origin of modern humans 598:and volcanologist Stephen Self of the 416:(AMOC). Weaker AMOC caused warming in 380:, Toba tephras is found in Huguangyan 18: 3779:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a039995 3221: 3219: 3113: 3111: 2275: 2273: 1915: 1913: 1788: 1786: 1527: 1525: 1373: 1371: 923: 921: 7: 6682:Youtube video "Stone Age Apocalypse" 6164:; Self, Stephen (2 September 1992). 4552:Yearbook of Paediatric Endocrinology 4381:"The first archaic Homo from Taiwan" 1423:Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere 737:Genetic bottlenecks in other mammals 469:Possible climate records of eruption 5687:"Pleistocene Population Explosions" 2627:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 733:and "other archaic human species". 5487:. 25 February 2010. Archived from 5362:Sanderson, Katherine (July 2007). 5021:Li, Heng; Durbin, Richard (2011). 3932:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1995.tb02297.x 3661:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 3581:Ge, Yong; Gao, Xing (2020-09-10). 3172:Modern Human Origins and Dispersal 2021:1854/LU-01HF6GN7WZQ65R3C82NK0HC57E 521:of sulfur, which is 100 times the 424:, and this asynchrony is known as 347:in 1 mm (0.039 in), the 14: 6576:. Washington: Smithsonian Books. 307:Michigan Technological University 213:largest known explosive eruptions 5726:Gibbons, Ann (19 January 2010). 1558:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2023.107879 1404:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.06.001 785: 771: 229:List of large volcanic eruptions 6920:Volcanic eruptions in Indonesia 6718:Volcanic eruptions in Indonesia 6459:Molecular Biology and Evolution 6317:Journal of Geophysical Research 5685:Gibbons, Ann (1 October 1993). 3767:Molecular Biology and Evolution 3636:Hawks, John (9 February 2018). 3554:Choi, Charles Q. (2013-04-29). 2893:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.11.017 2846:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.12.012 2760:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.02.009 2504:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106948 2256:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106821 1489:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108162 242:Chronology of the Toba eruption 6910:Events that forced the climate 6612:"Toba Volcano by George Weber" 5987:. Springer. pp. 123–141. 5862:. Springer. pp. 173–200. 5744:Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii 4101:; Self, Stephen (1993-12-24). 4031:; Self, Stephen (1992-09-03). 3368:11858/00-001M-0000-0011-F70C-7 825:Timeline of volcanism on Earth 600:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa 573:In 1972, an analysis of human 1: 6631:"The proper study of mankind" 6069:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8 5364:"Super-eruption: no problem?" 5340:. 6 July 2007. Archived from 2647:10.1016/s0012-821x(02)01107-x 2543:10.1126/science.194.4270.1121 1801:; Matthews, Thalassa (2018). 1769:10.1016/S0025-3227(98)00160-1 1722:10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.195.01.25 1147:Journal of Quaternary Science 6527:Geophysical Research Letters 6511:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.10.009 6438:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.12.005 5900:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442 5606:Ambrose, Stanley H. (1998). 5458:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 3607:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.021 3521:, Stanley H. Ambrose, 2000. 3339:Geophysical Research Letters 3320:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.10.008 3190:Geophysical Research Letters 3145:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.11.005 2967:Geophysical Research Letters 2158:10.1016/j.quageo.2019.05.002 1675:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 1266:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025 1120:10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002 875:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 813:Late Pleistocene extinctions 696:Earlier genetic analysis of 543:Community Earth System Model 5711:10.1126/science.262.5130.27 5580:Hernandez & others 2007 4829:"The great human expansion" 3682:10.1016/j.jaesx.2022.100083 3174:, Kerns Verlag, pp. 171–213 807:Most recent common ancestor 793:Evolutionary biology portal 400:Climate at time of eruption 183:at the site of present-day 6946: 6673:...; illus. migration map. 6497:(3–4). Elsevier: 295–314. 6418:Journal of Human Evolution 6049:Quaternary Science Reviews 5613:Journal of Human Evolution 5546:Williams & others 2009 4605:10.1016/j.cell.2023.01.042 3826:10.1093/genetics/118.4.649 3124:Journal of Human Evolution 2873:Quaternary Science Reviews 2826:Quaternary Science Reviews 2820:Helmens, Karin F. (2014). 2740:Quaternary Science Reviews 2694:10.1038/s41467-019-11601-2 2484:Quaternary Science Reviews 2439:10.1038/s41467-022-33166-3 2236:Quaternary Science Reviews 2209:10.1038/s43017-020-00106-y 2012:10.1038/s41586-023-06272-5 1888:10.1038/s41586-024-07208-3 1577:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts 1468:Quaternary Science Reviews 1306:10.1093/petrology/39.3.397 1242:"The Toba Caldera Complex" 1240:Chesner, Craig A. (2012). 1216:10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7 438:marine isotope stage (MIS) 226: 6900:Ancient natural disasters 6405:10.2113/GSELEMENTS.4.1.41 6130:; Ambrose, S. H. (2000). 5098:10.1186/s13059-019-1679-2 4350:10.1038/s41586-019-1067-9 4239:10.1038/s41586-018-0843-2 3808:Garesse, R (1988-04-01). 3731:10.1017/S0016672300014282 1287:CHESNER, C (1998-03-01). 727:Skhul and Qafzeh hominins 658:Human demographic history 584:effective population size 455:North American Cordillera 140: 26: 6218:; Self, Stephen (1993). 6144:10.1130/0-8137-2345-0.71 5438:Quaternary International 3587:Quaternary International 3483:10.1175/jcli-d-23-0116.1 3300:Quaternary International 2137:Quaternary Geochronology 1655:Quaternary International 1246:Quaternary International 1108:Quaternary Geochronology 855:Quaternary International 662:Recent analysis applies 410:Dansgaard–Oeschger event 6754:19th & 20th century 6295:10.1126/science.8266085 6104:10.1126/science.1141564 5828:10.1073/pnas.0909000107 5785:10.1126/science.1140462 5739:Goldberg, T.L. (1996). 5294:10.1073/pnas.2318903121 5239:10.1126/science.abq7487 5164:10.1126/science.1170165 4982:10.1073/pnas.2213061120 4905:Nature Reviews Genetics 4854:10.1073/pnas.1212380109 4671:10.1126/science.1141564 4127:10.1126/science.8266085 3417:10.1073/pnas.2013046118 3254:10.5194/cp-17-2119-2021 2639:2003E&PSL.206..253C 2599:10.5194/cp-17-2273-2021 2374:10.1073/pnas.2209558120 1950:10.1073/pnas.1301474110 1608:Bulletin of Volcanology 1062:10.1073/pnas.1208178109 986:Bulletin Volcanologique 652:whole-genome sequencing 549:Toba catastrophe theory 298:Effects of the eruption 6890:Pre-Holocene volcanism 6734:(21 million years ago) 6247:10.1006/qres.1993.1081 5979:McGuire, W.J. (2007). 5634:10.1006/jhev.1998.0219 5194:Huff & others 2010 3868:; Sherry, Stephen T.; 3036:10.1006/qres.2001.2291 801:Early human migrations 716:Archaeological studies 238: 170:Youngest Toba eruption 164:(sometimes called the 22:Youngest Toba eruption 6905:Pleistocene volcanism 6885:Prehistoric Indonesia 6472:10.1093/molbev/msl160 5854:Jones, S. C. (2007). 5591:Luo & others 2004 5376:10.1038/news070702-15 4385:Nature Communications 3761:Takahata, N. (1993). 2674:Nature Communications 2419:Nature Communications 2308:10.5194/cp-9-749-2013 523:1991 Pinatubo sulphur 316:dense-rock equivalent 305:and Craig Chesner of 236: 6740:(c. 74,000 years BP) 6339:10.1029/2008JD011652 6055:(14–15): 1593–1609, 3961:Sherry, Stephen T.; 3882:Current Anthropology 3866:Harpending, Henry C. 3359:10.1029/2010GL045464 2988:10.1029/2000GL006113 1293:Journal of Petrology 611:Possible effects on 443:Last Glacial Maximum 46:Toba Caldera Complex 6860:Scientific theories 6671:Helicobacter pylori 6570:Prothero, Donald R. 6539:1996GeoRL..23..837Z 6503:2009PPP...284..295W 6430:2006JHumE..50..509S 6397:2008Eleme...4...41S 6368:1987Geo....15..913R 6330:2009JGRD..11410107R 6287:1993Sci...262.1955R 6239:1993QuRes..40..269R 6227:Quaternary Research 6216:Rampino, Michael R. 6210:on 20 October 2011. 6185:1992Natur.359...50R 6162:Rampino, Michael R. 6096:2007Sci...317..114P 6061:2002QSRv...21.1593O 6024:1978Natur.276..574N 5993:2007caih.book.....B 5940:2014MolEc..23.2072L 5819:2010PNAS..107.2147H 5776:2007Sci...316..240H 5703:1993Sci...262...27G 5670:1991Geo....19..200C 5626:1998JHumE..34..623A 5535:. 24 November 2009. 5450:2012QuInt.258..119P 5286:2024PNAS..12118903M 5280:(13): e2318903121. 5231:2023Sci...381..979H 5156:2009Sci...324.1298P 5150:(5932): 1298–1301. 5039:10.1038/nature10231 4974:2023PNAS..12013061T 4968:(22): e2213061120. 4845:2012PNAS..10917758H 4839:(44): 17758–17764. 4663:2007Sci...317..114P 4490:10.1038/nature18964 4482:2016Natur.538..201M 4397:2015NatCo...6.6037C 4342:2019Natur.568..181D 4295:10.1038/nature17179 4287:2016Natur.532..366S 4231:2019Natur.565..594J 4183:10.1038/nature13621 4175:2014Natur.512..306H 4119:1993Sci...262.1955R 4099:Rampino, Michael R. 4049:1992Natur.359...50R 4029:Rampino, Michael R. 3673:2022JAESX...700083S 3599:2020QuInt.559...24G 3475:2024JCli...37.1449M 3408:2021PNAS..11813046B 3402:(29): e2013046118. 3351:2010GeoRL..3724705T 3312:2012QuInt.258...30T 3245:2021CliPa..17.2119C 3233:Climate of the Past 3202:1996GeoRL..23..837Z 3136:2018JHumE.116...75Y 3130:. Elsevier: 75–94. 3086:2015Geo....43..823J 3028:2002QuRes..57...22S 3016:Quaternary Research 2979:2001GeoRL..28.3915H 2932:1992Natur.359...50R 2885:2019QSRv..204..187D 2838:2014QSRv...86..115H 2791:2018Geo....46E.442S 2752:2015QSRv..114...52S 2686:2019NatCo..10.3713B 2590:2021CliPa..17.2273S 2578:Climate of the Past 2537:(4270): 1121–1132. 2496:2021QSRv..26106948D 2431:2022NatCo..13.5443M 2366:2023PNAS..12009558D 2360:(12): e2209558120. 2299:2013CliPa...9..749S 2287:Climate of the Past 2248:2021QSRv..25506821A 2201:2020NRvEE...1..677M 2149:2019QuGeo..5301003D 2101:2017Geo....45..843P 2062:Quaternary Sciences 2004:2023Natur.620..336B 1941:2013PNAS..110.8025L 1880:2024Natur.628..365K 1827:10.1038/nature25967 1819:2018Natur.555..511S 1761:1999MGeol.155..243P 1714:2002GSLSP.195..445V 1667:2012QuInt.258..119P 1620:1991BVol...53..343C 1589:2019AGUFM.V51H0141S 1550:2023JVGR..44107879K 1480:2023QSRv..31208162L 1396:2010JVGR..197..259C 1346:1991Natur.350..225W 1258:2012QuInt.258....5C 1208:2024CoMP..179...12L 1053:2012PNAS..10918684S 1047:(46): 18684–18688. 998:1978BVol...41..286N 946:2000Geo....28.1056B 867:2012QuInt.258..119P 837:Citations and notes 618:At least two other 596:New York University 499:foraging behaviours 491:afromontane forests 459:Australasian region 430:Heinrich stadial 7a 341:Indian subcontinent 252:argon–argon datings 120:Indian subcontinent 85: / 6654:Journey of Mankind 4599:(5): 923–939.e14. 4560:10.1530/ey.17.14.4 4405:10.1038/ncomms7037 3519:Michael R. Rampino 3463:Journal of Climate 1799:Lane, Christine S. 1793:Smith, Eugene I.; 1628:10.1007/BF00280226 1006:10.1007/BF02597228 700:across the entire 592:Michael R. Rampino 559:genetic bottleneck 354:Sub-Saharan Africa 337:Straits of Malacca 239: 166:Toba supereruption 89:2.6845°N 98.8756°E 6930:Asahan Toba basin 6865:Extinction events 6847: 6846: 6618:on April 22, 2011 6556:on July 18, 2011. 6547:10.1029/96GL00706 6090:(5834): 114–116. 6018:(5688): 574–577. 6002:978-3-540-32709-7 5948:10.1111/mec.12716 5928:Molecular Ecology 5893:(12): 2275–2293. 5869:978-1-4020-5561-4 5770:(5822): 240–243. 5410:john hawks weblog 5370:: news070702–15. 5225:(6661): 979–984. 5033:(7357): 493–496. 4657:(5834): 114–116. 4476:(7624): 201–206. 4336:(7751): 181–186. 4281:(7599): 366–369. 4225:(7741): 594–599. 4169:(7514): 306–309. 3967:Harpending, Henry 3718:Genetics Research 3642:john hawks weblog 3210:10.1029/96GL00706 2973:(20): 3915–3918. 2799:10.1130/g40057c.1 1998:(7973): 336–343. 1935:(20): 8025–8029. 1874:(8007): 365–372. 1813:(7697): 511–515. 1340:(6315): 225–227. 749:, central Indian 747:Bornean orangutan 580:mitochondrial DNA 328:pyroclastic flows 211:, and one of the 205:volcanic eruption 158: 157: 150:is the resulting 6937: 6925:Volcanic winters 6870:Geology theories 6711: 6704: 6697: 6688: 6627: 6625: 6623: 6614:. Archived from 6595: 6557: 6555: 6549:. Archived from 6524: 6514: 6484: 6474: 6449: 6408: 6379: 6353: 6343: 6341: 6306: 6265: 6263: 6257:. Archived from 6224: 6211: 6209: 6203:. Archived from 6193:10.1038/359050a0 6170: 6157: 6123: 6081: 6071: 6043: 6032:10.1038/276574a0 6006: 5975: 5934:(8): 2072–2092. 5922: 5912: 5902: 5873: 5850: 5840: 5830: 5813:(5): 2147–2152. 5797: 5787: 5750: 5735: 5722: 5681: 5655: 5645: 5593: 5588: 5582: 5577: 5571: 5566: 5560: 5555: 5549: 5543: 5537: 5536: 5525: 5519: 5516: 5510: 5507: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5496: 5485:Anthropology.net 5476: 5470: 5469: 5429: 5423: 5420: 5414: 5413: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5349: 5338:Anthropology.net 5330: 5324: 5323: 5313: 5265: 5259: 5258: 5210: 5201: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5135: 5129: 5128: 5118: 5100: 5075: 5069: 5068: 5058: 5018: 5012: 5011: 5001: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4936: 4896: 4885: 4884: 4874: 4856: 4824: 4815: 4814: 4804: 4764: 4751: 4750: 4740: 4700: 4691: 4690: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4624: 4583: 4572: 4571: 4543: 4530: 4529: 4519: 4501: 4460: 4445: 4444: 4434: 4416: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4321: 4315: 4314: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4209: 4203: 4202: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4095: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4076: 4057:10.1038/359050a0 4025: 4019: 4018: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3862: 3856: 3855: 3845: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3758: 3752: 3751: 3733: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3684: 3652: 3646: 3645: 3633: 3627: 3626: 3578: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3566: 3550: 3548: 3547: 3532: 3526: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3495: 3494: 3469:(4): 1449–1464. 3454: 3448: 3447: 3437: 3419: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3370: 3330: 3324: 3323: 3291: 3285: 3284: 3266: 3256: 3239:(5): 2119–2137. 3223: 3214: 3213: 3181: 3175: 3167: 3158: 3157: 3147: 3115: 3106: 3105: 3094:10.1130/G36917.1 3065: 3056: 3055: 3007: 3001: 3000: 2990: 2958: 2952: 2951: 2940:10.1038/359050a0 2911: 2905: 2904: 2864: 2858: 2857: 2817: 2811: 2810: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2713: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2633:(3–4): 253–271. 2618: 2612: 2611: 2601: 2584:(5): 2273–2289. 2569: 2563: 2562: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2475: 2469: 2468: 2458: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2393: 2345: 2339: 2338: 2320: 2310: 2277: 2268: 2267: 2227: 2221: 2220: 2180: 2171: 2170: 2160: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2109:10.1130/G39149.1 2080: 2069: 2058: 2052: 2051: 2041: 2023: 1979: 1973: 1972: 1962: 1952: 1917: 1908: 1907: 1858: 1847: 1846: 1790: 1781: 1780: 1740: 1734: 1733: 1693: 1687: 1686: 1646: 1640: 1639: 1599: 1593: 1592: 1568: 1562: 1561: 1529: 1520: 1519: 1518:. 28 April 2005. 1508: 1502: 1501: 1491: 1459: 1450: 1449: 1448: 1447: 1414: 1408: 1407: 1390:(1–4): 259–278. 1375: 1366: 1365: 1354:10.1038/350225a0 1325: 1319: 1318: 1308: 1284: 1278: 1277: 1237: 1228: 1227: 1187: 1181: 1180: 1170: 1159:10.1002/jqs.3149 1153:(1–2): 256–271. 1138: 1132: 1131: 1099: 1093: 1092: 1082: 1064: 1032: 1026: 1025: 977: 966: 965: 925: 916: 911: 905: 904: 893: 887: 886: 846: 795: 790: 789: 781: 779:Volcanoes portal 776: 775: 674:selective sweeps 540: 538: 532: 530: 520: 518: 509:Climate modeling 495:Middle Stone Age 487:grassy woodlands 395:Climatic effects 293: 291: 281: 279: 273: 271: 181:Late Pleistocene 145: 100: 99: 97: 96: 95: 90: 86: 83: 82: 81: 78: 55:c. 74,000 years 31: 19: 6945: 6944: 6940: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6935: 6934: 6915:VEI-8 eruptions 6875:Human evolution 6850: 6849: 6848: 6843: 6796: 6749: 6720: 6715: 6621: 6619: 6610: 6602: 6584: 6568: 6565: 6563:Further reading 6560: 6553: 6522: 6517: 6487: 6452: 6411: 6382: 6362:(10): 913–917. 6351: 6346: 6324:(D10): D10107. 6309: 6268: 6261: 6222: 6214: 6207: 6179:(6390): 50–52. 6168: 6160: 6154: 6126: 6079: 6074: 6046: 6009: 6003: 5978: 5925: 5881:Panthera tigris 5876: 5870: 5853: 5800: 5753: 5738: 5725: 5697:(5130): 27–28. 5684: 5653: 5648: 5605: 5601: 5596: 5589: 5585: 5578: 5574: 5567: 5563: 5556: 5552: 5544: 5540: 5527: 5526: 5522: 5517: 5513: 5508: 5504: 5494: 5492: 5491:on 22 July 2011 5479: 5477: 5473: 5431: 5430: 5426: 5421: 5417: 5404:(5 July 2007). 5400: 5399: 5395: 5361: 5360: 5356: 5347: 5345: 5332: 5331: 5327: 5267: 5266: 5262: 5212: 5211: 5204: 5191: 5187: 5137: 5136: 5132: 5077: 5076: 5072: 5020: 5019: 5015: 4955: 4954: 4950: 4917:10.1038/nrg3931 4898: 4897: 4888: 4826: 4825: 4818: 4785:10.1038/ng.3748 4773:Nature Genetics 4766: 4765: 4754: 4721:10.1038/ng.3015 4709:Nature Genetics 4702: 4701: 4694: 4643: 4642: 4638: 4585: 4584: 4575: 4545: 4544: 4533: 4462: 4461: 4448: 4378: 4377: 4373: 4323: 4322: 4318: 4267: 4266: 4262: 4211: 4210: 4206: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4084: 4080: 4043:(6390): 50–52. 4027: 4026: 4022: 3979:Stoneking, Mark 3975:Jenkins, Trefor 3971:Soodyall, Himla 3963:Rogers, Alan R. 3960: 3959: 3955: 3916:Rogers, Alan R. 3914: 3913: 3909: 3874:Stoneking, Mark 3870:Rogers, Alan R. 3864: 3863: 3859: 3807: 3806: 3802: 3760: 3759: 3755: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3635: 3634: 3630: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3564: 3562: 3560:Livescience.com 3553: 3545: 3543: 3542:. 30 April 2013 3534: 3533: 3529: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3498: 3456: 3455: 3451: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3332: 3331: 3327: 3293: 3292: 3288: 3225: 3224: 3217: 3183: 3182: 3178: 3168: 3161: 3117: 3116: 3109: 3067: 3066: 3059: 3009: 3008: 3004: 2960: 2959: 2955: 2926:(6390): 50–52. 2913: 2912: 2908: 2866: 2865: 2861: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2772: 2771: 2767: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2667: 2666: 2662: 2620: 2619: 2615: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2524: 2523: 2519: 2477: 2476: 2472: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2347: 2346: 2342: 2279: 2278: 2271: 2229: 2228: 2224: 2195:(12): 677–693. 2182: 2181: 2174: 2129: 2128: 2124: 2082: 2081: 2072: 2059: 2055: 1981: 1980: 1976: 1919: 1918: 1911: 1860: 1859: 1850: 1795:Jacobs, Zenobia 1792: 1791: 1784: 1742: 1741: 1737: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1648: 1647: 1643: 1601: 1600: 1596: 1570: 1569: 1565: 1531: 1530: 1523: 1510: 1509: 1505: 1461: 1460: 1453: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1431:10.1029/139gm02 1416: 1415: 1411: 1377: 1376: 1369: 1327: 1326: 1322: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1239: 1238: 1231: 1189: 1188: 1184: 1140: 1139: 1135: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1034: 1033: 1029: 979: 978: 969: 927: 926: 919: 912: 908: 895: 894: 890: 848: 847: 843: 839: 791: 784: 777: 770: 767: 739: 718: 660: 637:H. floresiensis 627:H. neanderthals 616: 571: 555:volcanic winter 551: 536: 534: 528: 526: 516: 514: 511: 471: 402: 397: 349:South China Sea 300: 289: 287: 277: 275: 269: 267: 244: 231: 225: 217:Earth's history 154: 94:2.6845; 98.8756 93: 91: 87: 84: 79: 76: 74: 72: 71: 70: 37: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6943: 6941: 6933: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6895:Supervolcanoes 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6852: 6851: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6841: 6835: 6829: 6823: 6817: 6811: 6804: 6802: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6794: 6788: 6782: 6776: 6770: 6764: 6757: 6755: 6751: 6750: 6748: 6747: 6741: 6735: 6728: 6726: 6722: 6721: 6716: 6714: 6713: 6706: 6699: 6691: 6685: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6664: 6657: 6651: 6645: 6639: 6628: 6608: 6601: 6600:External links 6598: 6597: 6596: 6583:978-1588346353 6582: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6558: 6533:(8): 837–840. 6515: 6485: 6450: 6424:(5): 509–522. 6409: 6380: 6344: 6307: 6281:(5142): 1955. 6266: 6264:on 2011-10-21. 6233:(3): 269–280. 6212: 6158: 6152: 6128:Rampino, M. R. 6124: 6072: 6044: 6007: 6001: 5976: 5923: 5874: 5868: 5851: 5798: 5751: 5736: 5723: 5682: 5664:(3): 200–203. 5646: 5620:(6): 623–651. 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5594: 5583: 5572: 5561: 5550: 5538: 5520: 5511: 5502: 5471: 5424: 5415: 5393: 5354: 5325: 5260: 5202: 5185: 5130: 5085:Genome Biology 5070: 5013: 4948: 4911:(6): 333–343. 4886: 4816: 4779:(2): 303–309. 4752: 4715:(8): 919–925. 4692: 4636: 4573: 4531: 4446: 4371: 4316: 4260: 4204: 4148: 4113:(5142): 1955. 4090: 4078: 4020: 3993:(5): 761–775. 3953: 3926:(4): 608–615. 3907: 3894:10.1086/204195 3888:(4): 483–496. 3857: 3820:(4): 649–663. 3800: 3753: 3704: 3647: 3628: 3573: 3571: 3570: 3527: 3511: 3496: 3449: 3382: 3325: 3286: 3215: 3196:(8): 837–840. 3176: 3159: 3107: 3080:(9): 823–826. 3057: 3002: 2953: 2906: 2859: 2812: 2765: 2725: 2660: 2613: 2564: 2517: 2470: 2405: 2340: 2293:(2): 749–766. 2269: 2222: 2172: 2122: 2095:(9): 843–846. 2070: 2053: 1974: 1909: 1848: 1782: 1755:(3): 243–248. 1749:Marine Geology 1735: 1708:(1): 445–461. 1688: 1641: 1614:(5): 343–356. 1594: 1563: 1521: 1503: 1451: 1439: 1409: 1367: 1320: 1299:(3): 397–438. 1279: 1229: 1182: 1133: 1094: 1027: 992:(3): 286–298. 967: 917: 906: 888: 840: 838: 835: 834: 833: 827: 822: 816: 810: 804: 797: 796: 782: 766: 763: 738: 735: 717: 714: 669:founder effect 659: 656: 615: 609: 570: 567: 550: 547: 510: 507: 470: 467: 451:Northeast Asia 447:eastern Europe 426:bipolar seesaw 418:Southern Ocean 406:Atlantic ocean 401: 398: 396: 393: 389:resurgent dome 299: 296: 248:summer monsoon 243: 240: 224: 221: 156: 155: 146: 138: 137: 134: 133: 130: 124: 123: 116: 112: 111: 108: 102: 101: 64: 60: 59: 53: 49: 48: 43: 39: 38: 32: 24: 23: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6942: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6855: 6839: 6836: 6833: 6830: 6827: 6826:Anak Krakatoa 6824: 6821: 6818: 6815: 6812: 6809: 6806: 6805: 6803: 6799: 6792: 6789: 6786: 6783: 6780: 6777: 6774: 6771: 6768: 6765: 6762: 6761:Mount Tambora 6759: 6758: 6756: 6752: 6745: 6742: 6739: 6736: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6712: 6707: 6705: 6700: 6698: 6693: 6692: 6689: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6672: 6668: 6665: 6661: 6658: 6655: 6652: 6649: 6646: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6637: 6636:The Economist 6633:– Article in 6632: 6629: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6603: 6599: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6566: 6562: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6521: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6267: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6153:0-8137-2345-0 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6078: 6073: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6008: 6004: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5882: 5875: 5871: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5759: 5752: 5748: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5652: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5603: 5598: 5592: 5587: 5584: 5581: 5576: 5573: 5570: 5565: 5562: 5559: 5558:Goldberg 1996 5554: 5551: 5547: 5542: 5539: 5534: 5530: 5524: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5506: 5503: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5475: 5472: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5425: 5419: 5416: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5397: 5394: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5358: 5355: 5344:on 2008-01-11 5343: 5339: 5335: 5329: 5326: 5321: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5261: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5209: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5189: 5186: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5134: 5131: 5126: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5074: 5071: 5066: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5017: 5014: 5009: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4952: 4949: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4887: 4882: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4823: 4821: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4763: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4697: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4640: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4574: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4375: 4372: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4317: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4264: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4208: 4205: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4152: 4149: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4094: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4079: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4024: 4021: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3987:Human Biology 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3911: 3908: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3861: 3858: 3853: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3804: 3801: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3757: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3651: 3648: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3574: 3561: 3557: 3552: 3551: 3541: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3515: 3512: 3508: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3453: 3450: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3386: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3329: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3290: 3287: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3220: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3151: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3114: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3064: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3006: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2957: 2954: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2910: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2863: 2860: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2816: 2813: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2769: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2729: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2664: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2617: 2614: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2568: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2521: 2518: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2474: 2471: 2466: 2462: 2457: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2344: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2276: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2226: 2223: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2126: 2123: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2071: 2068:(3), 266-272. 2067: 2063: 2057: 2054: 2049: 2045: 2040: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1978: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1849: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1739: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1692: 1689: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1645: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1598: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1583:: V51H–0141. 1582: 1578: 1574: 1567: 1564: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1517: 1513: 1507: 1504: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1442: 1440:0-87590-998-1 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1413: 1410: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1324: 1321: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1283: 1280: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1236: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1186: 1183: 1178: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1137: 1134: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1098: 1095: 1090: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1031: 1028: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 976: 974: 972: 968: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 924: 922: 918: 915: 910: 907: 902: 898: 892: 889: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 845: 842: 836: 831: 828: 826: 823: 820: 817: 814: 811: 808: 805: 802: 799: 798: 794: 788: 783: 780: 774: 769: 764: 762: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 736: 734: 732: 728: 723: 715: 713: 710: 709: 703: 699: 698:Alu sequences 694: 691: 690:Yoruba people 687: 686:Maasai people 683: 678: 675: 670: 665: 657: 655: 653: 649: 645: 644: 643:H. luzonensis 639: 638: 633: 629: 628: 623: 622: 614: 610: 608: 605: 601: 597: 593: 587: 585: 581: 576: 568: 566: 564: 560: 556: 548: 546: 544: 524: 508: 506: 502: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 468: 466: 465:environment. 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 399: 394: 392: 390: 385: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 364:of northwest 363: 359: 355: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 329: 325: 321: 317: 312: 308: 304: 297: 295: 285: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 241: 235: 230: 222: 220: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 175: 174:supervolcanic 171: 167: 163: 162:Toba eruption 153: 149: 144: 139: 135: 131: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 107: 103: 98: 68: 65: 61: 58: 54: 50: 47: 44: 40: 36: 30: 25: 20: 6838:Mount Marapi 6808:Mount Merapi 6801:21st century 6791:Mount Marapi 6634: 6620:. Retrieved 6616:the original 6573: 6551:the original 6530: 6526: 6494: 6490: 6462: 6458: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6391:(1): 41–46. 6388: 6384: 6359: 6355: 6321: 6315: 6278: 6274: 6259:the original 6230: 6226: 6205:the original 6176: 6172: 6135: 6087: 6083: 6052: 6048: 6015: 6011: 5984: 5931: 5927: 5890: 5887:PLOS Biology 5886: 5880: 5859: 5810: 5806: 5767: 5763: 5757: 5747: 5743: 5740: 5731: 5694: 5690: 5661: 5657: 5617: 5611: 5586: 5575: 5569:Steiper 2006 5564: 5553: 5541: 5533:ScienceDaily 5532: 5523: 5514: 5505: 5493:. Retrieved 5489:the original 5484: 5474: 5441: 5437: 5427: 5418: 5409: 5396: 5367: 5357: 5346:. Retrieved 5342:the original 5337: 5328: 5277: 5273: 5263: 5222: 5218: 5198:Gibbons 2010 5188: 5147: 5143: 5133: 5088: 5084: 5073: 5030: 5026: 5016: 4965: 4961: 4951: 4908: 4904: 4836: 4832: 4776: 4772: 4712: 4708: 4654: 4650: 4639: 4596: 4592: 4551: 4499:11336/125570 4473: 4469: 4388: 4384: 4374: 4333: 4329: 4319: 4278: 4274: 4263: 4222: 4218: 4207: 4166: 4162: 4151: 4110: 4106: 4093: 4086:Gibbons 1993 4081: 4040: 4036: 4023: 3990: 3986: 3956: 3923: 3919: 3910: 3885: 3881: 3860: 3817: 3813: 3803: 3770: 3766: 3756: 3724:(1): 73–89. 3721: 3717: 3707: 3664: 3660: 3650: 3641: 3631: 3590: 3586: 3576: 3563:. Retrieved 3559: 3544:. Retrieved 3530: 3514: 3507:Ambrose 1998 3466: 3462: 3452: 3399: 3395: 3385: 3342: 3338: 3328: 3303: 3299: 3289: 3236: 3232: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3171: 3127: 3123: 3077: 3073: 3022:(1): 22–31. 3019: 3015: 3005: 2970: 2966: 2956: 2923: 2919: 2909: 2876: 2872: 2862: 2829: 2825: 2815: 2782: 2778: 2768: 2743: 2739: 2728: 2677: 2673: 2663: 2630: 2626: 2616: 2581: 2577: 2567: 2534: 2530: 2520: 2487: 2483: 2473: 2422: 2418: 2408: 2357: 2353: 2343: 2290: 2286: 2239: 2235: 2225: 2192: 2188: 2140: 2136: 2125: 2092: 2088: 2065: 2061: 2056: 1995: 1991: 1977: 1932: 1928: 1871: 1867: 1810: 1806: 1752: 1748: 1738: 1705: 1701: 1691: 1658: 1654: 1644: 1611: 1607: 1597: 1580: 1576: 1566: 1541: 1537: 1506: 1471: 1467: 1444:, retrieved 1422: 1412: 1387: 1383: 1337: 1333: 1323: 1296: 1292: 1282: 1249: 1245: 1199: 1195: 1185: 1150: 1146: 1136: 1111: 1107: 1097: 1044: 1040: 1030: 989: 985: 940:(11): 1056. 937: 933: 909: 900: 891: 858: 854: 844: 830:Wallace Line 740: 731:Neanderthals 719: 706: 702:human genome 695: 679: 664:Markov model 661: 641: 635: 626: 619: 617: 612: 588: 572: 552: 512: 503: 483:lake ecology 472: 403: 386: 358:South Africa 333:Indian Ocean 301: 264:Petrological 256:magma bodies 245: 169: 165: 161: 159: 118:Covered the 6822:(2017–2019) 6820:Mount Agung 6779:Mount Agung 6725:Before 1800 6465:: 146–158. 5495:28 February 5444:: 119–134. 4391:(1): 6037. 3773:(1): 2–22. 3345:(24): n/a. 3264:10023/24161 2879:: 187–207. 2832:: 115–143. 2785:(5): e442. 2680:(1): 3713. 2425:(1): 5443. 2318:2158/774798 1984:Lane, C. S. 1921:Lane, C. S. 1661:: 119–134. 861:: 119–134. 722:stone tools 575:hemoglobins 378:South China 370:Lake Malawi 345:Arabian Sea 152:crater lake 92: / 69:, Indonesia 6854:Categories 6592:1020313538 5732:ScienceNow 5599:References 5402:John Hawks 5348:2008-04-20 4414:1885/12938 3667:: 100083. 3565:2017-01-08 3546:2017-01-08 2490:: 106948. 2242:: 106821. 2143:: 101003. 1544:: 107879. 1474:: 108162. 1446:2024-04-25 743:chimpanzee 632:Denisovans 624:lineages, 475:insolation 422:Antarctica 374:Lake Chala 324:Quaternary 320:ignimbrite 311:ignimbrite 260:ignimbrite 227:See also: 209:Quaternary 80:98°52′32″E 6880:Lake Toba 6255:129546088 5956:0962-1083 5760:macaques" 5478:See also 5466:1040-6182 5384:177216526 5302:0027-8424 5247:0036-8075 5172:0036-8075 5107:1474-760X 5091:(1): 82. 5047:1476-4687 4990:0027-8424 4925:1471-0064 4863:0027-8424 4793:1546-1718 4729:1546-1718 4679:0036-8075 4613:0092-8674 4568:1662-4009 4508:1476-4687 4423:2041-1723 4358:1476-4687 4303:1476-4687 4247:1476-4687 4191:1476-4687 4135:0036-8075 4065:1476-4687 3999:0018-7143 3920:Evolution 3902:0011-3204 3834:1943-2631 3787:1537-1719 3740:1469-5073 3699:246416256 3691:2590-0560 3623:225418492 3615:1040-6182 3593:: 24–33. 3491:0894-8755 3426:0027-8424 3306:: 30–44. 3281:239203480 3273:1814-9324 3102:0091-7613 3052:129838182 3044:0033-5894 2997:128903263 2948:1476-4687 2901:0277-3791 2854:0277-3791 2807:0091-7613 2746:: 52–60. 2702:2041-1723 2655:0012-821X 2608:1814-9324 2551:0036-8075 2512:0277-3791 2447:2041-1723 2382:0027-8424 2327:1814-9324 2264:0277-3791 2217:2662-138X 2167:1871-1014 2117:0091-7613 2030:1476-4687 1896:1476-4687 1835:1476-4687 1777:0025-3227 1730:0305-8719 1683:1040-6182 1636:1432-0819 1498:0277-3791 1362:1476-4687 1315:1460-2415 1274:1040-6182 1224:0010-7999 1202:(2): 12. 1177:0267-8179 1128:1871-1014 1114:: 56–59. 1071:0027-8424 1022:128626019 1014:1432-0819 962:0091-7613 883:1040-6182 539:10 g 531:10 g 519:10 g 382:Maar Lake 372:, and in 360:, in the 303:Bill Rose 292:10 g 280:10 g 193:Indonesia 185:Lake Toba 148:Lake Toba 77:2°41′04″N 6773:Krakatoa 6572:(2018). 6481:17065595 6446:16472840 6385:Elements 6120:20380351 6112:17615356 5972:40030155 5964:24629132 5919:15583716 5847:20133859 5794:17431170 5719:17742951 5388:Archived 5320:38466876 5311:10990135 5255:37651513 5180:19498164 5125:31023338 5065:21753753 5008:37220274 4999:10235988 4943:25963372 4881:23077256 4811:28024154 4747:24952747 4687:17615356 4631:36868214 4622:10568978 4526:27654912 4441:25625212 4366:30971845 4311:27027286 4255:30700870 4199:25143113 4007:41465014 3981:(1994). 3948:29309837 3940:28565146 3876:(1993). 3814:Genetics 3540:BBC News 3444:34230096 3377:12790660 3154:29477183 2720:31420542 2559:17790893 2465:36114188 2400:36913575 2391:10041096 2335:17741316 2048:37558848 2039:10412447 1969:23630269 1904:38509364 1843:29531318 1252:: 5–18. 1089:23112159 765:See also 648:Penghu 1 453:and the 366:Ethiopia 362:lowlands 335:and the 284:Ice core 223:Eruption 177:eruption 172:) was a 63:Location 6744:Samalas 6732:Semilir 6663:humans. 6622:June 1, 6535:Bibcode 6499:Bibcode 6426:Bibcode 6393:Bibcode 6364:Bibcode 6356:Geology 6326:Bibcode 6303:8266085 6283:Bibcode 6275:Science 6235:Bibcode 6201:4322781 6181:Bibcode 6092:Bibcode 6084:Science 6057:Bibcode 6040:4364788 6020:Bibcode 5989:Bibcode 5936:Bibcode 5838:2836654 5815:Bibcode 5772:Bibcode 5764:Science 5699:Bibcode 5691:Science 5666:Bibcode 5658:Geology 5642:9650103 5622:Bibcode 5446:Bibcode 5282:Bibcode 5227:Bibcode 5219:Science 5196:, p.6; 5152:Bibcode 5144:Science 5116:6485071 5056:3154645 4970:Bibcode 4934:4959039 4872:3497766 4841:Bibcode 4802:5470542 4738:4116295 4659:Bibcode 4651:Science 4517:5161557 4478:Bibcode 4432:4316746 4393:Bibcode 4338:Bibcode 4283:Bibcode 4227:Bibcode 4171:Bibcode 4143:8266085 4115:Bibcode 4107:Science 4073:4322781 4045:Bibcode 4015:8001908 3852:3130291 3843:1203320 3795:8450756 3748:5024715 3669:Bibcode 3595:Bibcode 3471:Bibcode 3435:8307270 3404:Bibcode 3347:Bibcode 3308:Bibcode 3241:Bibcode 3198:Bibcode 3132:Bibcode 3082:Bibcode 3074:Geology 3024:Bibcode 2975:Bibcode 2928:Bibcode 2881:Bibcode 2834:Bibcode 2787:Bibcode 2779:Geology 2748:Bibcode 2711:6697730 2682:Bibcode 2635:Bibcode 2586:Bibcode 2531:Science 2492:Bibcode 2456:9481522 2427:Bibcode 2362:Bibcode 2295:Bibcode 2244:Bibcode 2197:Bibcode 2145:Bibcode 2097:Bibcode 2089:Geology 2000:Bibcode 1960:3657767 1937:Bibcode 1876:Bibcode 1815:Bibcode 1757:Bibcode 1710:Bibcode 1663:Bibcode 1616:Bibcode 1585:Bibcode 1546:Bibcode 1476:Bibcode 1392:Bibcode 1342:Bibcode 1254:Bibcode 1204:Bibcode 1080:3503200 1049:Bibcode 994:Bibcode 942:Bibcode 934:Geology 901:Haaretz 863:Bibcode 755:cheetah 751:macaque 569:History 485:and in 215:in the 207:in the 197:caldera 189:Sumatra 168:or the 67:Sumatra 42:Volcano 35:Sumatra 6840:(2023) 6834:(2021) 6832:Semeru 6828:(2018) 6816:(2014) 6810:(2010) 6793:(1979) 6787:(1979) 6785:Sinila 6781:(1963) 6775:(1883) 6769:(1871) 6763:(1815) 6746:(1257) 6590: 6580: 6479: 6444: 6301: 6253: 6199: 6173:Nature 6150: 6118: 6110: 6038: 6012:Nature 5999: 5970: 5962: 5954: 5917: 5910:534810 5907: 5866: 5845: 5835: 5792: 5758:Rhesus 5717: 5640: 5464: 5382: 5368:Nature 5318: 5308: 5300: 5253: 5245: 5178: 5170: 5123: 5113: 5105: 5063: 5053: 5045: 5027:Nature 5006: 4996: 4988: 4941: 4931: 4923: 4879: 4869: 4861: 4809: 4799: 4791: 4745: 4735: 4727: 4685: 4677: 4629: 4619: 4611: 4566: 4524: 4514: 4506: 4470:Nature 4439: 4429: 4421: 4364: 4356: 4330:Nature 4309: 4301: 4275:Nature 4253: 4245: 4219:Nature 4197: 4189: 4163:Nature 4141: 4133: 4071: 4063: 4037:Nature 4013: 4005: 3997: 3946: 3938: 3900: 3850: 3840: 3832: 3793: 3785: 3746: 3738: 3697: 3689: 3621: 3613: 3489: 3442: 3432: 3424: 3375: 3279: 3271: 3152: 3100: 3050: 3042: 2995: 2946: 2920:Nature 2899: 2852: 2805: 2718: 2708: 2700: 2653: 2606: 2557: 2549: 2510: 2463: 2453: 2445: 2398: 2388: 2380: 2333: 2325: 2262: 2215: 2165: 2115: 2046: 2036: 2028: 1992:Nature 1967: 1957: 1902: 1894: 1868:Nature 1841: 1833: 1807:Nature 1775: 1728: 1681: 1634: 1496: 1437: 1360: 1334:Nature 1313: 1272: 1222: 1175: 1126: 1087: 1077: 1069: 1020: 1012: 960: 881: 646:, and 630:, and 578:human 563:humans 128:Deaths 115:Impact 6814:Kelud 6767:Ruang 6554:(PDF) 6523:(PDF) 6414:Pongo 6352:(PDF) 6262:(PDF) 6251:S2CID 6223:(PDF) 6208:(PDF) 6197:S2CID 6169:(PDF) 6116:S2CID 6080:(PDF) 6036:S2CID 5968:S2CID 5654:(PDF) 5380:S2CID 4069:S2CID 4003:JSTOR 3944:S2CID 3695:S2CID 3619:S2CID 3373:S2CID 3277:S2CID 3048:S2CID 2993:S2CID 2331:S2CID 1018:S2CID 759:tiger 682:Luhya 376:. In 368:, in 6738:Toba 6624:2006 6588:OCLC 6578:ISBN 6477:PMID 6442:PMID 6299:PMID 6148:ISBN 6108:PMID 5997:ISBN 5960:PMID 5952:ISSN 5915:PMID 5864:ISBN 5843:PMID 5790:PMID 5715:PMID 5638:PMID 5497:2010 5462:ISSN 5316:PMID 5298:ISSN 5251:PMID 5243:ISSN 5192:See 5176:PMID 5168:ISSN 5121:PMID 5103:ISSN 5061:PMID 5043:ISSN 5004:PMID 4986:ISSN 4939:PMID 4921:ISSN 4877:PMID 4859:ISSN 4807:PMID 4789:ISSN 4743:PMID 4725:ISSN 4683:PMID 4675:ISSN 4627:PMID 4609:ISSN 4593:Cell 4564:ISSN 4522:PMID 4504:ISSN 4437:PMID 4419:ISSN 4362:PMID 4354:ISSN 4307:PMID 4299:ISSN 4251:PMID 4243:ISSN 4195:PMID 4187:ISSN 4139:PMID 4131:ISSN 4061:ISSN 4011:PMID 3995:ISSN 3936:PMID 3898:ISSN 3848:PMID 3830:ISSN 3791:PMID 3783:ISSN 3744:PMID 3736:ISSN 3687:ISSN 3611:ISSN 3487:ISSN 3440:PMID 3422:ISSN 3269:ISSN 3150:PMID 3098:ISSN 3040:ISSN 2944:ISSN 2897:ISSN 2850:ISSN 2803:ISSN 2716:PMID 2698:ISSN 2651:ISSN 2604:ISSN 2555:PMID 2547:ISSN 2508:ISSN 2461:PMID 2443:ISSN 2396:PMID 2378:ISSN 2323:ISSN 2260:ISSN 2213:ISSN 2163:ISSN 2113:ISSN 2044:PMID 2026:ISSN 1965:PMID 1900:PMID 1892:ISSN 1839:PMID 1831:ISSN 1773:ISSN 1726:ISSN 1679:ISSN 1632:ISSN 1581:2019 1516:USGS 1494:ISSN 1435:ISBN 1358:ISSN 1311:ISSN 1270:ISSN 1220:ISSN 1173:ISSN 1124:ISSN 1085:PMID 1067:ISSN 1010:ISSN 958:ISSN 879:ISSN 757:and 708:Homo 684:and 621:Homo 613:Homo 533:and 463:arid 420:and 160:The 52:Date 6543:doi 6507:doi 6495:284 6467:doi 6434:doi 6401:doi 6372:doi 6334:doi 6322:114 6291:doi 6279:262 6243:doi 6189:doi 6177:359 6140:doi 6100:doi 6088:317 6065:doi 6028:doi 6016:276 5944:doi 5905:PMC 5895:doi 5833:PMC 5823:doi 5811:107 5780:doi 5768:316 5707:doi 5695:262 5674:doi 5630:doi 5454:doi 5442:258 5372:doi 5306:PMC 5290:doi 5278:121 5235:doi 5223:381 5160:doi 5148:324 5111:PMC 5093:doi 5051:PMC 5035:doi 5031:475 4994:PMC 4978:doi 4966:120 4929:PMC 4913:doi 4867:PMC 4849:doi 4837:109 4797:PMC 4781:doi 4733:PMC 4717:doi 4667:doi 4655:317 4617:PMC 4601:doi 4597:186 4556:doi 4512:PMC 4494:hdl 4486:doi 4474:538 4427:PMC 4409:hdl 4401:doi 4346:doi 4334:568 4291:doi 4279:532 4235:doi 4223:565 4179:doi 4167:512 4123:doi 4111:262 4053:doi 4041:359 3928:doi 3890:doi 3838:PMC 3822:doi 3818:118 3775:doi 3726:doi 3677:doi 3603:doi 3591:559 3479:doi 3430:PMC 3412:doi 3400:118 3363:hdl 3355:doi 3316:doi 3304:258 3259:hdl 3249:doi 3206:doi 3140:doi 3128:116 3090:doi 3032:doi 2983:doi 2936:doi 2924:359 2889:doi 2877:204 2842:doi 2795:doi 2756:doi 2744:114 2706:PMC 2690:doi 2643:doi 2631:206 2594:doi 2539:doi 2535:194 2500:doi 2488:261 2451:PMC 2435:doi 2386:PMC 2370:doi 2358:120 2313:hdl 2303:doi 2252:doi 2240:255 2205:doi 2153:doi 2105:doi 2034:PMC 2016:hdl 2008:doi 1996:620 1955:PMC 1945:doi 1933:110 1884:doi 1872:628 1823:doi 1811:555 1765:doi 1753:155 1718:doi 1706:195 1671:doi 1659:258 1624:doi 1554:doi 1542:441 1484:doi 1472:312 1427:doi 1400:doi 1388:197 1350:doi 1338:350 1301:doi 1262:doi 1250:258 1212:doi 1200:179 1163:hdl 1155:doi 1116:doi 1075:PMC 1057:doi 1045:109 1002:doi 950:doi 871:doi 859:258 594:of 561:in 515:8.5 445:in 434:kyr 274:to 201:VEI 187:in 106:VEI 6856:: 6586:. 6541:. 6531:23 6529:. 6525:. 6505:. 6493:. 6475:. 6463:24 6461:. 6457:. 6440:. 6432:. 6422:50 6420:. 6399:. 6387:. 6370:. 6360:15 6358:. 6354:. 6332:. 6320:. 6314:. 6297:. 6289:. 6277:. 6273:. 6249:. 6241:. 6231:40 6229:. 6225:. 6195:. 6187:. 6175:. 6171:. 6146:. 6114:. 6106:. 6098:. 6086:. 6082:. 6063:, 6053:21 6051:, 6034:. 6026:. 6014:. 5995:. 5966:. 5958:. 5950:. 5942:. 5932:23 5930:. 5913:. 5903:. 5889:. 5885:. 5883:)" 5841:. 5831:. 5821:. 5809:. 5805:. 5788:. 5778:. 5766:. 5762:. 5746:)" 5730:. 5713:. 5705:. 5693:. 5689:. 5672:. 5662:19 5660:. 5656:. 5636:. 5628:. 5618:34 5616:. 5610:. 5531:. 5483:. 5460:. 5452:. 5436:. 5408:. 5386:. 5378:. 5366:. 5336:. 5314:. 5304:. 5296:. 5288:. 5276:. 5272:. 5249:. 5241:. 5233:. 5221:. 5217:. 5205:^ 5174:. 5166:. 5158:. 5146:. 5142:. 5119:. 5109:. 5101:. 5089:20 5087:. 5083:. 5059:. 5049:. 5041:. 5029:. 5025:. 5002:. 4992:. 4984:. 4976:. 4964:. 4960:. 4937:. 4927:. 4919:. 4909:16 4907:. 4903:. 4889:^ 4875:. 4865:. 4857:. 4847:. 4835:. 4831:. 4819:^ 4805:. 4795:. 4787:. 4777:49 4775:. 4771:. 4755:^ 4741:. 4731:. 4723:. 4713:46 4711:. 4707:. 4695:^ 4681:. 4673:. 4665:. 4653:. 4649:. 4625:. 4615:. 4607:. 4595:. 4591:. 4576:^ 4562:. 4554:. 4550:. 4534:^ 4520:. 4510:. 4502:. 4492:. 4484:. 4472:. 4468:. 4449:^ 4435:. 4425:. 4417:. 4407:. 4399:. 4387:. 4383:. 4360:. 4352:. 4344:. 4332:. 4328:. 4305:. 4297:. 4289:. 4277:. 4273:. 4249:. 4241:. 4233:. 4221:. 4217:. 4193:. 4185:. 4177:. 4165:. 4161:. 4137:. 4129:. 4121:. 4109:. 4105:. 4067:. 4059:. 4051:. 4039:. 4035:. 4009:. 4001:. 3991:66 3989:. 3985:. 3977:; 3973:; 3969:; 3965:; 3942:. 3934:. 3924:49 3922:. 3896:. 3886:34 3884:. 3880:. 3872:; 3846:. 3836:. 3828:. 3816:. 3812:. 3789:. 3781:. 3771:10 3769:. 3765:. 3742:. 3734:. 3722:19 3720:. 3716:. 3693:. 3685:. 3675:. 3663:. 3659:. 3640:. 3617:. 3609:. 3601:. 3585:. 3558:. 3538:. 3499:^ 3485:. 3477:. 3467:37 3465:. 3461:. 3438:. 3428:. 3420:. 3410:. 3398:. 3394:. 3371:. 3361:. 3353:. 3343:37 3341:. 3337:. 3314:. 3302:. 3298:. 3275:. 3267:. 3257:. 3247:. 3237:17 3235:. 3231:. 3218:^ 3204:. 3194:23 3192:. 3188:. 3162:^ 3148:. 3138:. 3126:. 3122:. 3110:^ 3096:. 3088:. 3078:43 3076:. 3072:. 3060:^ 3046:. 3038:. 3030:. 3020:57 3018:. 3014:. 2991:. 2981:. 2971:28 2969:. 2965:. 2942:. 2934:. 2922:. 2918:. 2895:. 2887:. 2875:. 2871:. 2848:. 2840:. 2830:86 2828:. 2824:. 2801:. 2793:. 2783:46 2781:. 2777:. 2754:. 2742:. 2738:. 2714:. 2704:. 2696:. 2688:. 2678:10 2676:. 2672:. 2649:. 2641:. 2629:. 2625:. 2602:. 2592:. 2582:17 2580:. 2576:. 2553:. 2545:. 2533:. 2529:. 2506:. 2498:. 2486:. 2482:. 2459:. 2449:. 2441:. 2433:. 2423:13 2421:. 2417:. 2394:. 2384:. 2376:. 2368:. 2356:. 2352:. 2329:. 2321:. 2311:. 2301:. 2289:. 2285:. 2272:^ 2258:. 2250:. 2238:. 2234:. 2211:. 2203:. 2191:. 2187:. 2175:^ 2161:. 2151:. 2141:53 2139:. 2135:. 2111:. 2103:. 2093:45 2091:. 2087:. 2073:^ 2066:22 2064:, 2042:. 2032:. 2024:. 2014:. 2006:. 1994:. 1990:. 1963:. 1953:. 1943:. 1931:. 1927:. 1912:^ 1898:. 1890:. 1882:. 1870:. 1866:. 1851:^ 1837:. 1829:. 1821:. 1809:. 1805:. 1785:^ 1771:. 1763:. 1751:. 1747:. 1724:. 1716:. 1704:. 1700:. 1677:. 1669:. 1657:. 1653:. 1630:. 1622:. 1612:53 1610:. 1606:. 1579:. 1575:. 1552:. 1540:. 1536:. 1524:^ 1514:. 1492:. 1482:. 1470:. 1466:. 1454:^ 1433:, 1421:, 1398:. 1386:. 1382:. 1370:^ 1356:. 1348:. 1336:. 1332:. 1309:. 1297:39 1295:. 1291:. 1268:. 1260:. 1248:. 1244:. 1232:^ 1218:. 1210:. 1198:. 1194:. 1171:. 1161:. 1151:35 1149:. 1145:. 1122:. 1112:42 1110:. 1106:. 1083:. 1073:. 1065:. 1055:. 1043:. 1039:. 1016:. 1008:. 1000:. 990:41 988:. 984:. 970:^ 956:. 948:. 938:28 936:. 932:. 920:^ 899:. 877:. 869:. 857:. 853:. 753:, 745:, 640:, 501:. 449:, 391:. 384:. 294:. 272:10 219:. 191:, 57:BP 6710:e 6703:t 6696:v 6626:. 6594:. 6545:: 6537:: 6513:. 6509:: 6501:: 6483:. 6469:: 6448:. 6436:: 6428:: 6407:. 6403:: 6395:: 6389:4 6378:. 6374:: 6366:: 6342:. 6336:: 6328:: 6305:. 6293:: 6285:: 6245:: 6237:: 6191:: 6183:: 6156:. 6142:: 6122:. 6102:: 6094:: 6067:: 6059:: 6042:. 6030:: 6022:: 6005:. 5991:: 5974:. 5946:: 5938:: 5921:. 5897:: 5891:2 5872:. 5849:. 5825:: 5817:: 5796:. 5782:: 5774:: 5734:. 5721:. 5709:: 5701:: 5680:. 5676:: 5668:: 5644:. 5632:: 5624:: 5548:. 5499:. 5468:. 5456:: 5448:: 5412:. 5374:: 5351:. 5322:. 5292:: 5284:: 5257:. 5237:: 5229:: 5200:. 5182:. 5162:: 5154:: 5127:. 5095:: 5067:. 5037:: 5010:. 4980:: 4972:: 4945:. 4915:: 4883:. 4851:: 4843:: 4813:. 4783:: 4749:. 4719:: 4689:. 4669:: 4661:: 4633:. 4603:: 4570:. 4558:: 4528:. 4496:: 4488:: 4480:: 4443:. 4411:: 4403:: 4395:: 4389:6 4368:. 4348:: 4340:: 4313:. 4293:: 4285:: 4257:. 4237:: 4229:: 4201:. 4181:: 4173:: 4145:. 4125:: 4117:: 4088:. 4075:. 4055:: 4047:: 4017:. 3950:. 3930:: 3904:. 3892:: 3854:. 3824:: 3797:. 3777:: 3750:. 3728:: 3701:. 3679:: 3671:: 3665:7 3644:. 3625:. 3605:: 3597:: 3568:. 3549:. 3509:. 3493:. 3481:: 3473:: 3446:. 3414:: 3406:: 3379:. 3365:: 3357:: 3349:: 3322:. 3318:: 3310:: 3283:. 3261:: 3251:: 3243:: 3212:. 3208:: 3200:: 3156:. 3142:: 3134:: 3104:. 3092:: 3084:: 3054:. 3034:: 3026:: 2999:. 2985:: 2977:: 2950:. 2938:: 2930:: 2903:. 2891:: 2883:: 2856:. 2844:: 2836:: 2809:. 2797:: 2789:: 2762:. 2758:: 2750:: 2722:. 2692:: 2684:: 2657:. 2645:: 2637:: 2610:. 2596:: 2588:: 2561:. 2541:: 2514:. 2502:: 2494:: 2467:. 2437:: 2429:: 2402:. 2372:: 2364:: 2337:. 2315:: 2305:: 2297:: 2291:9 2266:. 2254:: 2246:: 2219:. 2207:: 2199:: 2193:1 2169:. 2155:: 2147:: 2119:. 2107:: 2099:: 2050:. 2018:: 2010:: 2002:: 1971:. 1947:: 1939:: 1906:. 1886:: 1878:: 1845:. 1825:: 1817:: 1779:. 1767:: 1759:: 1732:. 1720:: 1712:: 1685:. 1673:: 1665:: 1638:. 1626:: 1618:: 1591:. 1587:: 1560:. 1556:: 1548:: 1500:. 1486:: 1478:: 1429:: 1406:. 1402:: 1394:: 1364:. 1352:: 1344:: 1317:. 1303:: 1276:. 1264:: 1256:: 1226:. 1214:: 1206:: 1179:. 1165:: 1157:: 1130:. 1118:: 1091:. 1059:: 1051:: 1024:. 1004:: 996:: 964:. 952:: 944:: 903:. 885:. 873:: 865:: 537:× 535:1 529:× 527:1 517:× 479:– 290:× 288:1 278:× 276:1 270:× 268:1 110:8

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index