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the change of the "philosophy of universities as a whole, as well as change of academic subjects and reviewing the way universities, students and researchers work." Zenkyōtō believed that modern universities were "factories of education" embedded in imperialist forms of management, with faculty councils as "terminal institutions of power" responsible for their management. They claimed that "university autonomy" was no more than an illusion, and that dismantling such an administration would be an issue. They believed that universities should be dismantled by violence, such as university-wide blockades. According to Zenkyōtō, the ideological question of "self-denial" should be advanced to deny statuses as students or researchers. Students began to use wooden staves against both the riot police and each other, with students taking their nihilism and anger not only onto university power structures, but themselves.
232:, escaping the supervision of the Zengakuren, who often sided with university authorities. Committees were organized by levels (students, staff, researchers, etc.) and by departments (humanities, medicine, literature, etc.). Each committee had a degree of autonomy. Committee members participated in committee debates, and decisions were voted on by a show of hands. Attempts by universities to arrest leaders of Zenkyōtō were fruitless. The National Federation of Zenkyōtō was set up at Hibiya Park in September 1969. However, Yoshitaka Yamamoto, leader of the University of Tokyo Zenkyōtō, who chaired the rally at Hibiya Park, was arrested.
178:, who chaired the organization. The Zenkyōtō consisted of anti-Communist and non-sectarian radicals. In response to student demands, University authorities held a conference at the Ryogoku Auditorium on September 30 to negotiate between students and authorities. The rally was attended by as many as 35,000 students. After 12 hours of negotiations, the authorities accepted the demands of the students, leading to the resignation of all University directors involved. However, following the negotiations, Japanese Prime Minister
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22:
1408:
149:. Although some Zengakuren members eventually reconciled with the JCP, many were turned against it, leading to conflict between Zengakuren and the JCP. Zengakuren itself was broken into multiple factions, who participated in factional infighting within the organization. This increasing conflict between different groups in the left began a cycle of violence that would last into the late-1960s. In 1962, student unrest at
287:, to the point where he eventually retired in 1971. The slogans of "disassembly of the university" and "self-denial" emerged in the student movement of the University of Tokyo. The conflict at the university transcended the boundaries of university issues and became a form of "conflict between students and state power". This was no longer a struggle that could be ended by a compromise at each university.
30:
182:
declared that "establishing relations with popular gangs deviate from common sense", and the authorities withdrew their promises to the students. Students with associations to sports began to riot in
Ryogoku Auditorium, and riot police was brought in. After the situation calmed down, Nihon University
219:
which restricted employment opportunities and a judgement on a militant student made by the board led to mass protests in the
University of Tokyo. A Zenkyōtō sprung up at the conflict in the university, and Zenkyōtō students occupied and fought in Yasuda Auditorium, which they had occupied in July,
243:
Zenkyōtō initially only dealt with issues specific to each university (tuition fees, etc.) beyond the jurisdiction of university student councils. Later, after experiencing hard responses from university authorities as well as government intervention with riot police, Zenkyōtō changed to deal with
128:
Zenkyōtō led a delegation of seven undergraduates to pressure
University authorities to accept their demands during the period of conflict at the University of Tokyo. With the moving of the Ministry of Education after entrance examinations were cancelled, riot police were introduced to suppress a
295:
self-affirmation. To discover it is self-negation. Self-negation is not intended to be the aim – Rather, it emerges as a result of self-affirmation." This "self-negation" was a form of "negation of the university which produces men to serve capital as if in a factory, and also negation of the
69:. Unlike other student movement organizations, graduate students and young teachers were allowed to participate. Active in the late 1960s, Zenkyōtō was the driving force behind clashes between Japanese students and the police. Zenkyōtō groups were driven by alienation and a reaction to "
125:). Some say that the University of Tokyo faction was more of a mass movement than an organized movement in which concrete ideas and policies were set forth. Zenkyōtō policies could be more diverse depending on different universities and individuals.
252:
Zenkyōtō began to lose its momentum and the support of the students as university struggles were stuck in stalemates, with seemingly impossible demands, all the while universities were really in danger of being dissolved. Oda Makoto of the
191:, with 10 buildings surrounded by vacant fields and barbed wire. Staff were stationed at the entrance of the premises, and students were required to show student IDs. This complex was popularly called "Nihon Auschwitz", in reference to
157:, the Waseda Zenkyōtō turned eventually from the problem of the student hall to that of a planned rise in tuition fees. The Zenkyōtō students took action, leading to fighting within the university that subsided in June 1966.
526:
Kersten, Rikki. “The
Intellectual Culture of Postwar Japan and the 1968–1969 University of Tokyo Struggles: Repositioning the Self in Postwar Thought.” Social Science Japan Journal, vol. 12, no. 2, 2009, pp. 227–245. JSTOR,
271:) – they saw themselves as diametrically opposed to the university system, and would only stop if the universities were destroyed. Zenkyōtō further deemed everyone complicit in the university system as "victimizers" (
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110:
are the most well-known. The media reported that
University of Tokyo Zenkyōtō members tried to "dismantle colleges". In their protests, University of Tokyo Zenkyōtō members battled police with
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267:
The Zenkyōtō students were extremely nihilistic and rejected hierarchy, seeing the university system as being based primarily on oppression. Their motto was "smash the university" (
102:
Since individual Zenkyōtō groups were formed independently at each university, their timing, purpose, organization and policies were unique. Among Zenkyōtō groups at universities,
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1030:
956:
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over the building of a new student hall led to the founding of the Waseda Zenkyōtō, a precursor group to other Zenkyōtō. Chaired by
Akihiko Oguchi, a member of the
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as a reaction to the secrecy of university authorities on the expenditure of 3400 million yen. On May 27, the Nihon
University Zenkyōtō was formed by
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259:(Citizen's Alliance for Peace in Vietnam) group claimed that he would start his own movement if Zenkyōtō could not destroy the University of Tokyo.
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With different action committees nationwide participating in solidarity with the Nihon Zenkyōtō, the committees were federated into a nationwide
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From 1968 to 1969, Zenkyōtō expanded alongside conflicts in the
University of Tokyo, "spreading like a wildfire" to universities nationwide.
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1025:
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that he was referred to as a "prophet". During the 1968–69 protests, the Zenkyōtō students harassed
Yoshimoto's ideological enemy,
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In
January 1968, a dispute over the status of graduate students in the University of Tokyo Faculty of Medicine over the new
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mass Zenkyōtō protest. Athletic groups and people of different ethnicities participated in combat at Nihon University.
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against riot police. In January 1969, 8500 riot police were called to Yasuda Auditorium to break up the protest.
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in Japanese), and were focused more on more practical and local problems. Much of the movement centered around
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145:(JCP). In 1960, the students of Zengakuren broke with the JCP over methodological differences during the
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leftist and non-sectarian radicals. The Zenkyōtō were formed to organize students during the
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389:
Dissenting Japan: A History of Japanese Radicalism and Counterculture from 1945 to Fukushima
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existence of students whose only future was to be cogs in the power machine thus created."
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542:"Japan's 1968: A Collective Reaction to Rapid Economic Growth in an Age of Turmoil"
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Japan Revolutionary Communist League, National Committee (Central Core Faction)
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61:), were Japanese student organizations consisting of anti-government, anti-
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88:
496:(Nippon Personal Network) Living in Rebellion: 2 I thought I won, Fengun
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In May 1968, a demonstration was held in Nihon University, dubbed the
81:". However, many members of the movement were non-political (known as
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1516:
1079:
1036:
Japan Revolutionary Communist League (Revolutionary Marxist Faction)
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29:
1240:
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Bombing of the Fusetsu no Gunzo and Institute of Northern Cultures
202:
28:
20:
579:
Extreme Private History of the Zenkyōtō: Chuo University 1965–68
1244:
749:
418:"Some Comments on the Japanese Student Movement in the Sixties"
291:, a student involved in the conflict, said that "Self-negation
724:
Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo
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Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
1128:
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
690:"Student Radicalism in Japan: A "Cultural Revolution"?"
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141:was founded as a student organization close to the
16:Japanese student organizations active in the 1960s
275:). The Zenkyōtō found their ideological basis in
183:resumed classes in a temporary school complex in
990:Beheiren (Citizen's League for Peace in Vietnam)
957:Japan Socialist Youth League, Liberation Faction
667:Dowsey, Stuart J.; Ikeda, Kazuo (October 2012).
114:and wooden staves nicknamed "violence sticks" (
99:, which served as inspirations for revolution.
581:] (in Japanese). Sairyuusha . p. 23.
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1572:Third World Liberation Front strikes of 1968
1423:1968 Democratic National Convention protests
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1532:Occupation of the Student Union Building
846:1974 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries bombing
851:1974 French Embassy attack in The Hague
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25:A Japanese student protest in June 1968
1685:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
1368:Northern Ireland civil rights movement
801:1968–1969 Japanese university protests
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546:The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
7:
1487:Columbia University protests of 1968
1477:Ceaușescu's speech of 21 August 1968
1286:1968–69 Japanese university protests
1026:Japan Revolutionary Communist League
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67:1968–69 Japanese university protests
39:All-Campus Joint Struggle Committees
386:William Andrews (August 15, 2016).
224:Creation of the National Federation
357:10.1111/j.1477-7053.1970.tb00513.x
14:
1512:March of the One Hundred Thousand
1736:Socialist organizations in Japan
1406:
952:East Asia Anti-Japan Armed Front
856:1975 AIA building hostage crisis
1670:Segregation in Northern Ireland
688:Fuse, Toyomasa (October 1969).
498:. Interview with Akita Akehiro.
422:Journal of Contemporary History
1746:Student organizations in Japan
826:Bombing of the Soji-ji Ossuary
527:www.jstor.org/stable/40649684.
279:– he was so popular among the
1:
1457:1968 Red Square demonstration
571:Kōzu, Akira (December 2007).
509:Record of the Nihon Struggle
1756:1968 establishments in Japan
1437:1968 Polish political crisis
1393:West German student movement
1318:Black Consciousness Movement
694:Comparative Education Review
673:. Ishi Press International.
193:Auschwitz concentration camp
1721:Counterculture of the 1960s
1643:Racism in the United States
1608:Counterculture of the 1960s
1429:The whole world is watching
1398:Women's liberation movement
494:Asahi Shimbun, 2009.06.22.
339:Tsuzuki, Chushichi (1970).
83:
1797:
1190:Children of the Revolution
1100:Women's liberation (Japan)
511:A record of Nihon Zenkyoto
434:10.1177/002200947000500107
1761:Student protests in Japan
1522:Memphis sanitation strike
1404:
1303:1968 movement in Pakistan
861:Japan Airlines Flight 472
841:Japan Airlines Flight 404
816:Japan Airlines Flight 351
345:Government and Opposition
58:
49:), commonly known as the
1502:King assassination riots
1462:1968 uprising in Senegal
1358:Mexican Movement of 1968
1021:Communist League (Japan)
729:Harvard University Press
416:Tsurumi, Kazuko (1970).
63:Japanese Communist Party
1141:Representation in media
811:Folk guerrilla concerts
483:Dowsey & Ikeda 2012
172:200 Meter Demonstration
1628:Antisemitism in Poland
1537:Poor People's Campaign
1472:Battle of Valle Giulia
1442:1968 protests in Egypt
1328:Black Power Revolution
1298:1968 movement in Italy
1158:Night and Fog in Japan
1065:Ainu Revolution Theory
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34:
26:
1658:Years of Lead (Italy)
1313:Anti-nuclear movement
1308:Civil Rights Movement
1166:Ecstasy of the Angels
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143:Japan Communist Party
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24:
1653:Second-wave feminism
1593:1968 Summer Olympics
1527:Miss America protest
1363:Movement of 22 March
1323:Black power movement
831:Lod Airport massacre
821:Asama-Sansō incident
721:Kapur, Nick (2018).
341:"Anarchism in Japan"
217:Medical Doctors' Law
71:American imperialism
1577:Tlatelolco massacre
1492:Delano grape strike
1482:Central Park be-ins
1338:Cultural Revolution
1123:Anti-Stalinist left
574:極私的全共闘史: 中大 1965–68
199:University of Tokyo
108:University of Tokyo
75:Monopoly Capitalism
47:Zengaku kyōtō kaigi
1731:Anarchism in Japan
1517:May 1968 in France
1497:East L.A. walkouts
1378:Red Power movement
1218:Hear the Wind Sing
796:Sanrizuka Struggle
473:, pp. 326–29.
311:Anarchism in Japan
213:
209:Tsukuba University
35:
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1776:1960s in politics
1771:Politics of Japan
1766:Protests in Japan
1741:New Left in Japan
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1383:Sexual revolution
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967:Japanese Red Army
927:Takaaki Yoshimoto
777:New Left in Japan
727:. Cambridge, MA:
680:978-4-87187-050-4
617:. Nanpusha, 1996.
613:Manabu Miyazaki.
588:978-4-7791-1311-6
399:978-1-84904-919-1
306:Japanese Red Army
277:Takaaki Yoshimoto
155:Shaseido Kaiho-ha
151:Waseda University
33:A Zenkyōtō helmet
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706:10.1086/445430
700:(3): 325–342.
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269:daigaku funsai
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97:existentialism
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1680:Vietnam War
1603:Black power
1057:Ideological
998:(post–1958)
887:Tsuneo Mori
870:Key figures
538:Oguma, Eiji
185:Shiraitodai
180:Eisaku Sato
119: [
116:gebaruto bō
1700:Categories
1633:Hot Autumn
1202:Literature
1095:Trotskyism
1049:Influences
1013:Trotskyist
995:Zengakuren
897:Makoto Oda
651:Kapur 2018
639:Kapur 2018
627:Kapur 2018
317:References
207:A sign at
139:Zengakuren
45:: 全学共闘会議;
1618:Free love
1279:Movements
714:145243868
615:Toppamono
471:Fuse 1969
458:154567251
442:0022-0094
392:. Hurst.
365:0017-257X
79:Stalinism
1638:New Left
1291:Zenkyōtō
1085:Pacifism
1003:Zenkyōtō
594:July 19,
556:July 19,
540:(2015).
373:44484495
300:See also
281:New Left
273:kagaisha
263:Ideology
256:Beheiren
230:Zenkyōtō
106:and the
93:humanism
89:nihilism
55:Japanese
51:Zenkyōtō
43:Japanese
1663:Morocco
1586:Related
902:Ryū Ōta
552:(12): 3
133:Origins
84:nonpori
1623:Hippie
1416:Events
1193:(2010)
1185:(2007)
1177:(2004)
1169:(1972)
1161:(1960)
1080:Maoism
936:Groups
784:Events
735:
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677:
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456:
450:259983
448:
440:
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371:
363:
236:Spread
710:S2CID
577:[
454:S2CID
446:JSTOR
369:JSTOR
189:Fuchū
123:]
1149:Film
733:ISBN
675:ISBN
596:2021
583:ISBN
558:2021
438:ISSN
394:ISBN
361:ISSN
248:Fall
95:and
37:The
702:doi
430:doi
353:doi
59:全共闘
1702::
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