1232:, with the provisional administration of Beijing and departed the city on 4 August. However, due to a storm, he arrived at Xuanfu seven days later. The emperor was accompanied by 20 experienced generals, most of whom held noble titles, and an equal number of high-ranking officials. They were also accompanied by hundreds of lower-ranking dignitaries. While the number of mobilized soldiers is unknown, it is often estimated to be around half a million. However, this number is likely an exaggeration from a single contemporary source, as the actual number was likely much lower. Even under optimal conditions, it would have been difficult to supply such a large army. However, the troops were hastily assembled, poorly prepared, and incompetently led. Despite pleas from many members of his entourage to turn back, Wang Zhen advised the emperor to continue on. The army reached Datong on 18 August, with more soldiers dying from starvation during the journey than from skirmishes with Mongol troops. Two days later, Yingzong finally issued the order to return. Upon reaching Xuanfu on 30 August, the emperor learned that the rearguard had been defeated by the Mongols and that the auxiliary detachment of 40,000 men had been completely destroyed. The next evening, the army camped at the
768:
1194:
private buildings. At this time, the Great Wall had not yet been built, and the border was only guarded by patrol battalions. These battalions were expected to hold off the enemy until the main forces arrived, according to the plans. The main forces were located in three fortified cities—Xuanfu, Datong, and
Beijing—each housing several tens of thousands of soldiers. The largest force, consisting of 160,000 men, was stationed in Beijing. The reserves were scattered throughout northeastern China, in North Zhili, Shandong, and Henan. However, since Xuanfu was less than 200 km from Beijing, the defense system lacked depth and relied on a quick and decisive response to any potential attack.
1125:), opposed the exploitation of tenants. The tenants themselves demanded that landlords cancel payments beyond the scope of their leases. In March 1448, the Deng brothers rebelled and began to conquer one county after another. The government attempted to calm the situation by forgiving unpaid taxes and granting a three-year exemption from compulsory labor for the population in the region. However, the more radical faction of the rebels, numbering several hundred thousand men, refused to back down. The local militia was unable to handle the situation, prompting the government to send an army of 50,000 to the southeast in September 1448.
1240:
dukes, two marquises, five counts, several generals, and hundreds of officials. The emperor was captured and on 3 September was sent to Esen's main camp near Xuanfu. After reclaiming the area, the Ming troops recovered tens of thousands of firearms, armor, and other equipment. Despite their initial success, the
Mongols failed in their attempts to occupy Xuanfu and Datong by using the captured Emperor Yingzong. They were also unsuccessful in their pursuit of Beijing and eventually retreated back to the steppe in November 1449. The Ming government restored the border but did not take any further offensive action.
1401:
691:, was one of the emperor's concubines. On 20 February 1428, he was created crown prince, and in March of the same year, Xuande promoted Lady Sun to empress. The father was overjoyed by his son's birth and showed him love and affection. He also ensured that Zhu Qizhen received proper military training. In 1433, the Ministry of War assembled a detachment of 7,112 physically fit 11–12-year-old youths, as ordered by the emperor, and the prince was appointed as their commander. He also began his education in reading and writing, with his first teacher likely being the eunuch and former pedagogue,
752:, just like Lady Zhang, and was significantly younger than the other members of the Imperial Council, being in his thirties. It quickly became evident that the emperor placed complete trust in him, leading to an increase in his power and the secretaries having to take his opinions into account. Lady Zhang, however, viewed Wang Zhen's influence on the emperor as dangerous and attempted to restrict him, even going so far as to order him to commit suicide in 1437. Despite this, the emperor, with the support of some officials, managed to prevent the order from being carried out.
1392:
796:) of the young emperor, later also appointed as Minister of War. Wang Zhen also had control over the Imperial Guard, which he did not hesitate to use against his opponents, and he also had influence among the ministers. With these advantages, Wang Zhen easily gained the upper hand in politics. While he had held back during Lady Zhang's lifetime, after her death, he began to push the Grand Secretaries, who were now in their seventies, out of active politics. Yang Shiqi died in 1444, and two years later, Yang Pu also died. After their deaths, only Cao Nai (
729:, enshrined a system of government in which a strong and decisive monarch was expected to make decisions independently, with the advice of ministers. This system did not account for the scenario of a child ruler, leaving no provisions or precedents for how to handle the situation. At court, the most respected and highest-ranking individual was the Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who effectively, though not formally, became the regent. Empress Dowager Sun was also occasionally consulted, but she held a lower status than her mother-in-law.
745:, were in charge of the Directorate of Ceremonial, the most powerful office in the Imperial Palace. They had all held their positions under the previous emperor. The empress dowager acted as a mediator between the grand secretaries and the head eunuchs. The emperor's exclusion from decision-making was considered illegal, but it allowed for the successful rule of experienced statesmen, particularly the Three Yangs. This period of political stability was later seen as a golden age by future generations.
1281:
followers of Wang Zhen, whom they believed were responsible for the disaster. When Zhu Qiyu refused, the officials became angry and killed two of Wang's allies. At the insistence of Yu Qian, Zhu Qiyu eventually agreed to confiscate Wang Zhen's fortune and execute his relatives. Yu Qian was then appointed as
Minister of War and successfully stabilized the situation by organizing the defense of Beijing with a new army. On 17 September, Zhu Qiyu ascended the throne as the
1301:
to the
Southern Palace in the southeast of the Forbidden City, where he spent the next six and a half years as a virtual prisoner. His wives also lived with him there, and during this time, he fathered three sons (fifth to seventh). However, the living conditions were poor and the supply of resources was limited. Despite this, officials still requested permission to congratulate Yingzong on his birthday every year, but the government consistently refused.
823:), who manage the "three provincial offices" (civil, military, and surveillance), has taken a definitive form in the provinces. They operate in all provinces except Fujian and in six of the nine border garrisons on the northern border. The immediate consequence of the introduction of grand coordinators was the transfer of command over the troops in the provinces to civilian hands, likely due to the decline in the quality of hereditary officers.
1362:
was the death of the head of
Imperial Guard who was investigating Cao's illegal business dealings with the Mongols. The rebel troops, led by Cao, set fire to both the west and east gates of the imperial city, but the flames were quickly extinguished by rain once the fighting began. They also killed several ministers before eventually surrendering to government troops. After the rebellion was defeated, Cao Qin committed suicide.
1321:). The initial invasion of the Southern Palace was carried out by 400 men, primarily consisting of Mongols. Later, an additional 2,800 men joined, with half of them escorting the emperor and the other half occupying strategic locations in Beijing. The conspirators had contacted Yingzong two days prior to the coup, although there is another version that suggests it was a surprise for him. This event became known as the
57:
716:, the official history of the Ming dynasty completed in 1739, portrayed Empress Dowager Zhang as a supporter of Zhu Qizhen's rights. According to their version, she summoned all three Grand Secretaries—Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu—to her and emphasized that her grandson Zhu Qizhen was now emperor. Thereupon, the Grand Secretaries expressed their allegiance to the young prince, followed by the entire court.
1001:
emperor's approval, which was published in the official gazette, such exceptions could be seen by other authorities as a precedent for establishing a new procedure and could be further expanded based on analogy. In this case, a request for permission to use copper coins as currency in one prefecture led to the legalization of not only copper coins, but also silver, throughout the country.
664:. He also restricted Yingzong's contact with the outside world. Essentially, Yingzong was placed under house arrest. In early 1457, the Jingtai Emperor fell ill and, since his only son had died in 1453, there was no heir to the throne. Taking advantage of this opportunity, Yingzong organized a palace coup and regained power in February 1457. The era name of his second reign, "
1370:
from 1449 to 1457, many southerners were able to advance in their careers. However, after the restoration, the influence of southerners decreased. In fact, the
Jingtai Emperor relied heavily on the advice of Li Xian, a prominent Grand Secretary from Henan who was known for his support of the northern party and tendency to favor northerners in appointments.
895:, accompanied by sporadic floods and droughts that resulted in crop failures, leading to famines and epidemics. China was also struck by a series of natural disasters in the late 1430s and 1440s, with floods, droughts, epidemics, and famines occurring in succession. In 1448, the Yellow River breached its dams, causing the waters to flow into northern
919:
foreign trade. These austerity measures were easier for them to accept because they directly affected the economic power of the eunuchs in the imperial palace, who were competing with other groups for power. The eunuchs were the ones involved in maritime expeditions and had a vested interest in silver mining, which was also limited in the mid-1430s.
1084:, the military commander of Yunnan, was ordered to attack Möng Mao with an army of conscripts from Guizhou and Huguang. Initially, the Ming army was successful in defeating the enemy, but they soon encountered supply problems and struggled to adapt to the subtropical climate. As a result, the weakened Ming army suffered a heavy defeat in 1440.
1209:
reached
Beijing that the Mongols had launched a large-scale invasion and had already attacked Datong. Without consulting the government, Yingzong ordered the Beijing garrison to be mobilized on 1 August and decided to personally lead the campaign against the Mongols. This decision was met with protest from Minister of War, Kuang Ye (
973:, this was a concession to southern landowners and a reversal from Hongwu's policy of suppressing the influence of wealthy landowners. Another historian, Richard Von Glahn, believes that it was an attempt to get the rich people's silver out of their coffers. Additionally, the government reduced silver mining to a minimum.
1338:
executed for treason in August 1461. However, the new regime wasted no time in purging the
Jingtai Emperor's followers, many of whom were innocent, such as Yu Qian. Even the deposed Jingtai Emperor was likely strangled and his reputation tarnished. In contrast, Wang Zhen was given an official burial, a statue in the
1097:
and the territory of
Luchuan was divided among other Shan states. As a reward for his success, Wang Ji was promoted to the rank of Count of Jingyuan, and his deputy Xu Xi took over as Minister of War. Any criticism that resources were being drained from the North to fund the war in the South was suppressed.
907:
largely due to the compulsory work system, which placed an unbearable burden on the people in some regions. As a result, artisans evaded state demands and peasants abandoned their land, leading to a significant decrease in population in certain areas. On the other hand, bandits and vagabonds multiplied.
1365:
After the suppression of Cao's rebellion, the government returned to a state of calm. Li Xian took charge of the
Secretariat with support from Peng Shi, while Wang Ao, Minister of Personnel, oversaw the outer court and ensured the quality of officials. The government remained stable in the subsequent
1193:
After the death of the Yongle Emperor, the state of defense along the northern borders began to deteriorate gradually. The quality of training, as well as the weapons and equipment, were declining. In fact, soldiers from the Beijing garrison were even being used for the construction of government and
1172:
The Mongols were primarily interested in free trade with China, specifically exchanging horses for luxury goods such as tea and silk. Some Mongols who resided along the border relied on agriculture for their livelihood and sought support from the Ming authorities. However, the Ming government focused
1096:
from 1441 to 1449. This was the first time in the history of the Ming dynasty that a civil official was given supreme command of the troops. Under Wang Ji's leadership, a Ming army of 50,000 soldiers successfully defeated the Shans. Si Renfa was captured by the Burmese state and the Ming ally of Ava,
1087:
Wang Zhen believed that Grand Empress Dowager Zhang's tax policy was too lenient and saw the war as an opportunity to increase state revenue. As a result, he pushed for a new campaign to be launched. Reinforcements were sent from Sichuan, Guizhou, and Huguang to Yunnan, and in early 1441, Minister of
906:
The government attempted to assist the victims by remitting taxes in large quantities, particularly during the regency of Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who consistently showed concern for the impoverished. However, despite these efforts, dissatisfaction among the population continued to grow. This was
1373:
During his second reign, Emperor Yingzong was actively involved in managing the government, starting his day early and attending to state affairs and correspondence daily. He was known for his compassion and, as a result, he abolished the practice of concubines committing suicide after the deaths of
1361:
In early 1460, mutual accusations and arrests led to the death of Shi Heng. Fearing a similar fate, Cao Jixiang and his adopted son Cao Qin planned a rebellion. In August 1461, General Cao Qin, along with the Mongol troops under his command, rose up in rebellion. The immediate cause of this uprising
1300:
On 19 September, Yingzong arrived in Beijing. Officials were forbidden to greet him, and only two or three people were sent to meet him with a sedan chair and two horses. The Jingtai Emperor met him at the side door of the palace, and Yingzong renounced all claims to the throne. He was then assigned
980:
The government's decision to allow payment in silver resulted in the rapid decline of banknotes, much to the dismay of the statesmen. By the 1430s, banknotes had practically disappeared from use, with the state only using them to pay employees to a limited extent and withdrawing them as a compulsory
732:
Lady Zhang was the leader of the council, which consisted of three Grand Secretaries and three eunuchs. The Gand Secretaries, known as the "Three Yangs"—Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu—had been in their positions for many years, with Yang Pu serving as Grand Secretary since 1424 and the other two
1369:
Despite this, there were frequent conflicts between natives from the northern and southern regions of China. Until 1449, northerners were given preferential treatment, which was criticized by some as being influenced by Wang Zhen's pro-northern bias. However, during the reign of the Jingtai Emperor
1239:
On the morning of 1 September, 20,000 Mongols launched a surprise attack on the Ming army, resulting in their defeat. Due to hunger and thirst, the Ming soldiers were unable to put up much resistance and only a few high-ranking officials were able to escape. Among the casualties were Wang Zhen, two
938:
banknotes were predominantly used until 1425. However, there were instances where the price was set in grain from 1396 to 1436, and during the Xuande era (1426–1435), cloth was the preferred currency for price determination. Eventually, silver emerged as the clear winner, as all land contracts from
910:
The economic decline in China from the early 1440s to the mid-1460s resulted in a decrease in porcelain production, particularly for export. Even the emperor's ban on the private sale of blue-and-white porcelain in 1439, which aimed to protect the state monopoly, did not contribute to the growth of
1377:
Emperor Yingzong died on 23 February 1464 after a brief illness. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Zhu Jianshen, who became the Chenghua Emperor. The relationship between Yingzong and Zhu Jianshen was strained, as the father had doubts about his son's ability to rule. It was only after the Grand
1104:
These wars ultimately solidified Ming power in Yunnan, but at a high cost. Local rulers acknowledged Ming sovereignty and paid tribute to Beijing until the 16th century. Domestically, these wars were a success for Wang Zhen, increasing his prestige and reputation as a statesman. However, they also
1052:
Private mints in Ming China also had an impact on foreign trade, as their coins were accepted as currency in other countries, despite the Chinese government's refusal to recognize them. The closure of these mints had far-reaching consequences, causing problems in places like Japan and Java. Japan,
1007:
With the closure of the mints, the shortage of coins worsened over time. Entrepreneurs responded to the demand for coins by producing them privately, which was illegal. Despite the efforts of disgruntled officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress this private production. However, they also
989:
In 1436, the Minister of Revenue proposed to buy out old banknotes and replace them with new ones covered in silver, but this proposal was ultimately unsuccessful. Around the same time (in the mid-1430s), the government began to tolerate the use of coins in commerce, although their prohibition was
918:
The "Three Yangs" responded to the economic problems mentioned above by cutting state spending. This was made worse by the struggles in the southwest during the 1430s and 1440s, which led to a decline in mining in the region. As a result, they cancelled overseas expeditions and restricted official
1296:
The new Jingtai regime aimed to discredit the previous ruler, who had been deemed a failure. Border commanders were instructed not to communicate with him. Esen attempted to secure the release of the former ruler and sent two delegations to China to negotiate his return. However, it was not until
1053:
which had not minted coins since the 10th century, relied heavily on imports from China. The disruption of this supply in the early 15th century had a significant impact on the Japanese economy and even led to political turmoil, resulting in the division of Japan into competing domains during the
976:
After Wang Zhen gained influence in the government, the eunuchs pushed for the reopening of the silver mines under their supervision. However, due to the low productivity of mining and the high demands of the eunuchs, there were a series of mining uprisings in Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi. After
698:
The Xuande Emperor died on 31 January 1435 after a brief illness, less than two months. At the time of his father's death, Zhu Qizhen was only seven years old, prompting a proposal to place his uncle, Zhu Zhanshan, Prince of Xiang and Xuande's younger brother, on the throne. According to the 17th
1337:
The emperor initially honored and promoted the organizers of the coup, but once he solidified his position as the leader of the government, he gradually removed them one by one. Xu Youzhen was dismissed in August 1457, Shi Heng died in prison in February 1460, and Cao Jixiang and his family were
1304:
On the night of 11 February 1457, the quiet atmosphere of the Southern Palace was abruptly shattered by a group of soldiers who forcefully entered the building, announcing to the former emperor that he had been reinstated and bringing him to the throne room. This coup was orchestrated by a small
1128:
In late 1448, the rebel miners were defeated by troops on the border between Fujian and Jiangsu. The Deng brothers were captured in February 1449, and their successors were defeated in May of the same year. According to Japanese historian Tanaka Masayoshi, the Deng brothers' revolt was the first
1208:
In the summer of 1449, unrest was spreading on the northern border. On 20 July, news arrived of a Mongol raid led by Esen. In response, the emperor ordered four generals and 45,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison to advance to Datong and Xuanfu to guard the border. However, on 30 July, news
1100:
In 1443–1444 and 1445, the war continued with Ming troops unsuccessfully fighting against Ava. Another campaign took place in 1448–1449, during which the Chinese and Ava successfully defeated Si Renfa's son, Si Jifa, who resided in Mong Yang west of the Irrawaddy River. In March 1449, Yingzong
1016:
cities as the cause of the state banknotes' failure. Despite efforts by his successor to lift the ban, the Ministry of Revenue continued to prohibit coinage until 1453. By the mid-1450s, private coins from Jiangnan had become more prevalent in the markets of Beijing, replacing Yongle's coins.
1000:
The lifting of the ban on the use of silver and copper coins in trade is a good example of the functioning of Ming legislation. Changes to laws were typically made based on petitions from mid-level officials (such as prefects) who requested exceptions for their areas of jurisdiction. After the
1184:
As Essen's power grew, his need for goods also increased, leading to protests from the Chinese against the influx of Mongols. By the late 1440s, up to two thousand Mongols were arriving in Datong, the main trading center, every year. The presence of such large groups of armed horsemen posed a
1280:
After news of the emperor's capture reached Beijing, Empress Dowager Sun, Yingzong's mother, proclaimed the emperor's two-year-old son, Zhu Jianshen, as crown prince. She also appointed the emperor's brother, Zhu Qiyu, to administer the country. However, officials demanded punishment for the
1011:
In the northern cities, particularly Beijing, coins were the primary form of currency during the 15th century. This led officials to criticize them as the reason for the failure of state banknotes. In 1447, the Governor of North Zhili called for a renewed campaign against coinage, citing its
1113:
In response to the increased demand for silver due to the implementation of silver-based taxes in 1436, the government took action by shutting down silver mines and prohibiting small-scale silver mining along the border of Zhejiang and Fujian two years later. However, in an area with a high
783:
Wang Zhen had finally gained his freedom. He possessed great talent, was direct, attentive, and charismatic, but over time, he became conceited. His power primarily stemmed from his personal influence over the emperor, who held his teacher in the highest regard. Wang Zhen was also a skilled
1354:) to the Grand Secretariat. In late June 1457, Shi Heng and Cao Jixiang decided that they no longer needed the cooperation of Xu Youzhen, who headed the secretariat, and had him arrested and banished to Yunnan. This move prompted the resignation of Xue Xuan and Minister of Justice Xuan Ni (
1185:
security threat. This caused the Ming authorities to become increasingly hostile and fearful. In 1449, the Mongols were only given a fifth of the required goods, which led them to resort to force. The immediate cause of the war was Esen's request for an imperial princess for his son.
1017:
Suggestions to combat private coinage by opening state mints were rejected, leading to the proliferation of illegal mints. These private coins were of lower quality, often containing tin or iron, but due to the scarcity of old coins, merchants had no choice but to use them, even at a
1221:), also joined in the protest on behalf of a number of concerned officials. They believed that the emperor's participation in the expedition was an unacceptably risky adventure. However, Yingzong defended his decision by citing precedents—all previous Ming emperors, except for the
621:
of his first reign, means "right governance". During his first reign, the empire was at its height of prosperity and power. As the first child emperor of the Ming dynasty, Emperor Yingzong's rule was heavily influenced by high dignitaries at court. Initially, his grandmother,
707:, who was both his and Xuande's mother. However, Empress Dowager Sun quickly intervened and prevented Zhu Zhanshan's ascension, resulting in Zhu Qizhen being crowned as the new emperor. Despite this, Lady Zhang still held significant influence in the government.
911:
production. In fact, in January 1448, the ban was reinforced and extended to forbid the production of porcelain in any colors other than blue and white (such as yellow, purple, red, green, dark blue, and light blue) for private sale in Zhaozhou, where
981:
payment for trade fees. However, these small transactions were relatively isolated from the country's economy. While silver was used for large payments and taxes, copper coins remained the dominant currency for small transactions in cities.
1181:(258 tons) of tea for 14 thousand horses every three years. The Ming authorities tightly regulated and restricted trade with the Mongols, with Wang Zhen overseeing the profitable trade through a network of eunuch-trustees in border towns.
977:
Emperor Yingzong was captured in a war with the Mongols in 1449, the new government restricted mining once again. However, when Yingzong returned to power in 1457, the restrictions were lifted. Despite this, mining yields remained low.
1419:
who became his empress when they married in 1442. After Yingzong's death, Lady Qian became the empress dowager and died in 1468. However, Empress Qian was unable to bear children, so upon Yingzong's death, his son Zhu Jianshen, born to
724:
Emperor Yingzong's ascension to the throne was in accordance with the rules, as he was the eldest son of the deceased emperor and the officially created crown prince. However, the laws established by the founder of the dynasty, the
1114:
population and limited job opportunities, illegal silver mining persisted. In 1447, the leader of a group of silver miners in the mountains between Zhejiang and Fujian openly rebelled, gathering followers and forming an army.
1270:
the event was a landmark in the Ming period. The era of Chinese military supremacy had ended, and henceforth the empire was on defensive on the northern frontier, a defensive which increasingly failed to withstand the nomad
957:), introduced the payment of land tax in silver instead of rice in the most tax-burdened prefectures. From 1436, the officers of the Beijing garrison were paid in silver. In the same year, the land tax in Nanzhili,
1165:, an important city on the route from China to Central Asia near the Chinese border. In 1448, he successfully conquered it. He also attempted to gain the support of the Mongol divisions in the Ming army in western
1157:, was defeated in battle by the Oirats. This gave the Oirats control over Mongolia, and their chief Toghon solidified their power by arranging for his daughter to marry the young Khan of the Eastern Mongols,
4584:
826:
The court did not forget about culture either. During Emperor Yingzong's reign, the re-publishing of sets of Buddhist and Taoist classics was completed. Specifically, in 1440, the Buddhist collection
755:
The political landscape underwent significant changes in the early 1440s. In 1440, Yang Rong, a prominent figure at the age of sixty-nine, died. On 8 June 1442, the emperor entered into marriage with
1129:
Chinese peasant uprising aimed at challenging class relations within the village. The miners' revolt was ultimately suppressed by August 1449, and the remaining Fujian rebels were dispersed by 1452.
1374:
the emperors. In 1457, he also granted freedom to Zhu Wengui, the son of the Jianwen Emperor (who reigned from 1398 to 1402) who had been imprisoned in Nanjing since his father's overthrow in 1402.
1243:
Historians at the time, in an effort to avoid what is an obvious taboo of the country's head of state becoming a prisoner of war, referred to this chapter of Yingzong's life as the "Northern Hunt" (
1080:, called Luchuan by the Ming, grew in strength under the rule of the ambitious Si Renfa, who ruled from 1413. By 1436, Si Renfa had begun to pose a threat to Ming positions in the area. In 1438,
1424:, one of his concubines, ascended to the throne. Lady Zhou was given the title of empress dowager after her son's ascension, but she still harbored jealousy towards Lady Qian. She died in 1504.
1092:
was placed in overall command. Wang Ji was an experienced civil official who had held the position of Minister of War since 1435. He had also commanded the second to fourth campaigns in the
653:, the Ming army was defeated and the emperor was captured. This event shocked the government and the country, leading the court to elevate Yingzong's brother, Zhu Qiyu, to the throne as the
874:) in 3 volumes. This work included text and illustrations engraved in stone and a bronze sculpture with 360 acupuncture points. The original illustrations and statue, created during the
2522:
Zhu Jianshen remained crown prince even after the Jingtai Emperor ascended to the throne. The Jingtai Emperor's son was not named crown prince in place of Zhu Jianshen until June 1452.
4633:
1297:
September 1450 that Yingzong was successfully returned. During his twelve and a half months in captivity, he was treated fairly by the Oirats and returned to China as their friend.
915:, known for its porcelain, is located. These prohibitions may have been one of the reasons for the scarcity of porcelain from the Zhengtong, Jingtai and Tianshun eras (1436–1464).
1021:. Some merchants refused to accept Ming coins altogether, while others only accepted silver. The shortage of currency resulted in a return to barter in certain regions, including
903:, eventually reaching the sea in southern Jiangsu. Flooding persisted into the 1450s, and the changing course of the Yellow River posed a threat to the water supply of Beijing.
1132:
The emperor's successes in the southeast and southwest may have led him to overestimate the strength of the Ming troops and his own willingness to personally lead the army.
1771:
1702:
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1603:
1590:
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from 1368 to 1644 demonstrate the complex search for the most suitable currency during the early Ming period. Initially, prices were set in silver until 1375, after which
1169:. In the east, his influence extended all the way to the borders of Korea. In Beijing, the unification of Mongolia was perceived as a threat by Wang Zhen's opponents.
2513:
Yingzong made efforts to suppress the influence of Mongolian culture by prohibiting the wearing of Mongolian attire and the use of the Mongolian language in Beijing.
4548:
1161:. After Toghon's death in 1440, his son Esen took over as ruler of Mongolia. Esen was more ambitious than his father, and in 1443 and 1445, he launched attacks on
759:, and on 18 November 1442, just a few days before his fifteenth birthday, he assumed control of the government. Two days later, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang died.
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Twitchett, Denis C; Grimm, Tilemann (1988). "The Cheng-t'ung, Ching-t'ai, and T'ien-shun reigns, 1436—1464". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.).
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The Care-taker Emperor : Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü
838:, 'Great Storage of Scriptures') consisting of 6361 volumes in 636 books was published, with a preface written by the emperor. In 1445, the Taoist collection
4580:
788:), who was later promoted to Minister of War, as well as Imperial Guard commander Ma Shun and his deputy and nephew Wang Shan, and Left Vice Minister of War
4628:
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not consistently enforced even before this time. While the use of coins was officially not allowed until 1436, in response to a petition from a prefect of
767:
1346:). These purges only served to make Yingzong's regime unpopular. In an attempt to improve his image, the emperor appointed respected scholars Xue Xuan (
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After Emperor Yingzong returned to his homeland, his brother felt threatened and ordered him to stay in the Southern Palace within the
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Filipiak, Kai (2006). "Der Bauernaufstand des Deng Maoqi 1448/1449 als Ausdruck einer Zäsur in der Geschichte der Ming-Dynastie".
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Chan, Hok-lam (1988). "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.).
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Mote, Frederick W. (1988). "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465—1505". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.).
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The eunuch Wang Zhen served as the teacher, tutor, and confidant of the emperor. He was from the northern Chinese province of
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4312:
1391:
862:) with 62 volumes was published. The emperor also wrote a preface to the new edition of the Song work on acupuncture
2409:
1263:
1076:
In the first quarter of the 15th century, on the southwestern borders of the Ming dynasty, one of the Shan states,
899:. The following year, another dam broke, diverting part of the Yellow River's flow into the Guo River and then the
2016:
4059:
Nimick, Thomas G (2005). "The Selection of Local Officials through Recommendations in Fifteenth-Century China".
3886:
3481:
Fighting Techniques of the Oriental World AD 1200–1860: Equipment, Combat Skills And Tactics, Christer Jørgensen
4512:
4137:
657:. During his captivity, Yingzong had established good relations with Esen and was eventually released in 1450.
3554:[The History of Ming Yingzong Emperor's "Northern Hunt": Debate over Mongolian Cultures and Customs].
671:
Yingzong ruled for another seven years before his death in 1464 at the age of thirty-six. His eldest son, the
4504:
1506:
665:
635:
408:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4556:
4552:
4544:
4508:
4305:
2101:
704:
631:
623:
138:
66:
638:), held the highest positions of power. However, in 1442, the emperor began to listen more to the eunuch
4540:
4516:
4500:
2417:
1378:
Secretaries, led by Li Xian, convinced him to preserve the succession of his eldest son that he agreed.
31:
3931:
Huang, Ray (1998). "The Ming fiscal administration". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.).
742:
734:
4608:
4603:
2467:
850:) was published in 481 books of 5305 volumes. Additionally, in 1443, a work on the moral patterns of
3950:
Fernquest, Jon (2006). "Crucible of War: Burma and the Ming in the Tai Frontier Zone (1382-1454)".
1013:
969:
was also converted to silver; this transition was accompanied by a tax cut. According to historian
892:
3887:"Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the "Great Depression" of the Mid-Fifteenth Century"
692:
639:
804:) only handled routine work, and the new Grand Secretaries appointed in the late 1440s (Gao Gu (
645:
In 1449, at Wang Zhen's suggestion, Yingzong personally led the army against the Mongol army of
627:
4425:
4064:
4047:
4016:
3980:
3959:
3936:
3917:
3898:
3871:
3850:
3831:
3812:
3791:
3772:
3484:
2428:
772:
738:
345:
3549:
4415:
4405:
4385:
4284:
4242:
4230:
4197:
4171:
1479:
1244:
672:
618:
515:
361:
229:
179:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4374:
4349:
4219:
4209:
4091:
1282:
1229:
1222:
712:
654:
614:
420:
399:
118:
1105:
revealed a lack of financial reserves and experienced generals on the northern frontier.
1254:
In Chinese historiography, the consequences of the Tumu crisis are often referred to as
4420:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4344:
4269:
4186:
4151:
3911:
3865:
3806:
2042:
1984:
1958:
1446:
1421:
1325:—"forcing the palace gate", but later this name was considered too vulgar and the term
1177:, rather than on the border with the Mongols. This trade involved exchanging a million
1054:
931:
726:
684:
661:
610:
493:
328:
219:
186:
108:
62:
1262:
means "to turn" and is used to denote important turning points in Chinese history. As
994:, the government had actually stopped the production of coins in either 1433 or 1436.
4597:
4482:
4455:
4442:
4410:
1366:
years, with ministers and grand secretaries serving until their death or retirement.
1339:
3996:"Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461"
4336:
4288:
4115:
2501:
2472:
2439:
1434:
1416:
945:
By the end of the Xuande era, the government had recognized the failure to enforce
875:
756:
567:
483:
471:
303:
3979:] (in Czech). Translated by Liščák, Vladimír (1st ed.). Praha: Vyšehrad.
1149:
in the southeast, the Eastern Mongols (also known as Tatars) in the east, and the
949:
banknotes as the main currency and began tolerating silver. In 1433, Governor of
4477:
4450:
2462:
2424:
2420:
he is the emperor of the playable Ming dynasty at the game's start date of 1444.
2266:
1586:
1203:
1158:
1077:
688:
650:
646:
503:
446:
366:
56:
4297:
733:
since 1402. They were highly skilled, influential, and respected. The eunuchs,
668:", means "obedience to Heaven". The following month, the Jingtai Emperor died.
4461:
1018:
912:
900:
700:
281:
4068:
4051:
3963:
3902:
3607:. The Cresset Historical Series. London: The Cresset Press. pp. 469–470.
800:) remained a strong figure among the Grand Secretaries. His colleague Ma Yu (
683:
Zhu Qizhen was born on 29 November 1427, as the elder of the two sons of the
4488:
4472:
4466:
4013:
The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
3847:
The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
3788:
The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
1146:
970:
1154:
1081:
958:
950:
149:
17:
3933:
The Cambridge History of China 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368 — 1644, Part II
1233:
1214:
1174:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
991:
966:
962:
896:
478:
466:
285:
1150:
1046:
1022:
749:
553:
523:
74:
70:
2868:
2866:
3913:
Fountain of Fortune: money and monetary policy in China, 1000–1700
1166:
766:
201:
3379:
3377:
3340:
3338:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3257:
3255:
3167:
3165:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2404:
1162:
776:
4301:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2651:
2649:
2647:
1173:
on trading tea for horses in Gansu, with tribes in present-day
3620:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3436:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2634:
2632:
2630:
430:
Fatian Lidao Renming Chengjing Zhaowen Xianwu Zhide Guangxiao
2960:
2958:
2945:
2943:
2628:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2544:
1008:
did not take action to restore the state's coin production.
3973:Čtvero ročních období dynastie Ming: Čína v období 1368–1644
1581:; d. 1513) in 1472, and had issue (four sons, two daughters)
864:
Illustrated Manual of Acupuncture Points on a Bronze Figure
3105:
3103:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3058:
3021:
3019:
3006:
3004:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2491:
The state production of coins was not resumed until 1503.
1153:
in the west. In 1434, the leader of the Eastern Mongols,
3916:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
2793:
2791:
1720:; 6 November 1455 – 18 December 1480), seventh daughter
1228:
On 3 August, the emperor entrusted his younger brother,
891:
In the mid-1430s, a sixty-year cold period began in the
3218:
3216:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2839:
3811:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
3661:
3659:
3657:
532:; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), personal name
3423:
3421:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3325:
3323:
3310:
3308:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
2766:
2764:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2575:
1145:
The Mongols were divided into three main groups: the
1117:
In the interior of Fujian, two brothers, Deng Maoqi (
4441:
4335:
4084:"Zhu Qizhen - Emperor Yingzong of the Ming Dynasty"
1555:) in 1466, and had issue (four sons, two daughters)
499:
489:
477:
465:
445:
419:
393:
379:
344:
292:
275:
255:
239:
235:
225:
215:
207:
200:
192:
185:
175:
167:
159:
124:
114:
104:
96:
88:
81:
41:
30:"Zhu Qizhen" redirects here. For the diplomat, see
1729:; 1458–1533) in 1473, and had issue (one daughter)
816:)) did not have a significant impact on politics.
1488:; 9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), first son
930:The surviving land sales contracts concluded in
3767:Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976).
1415:Emperor Yingzong had multiple wives, including
1329:—"restoration of the throne"—began to be used.
1268:
792:, who previously organized the "youth-guards" (
3636:
3590:
3535:
3523:
3395:
3383:
3368:
3356:
3344:
3299:
3261:
3234:
3171:
3132:
2905:
2893:
2872:
2755:
2709:
2676:
2655:
1810:Consort Zhaosujingduanxian, of the Wang clan (
1736:Consort Gongduanzhuanghuide, of the Wei clan (
1692:Consort Zhuangjinganrongshu, of the Gao clan (
1409:Portraits of Emperor Yingzong and Empress Qian
1305:group, led by the eunuch-general Cao Jixiang (
4634:Heads of government who were later imprisoned
4313:
3575:
3556:
3508:
1922:
1913:
1901:
1892:
1883:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1855:Consort Zhenshunyigongjing, of the Liu clan (
1847:
1838:
1829:
1820:
1811:
1802:
1786:
1775:
1755:
1746:
1737:
1724:
1715:
1711:; 12 March 1452 – 13 October 1472), fifth son
1706:
1693:
1680:
1671:
1662:
1661:Consort Zhuangxiduansu'an, of the Yang clan (
1651:
1636:
1627:
1618:
1607:
1599:; 11 July 1456 – 16 August 1527), seventh son
1594:
1576:
1567:
1561:
1550:
1541:
1532:
1523:
1510:
1496:
1483:
1468:
1459:
1450:
1438:
878:, had eroded and faded, so both were remade.
45:
8:
3749:
3725:
3648:
3624:
3454:
2830:
2818:
2638:
2554:
1656:; 6 April 1450 – 3 January 1453), fourth son
1537:; 2 August 1449 – 30 August 1451), third son
1528:; 7 May 1448 – 7 September 1517), second son
784:politician. He formed alliances with Xu Xi (
1785:Consort Gongheanjingshun, of the Fan clan (
1617:Consort Duanjinganhehui, of the Wang clan (
1612:; 18 March 1458 – 2 April 1472), eighth son
609:He was the eldest son and successor of the
4320:
4306:
4298:
4106:
1940:
1846:Consort Gongjingzhuang, of the Zhao clan (
1217:. Later, Minister of Personnel, Wang Zhi (
1012:exclusive use in trade in Beijing and the
996:
926:
819:So far, the system of grand coordinators (
318: 1442–1464)
55:
38:
4015:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3935:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3849:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3790:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3156:
3144:
3109:
3094:
3082:
3070:
3025:
3010:
2995:
2976:
2964:
2949:
1801:Consort Anherongjingli, of the Liu clan (
1780:; 2 March 1462 – 13 June 1505), ninth son
1501:; 2 May 1455 – 27 August 1505), sixth son
1225:, had personally led armies into battle.
3701:
3689:
3677:
1882:Consort Gongxicheng, of the Zhang clan (
1837:Consort Rongjingzhen, of the Wang clan (
1819:Consort Duanzhuangzhao, of the Wu clan (
1641:) in 1466, and had issue (two daughters)
675:, then ascended to the imperial throne.
3870:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
3771:. New York: Columbia University Press.
3769:Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644
2540:
2484:
1864:Consort Zhaojinggong, of the Liu clan (
1342:, and the posthumous name "Jingzhong" (
779:in 1441 (6th year of the Zhengtong era)
136:
2934:
2922:
2857:
2797:
2283:
2172:
2168:
2158:
2059:
1949:
1945:
1566:; 1454–1484), personal name Yanxiang (
771:Stele commemorating rebuilding of the
720:Regency of Grand Empress Dowager Zhang
376:
4063:. 91 (Second Series) (1/3): 125–182.
3867:Early Ming China: A Political History
3246:
3222:
3207:
3195:
3183:
3049:
3037:
2504:, therefore he could not become Khan.
2353:
2343:
2339:
2327:
2324:
2314:
2301:
2291:
2287:
2271:
2265:
2255:
2242:
2232:
2228:
2216:
2213:
2203:
2190:
2180:
2176:
2155:
2145:
2132:
2122:
2118:
2106:
2100:
2090:
2077:
2067:
2063:
2047:
2041:
2031:
2015:
2005:
2001:
1989:
1983:
1973:
1957:
1953:
1828:Consort Gong'anhe, of the Gong clan (
1285:and declared the captured brother as
606:) from 1457 until his death in 1464.
415:): 15 February 1457 – 26 January 1465
265:Tianshun 8, 17th day of the 1st month
7:
3737:
3713:
3665:
3466:
3427:
3412:
3329:
3314:
3280:
2782:
2770:
2736:
2688:
2601:
2589:
2566:
2442:in the 2019 television series《大明风华)
2156:Emperor Yingzong of Ming (1427–1464)
1873:Consort Zhaoyixian, of the Li clan (
703:, Zhu Zhanshan was supported by the
406:): 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450
245:Xuande 2, 11th day of the 11th month
196:22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457
187:Emperor Emeritus of the Ming dynasty
2458:Chinese emperors family tree (late)
1900:Consort Huiheli, of the Chen clan (
1891:Consort Xikechong, of the Yu clan (
163:11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464
92:7 February 1435 – 22 September 1449
27:6th and 8th emperor of Ming dynasty
4629:Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime
4000:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
2403:Portrayed by Kwon Bin in the 2016
1685:) in 1466, and had issue (one son)
1667:; 18 July 1414 – 2 November 1487)
1473:) in 1461, and had issue (one son)
1276:Captivity, return and house arrest
25:
4158:Crown Prince of the Ming dynasty
1309:), along with generals Shi Heng (
1399:
1390:
939:1456 to 1644 were priced in it.
710:In contrast, the editors of the
626:, along with the "Three Yangs" (
588:) from 1435 to 1449, and as the
202:Crown Prince of the Ming dynasty
4263:Emperor Shenzong of Western Xia
3952:SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research
3605:China: A Short Cultural History
2500:Toghon was not a descendant of
923:Money—the recognition of silver
315:
3576:
3557:
3509:
1355:
1351:
1318:
1317:), and strategist Xu Youzhen (
1314:
1210:
1122:
1118:
867:
855:
843:
831:
809:
805:
801:
793:
602:
597:
593:
584:
579:
575:
558:
549:
541:
528:
435:
412:
386:
367:Zhu Jianjun, Prince Jian of Ji
268:
1:
4614:15th-century Chinese monarchs
4549:5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms
1546:; 1453-1536), third daughter
1464:; 1446–1499), first daughter
1236:, without a source of water.
872:Tóngrén Shùxué Zhēnjiǔ Tújīng
4624:Emperors of the Ming dynasty
4329:Emperors of the Ming dynasty
3891:The Journal of Asian Studies
3637:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3591:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3536:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3524:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3396:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3384:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3369:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3357:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3345:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3300:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3262:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3235:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3172:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
3133:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2906:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2894:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2873:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2756:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2710:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2677:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
2656:Twitchett & Grimm (1988)
1676:; d. 1489), fourth daughter
1632:; d. 1499), second daughter
562:), was the sixth and eighth
4227:Emperor of the Ming dynasty
4194:Emperor of the Ming dynasty
3910:Von Glahn, Richard (1996).
3483:. Amber Books. p. 12.
3479:Haskew, Michael E. (2008).
1918:; d. 1483), eight daughter
1751:; d. 1514), sixth daughter
705:Grand Empress Dowager Zhang
624:Grand Empress Dowager Zhang
596:; traditional Chinese:
578:; traditional Chinese:
351:
139:Grand Empress Dowager Zhang
83:Emperor of the Ming dynasty
4655:
3994:Robinson, David M (1999).
3977:The Confusions of Pleasure
3885:Atwell, William S (2002).
3805:Mote, Frederick W (2003).
3750:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
3726:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
3649:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
3625:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
3505:Wen chao yue kan, Volume 5
3455:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2831:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2819:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2639:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2555:Goodrich & Fang (1976)
2427:in 2016 television series
2277:
2170:
2053:
1947:
1507:Consort Jingzhuanganmuchen
1264:Charles Patrick Fitzgerald
1201:
1141:Relations with the Mongols
1109:Rebellion in the Southeast
1094:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
1072:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
1069:
840:Zhengtong-era Daoist Canon
699:century Chinese historian
336:(before 1464)
29:
4498:
4432:
4276:
4270:Emperor Emeritus of China
4267:
4254:
4249:
4239:
4224:
4216:
4206:
4191:
4183:
4178:
4172:Crown Prince Zhu Jianshen
4163:
4156:
4143:
4136:
4111:Emperor Yingzong of Ming
4109:
3864:Dreyer, Edward L (1982).
3603:Fitzgerald, C.P. (1935).
3562:(in Simplified Chinese).
2341:
2333:
2308:
2289:
2285:
2249:
2230:
2222:
2197:
2178:
2174:
2139:
2120:
2112:
2084:
2065:
2061:
2025:
2003:
1995:
1967:
1951:
1923:
1914:
1902:
1893:
1884:
1875:
1866:
1857:
1848:
1839:
1830:
1821:
1812:
1803:
1787:
1776:
1756:
1747:
1738:
1725:
1716:
1707:
1694:
1681:
1672:
1663:
1652:
1637:
1628:
1619:
1608:
1595:
1577:
1568:
1562:
1551:
1542:
1533:
1524:
1511:
1497:
1484:
1469:
1460:
1451:
1439:
1347:
1343:
1310:
1306:
1290:
1248:
1218:
1101:celebrated the victory.
954:
852:On the Five Relationships
813:
797:
785:
762:
592:(simplified Chinese:
574:(simplified Chinese:
519:
454:
452:
426:
403:
398:
384:
375:
248:
230:Crown Prince Zhu Jianshen
54:
46:
42:Emperor Yingzong of Ming
4619:Child monarchs from Asia
3550:
1189:Defense of the Northeast
649:. Unfortunately, at the
512:Emperor Yingzong of Ming
4152:Crown Prince Zhu Zhanji
3971:Brook, Timothy (2003).
3808:Imperial China 900-1800
3704:, pp. 79, 103–108.
1293:, 'Emperor Emeritus').
679:Childhood and accession
651:Battle of Tumu Fortress
220:Crown Prince Zhu Zhanji
4639:Ming dynasty Buddhists
1273:
985:Closure of state mints
828:Chinese Buddhist Canon
780:
143:Yang Shiqi (1435–1442)
67:National Palace Museum
3826:Heer, Ph. de (1986).
2418:Europa Universalis IV
2416:In the computer game
2267:Empress Xiaogongzhang
2214:Sun Zhong (1368–1452)
2102:Empress Chengxiaozhao
1435:Empress Xiaozhuangrui
1202:Further information:
1070:Further information:
1061:Fighting in the South
770:
763:Wang Zhen's dominance
504:Empress Xiaogongzhang
304:Empress Xiaozhuangrui
145:Yang Rong (1435–1438)
61:Palace portrait on a
32:Zhu Qizhen (diplomat)
3513:. 2005. p. 128.
2468:Rebellion of Cao Qin
1921:Married Huang Yong (
1772:Prince Zhuang of Hui
1493:Prince Jian of Chong
1458:Princess Chongqing (
1449:, of the Zhou clan (
1437:, of the Qian clan (
1136:Trouble in the North
1066:War in the Southwest
3651:, pp. 292–293.
3538:, pp. 327–328.
2875:, pp. 310–311.
1912:Princess Jiaxiang (
1714:Princess Longqing (
1635:Married Wang Zeng (
1520:Prince Zhuang of De
1509:, of the Wan clan (
1467:Married Zhou Jing (
1429:Consorts and Issue:
1213:), and his deputy,
893:Northern Hemisphere
882:Economy and finance
812:), and Miao Zhong (
546:traditional Chinese
147:Yang Pu (1435–1442)
4281:Title next held by
4259:Title last held by
4168:Title next held by
4148:Title last held by
4094:on 28 October 2013
4088:cultural-china.com
3551:明英宗“北狩”史料之蒙古风俗文化刍议
2017:Empress Renxiaowen
1927:; d. 1510) in 1477
1754:Married Ma Cheng (
1703:Prince Huai of Xiu
1679:Married Yang Wei (
1670:Princess Chongde (
1626:Princess Jiashan (
1572:), fifth daughter
1560:Princess Guangde (
1549:Married Cai Zhen (
1540:Princess Chun'an (
1478:Zhu Jianshen, the
1121:) and Deng Maoba (
781:
570:. He ruled as the
538:simplified Chinese
280:Yuling Mausoleum,
4591:
4590:
4296:
4295:
4240:Succeeded by
4207:Succeeded by
3830:. Leiden: Brill.
3680:, pp. 84–85.
3097:, pp. 83–84.
2967:, pp. 75–76.
2952:, pp. 78–79.
2433:Imperial Doctress
2394:
2393:
1745:Princess Yixing (
1723:Married You Tai (
1591:Prince Jian of Ji
1575:Married Fan Kai (
1234:Tumu post station
1005:
1004:
943:
942:
887:Economic downturn
848:Zhèngtǒng dàocáng
773:Temple of Yan Hui
572:Zhengtong Emperor
509:
508:
461:
460:
16:(Redirected from
4646:
4467:Prince of Lu (魯)
4456:Prince of Lu (潞)
4436:
4322:
4315:
4308:
4299:
4285:Qianlong Emperor
4250:Honorary titles
4243:Chenghua Emperor
4231:Emperor of China
4217:Preceded by
4198:Emperor of China
4184:Preceded by
4132:
4131:23 February 1464
4125:
4124:29 November 1427
4107:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4090:. Archived from
4072:
4055:
4040:Monumenta Serica
4026:
4007:
3990:
3967:
3946:
3927:
3906:
3881:
3860:
3841:
3822:
3801:
3782:
3753:
3747:
3741:
3735:
3729:
3723:
3717:
3711:
3705:
3699:
3693:
3687:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3663:
3652:
3646:
3640:
3634:
3628:
3622:
3609:
3608:
3600:
3594:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3572:
3570:
3560:
3559:
3545:
3539:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3511:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3452:
3431:
3425:
3416:
3410:
3399:
3393:
3387:
3381:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3354:
3348:
3342:
3333:
3327:
3318:
3312:
3303:
3297:
3284:
3278:
3265:
3259:
3250:
3244:
3238:
3232:
3226:
3220:
3211:
3205:
3199:
3193:
3187:
3181:
3175:
3169:
3160:
3157:Fernquest (2006)
3154:
3148:
3145:Fernquest (2006)
3142:
3136:
3130:
3113:
3110:Von Glahn (1996)
3107:
3098:
3095:Von Glahn (1996)
3092:
3086:
3083:Von Glahn (1996)
3080:
3074:
3071:Von Glahn (1996)
3068:
3053:
3047:
3041:
3035:
3029:
3026:Von Glahn (1996)
3023:
3014:
3011:Von Glahn (1996)
3008:
2999:
2996:Von Glahn (1996)
2993:
2980:
2977:Von Glahn (1996)
2974:
2968:
2965:Von Glahn (1996)
2962:
2953:
2950:Von Glahn (1996)
2947:
2938:
2932:
2926:
2920:
2909:
2903:
2897:
2891:
2876:
2870:
2861:
2855:
2834:
2828:
2822:
2816:
2801:
2795:
2786:
2780:
2774:
2768:
2759:
2753:
2740:
2734:
2713:
2707:
2692:
2691:, p. 10–11.
2686:
2680:
2674:
2659:
2653:
2642:
2636:
2605:
2599:
2593:
2587:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2552:
2523:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2505:
2498:
2492:
2489:
1941:
1926:
1925:
1917:
1916:
1905:
1904:
1896:
1895:
1887:
1886:
1878:
1877:
1869:
1868:
1860:
1859:
1851:
1850:
1842:
1841:
1833:
1832:
1824:
1823:
1815:
1814:
1806:
1805:
1790:
1789:
1779:
1778:
1759:
1758:
1750:
1749:
1741:
1740:
1728:
1727:
1719:
1718:
1710:
1709:
1697:
1696:
1684:
1683:
1675:
1674:
1666:
1665:
1655:
1654:
1648:Prince Dao of Xu
1640:
1639:
1631:
1630:
1622:
1621:
1611:
1610:
1604:Prince Mu of Xin
1598:
1597:
1580:
1579:
1571:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1554:
1553:
1545:
1544:
1536:
1535:
1527:
1526:
1514:
1513:
1500:
1499:
1487:
1486:
1480:Chenghua Emperor
1472:
1471:
1463:
1462:
1454:
1453:
1442:
1441:
1403:
1394:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1292:
1287:Tàishàng Huángdi
1250:
1220:
1212:
1124:
1120:
997:
956:
927:
869:
857:
845:
833:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
787:
673:Chenghua Emperor
604:
599:
595:
590:Tianshun Emperor
586:
581:
577:
560:
551:
543:
530:
521:
456:
440:
436:法天立道仁明誠敬昭文憲武至德廣孝
414:
405:
388:
377:
362:Chenghua Emperor
355:
337:
319:
317:
270:
262:
259:23 February 1464
250:
243:29 November 1427
180:Chenghua Emperor
59:
50:
49:
48:
39:
21:
4654:
4653:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4644:
4643:
4594:
4593:
4592:
4587:
4494:
4437:
4434:
4430:
4331:
4326:
4282:
4273:
4260:
4245:
4236:
4234:(Second reign)
4233:
4229:
4222:
4220:Jingtai Emperor
4212:
4210:Jingtai Emperor
4203:
4200:
4196:
4189:
4169:
4160:
4149:
4138:Chinese royalty
4126:
4120:
4119:
4112:
4097:
4095:
4082:
4079:
4058:
4037:
4034:
4032:Further reading
4029:
4023:
4010:
3993:
3987:
3970:
3949:
3943:
3930:
3924:
3909:
3884:
3878:
3863:
3857:
3844:
3838:
3825:
3819:
3804:
3798:
3785:
3779:
3766:
3762:
3757:
3756:
3748:
3744:
3736:
3732:
3724:
3720:
3712:
3708:
3702:Robinson (1999)
3700:
3696:
3690:Robinson (1999)
3688:
3684:
3678:Robinson (1999)
3676:
3672:
3664:
3655:
3647:
3643:
3635:
3631:
3623:
3612:
3602:
3601:
3597:
3589:
3585:
3568:
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3530:
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3518:
3503:
3502:
3498:
3491:
3478:
3477:
3473:
3465:
3461:
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3419:
3411:
3402:
3394:
3390:
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3367:
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3355:
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3328:
3321:
3313:
3306:
3298:
3287:
3279:
3268:
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3253:
3245:
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3229:
3221:
3214:
3206:
3202:
3194:
3190:
3182:
3178:
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3116:
3108:
3101:
3093:
3089:
3081:
3077:
3069:
3056:
3048:
3044:
3036:
3032:
3024:
3017:
3009:
3002:
2994:
2983:
2975:
2971:
2963:
2956:
2948:
2941:
2933:
2929:
2921:
2912:
2904:
2900:
2892:
2879:
2871:
2864:
2856:
2837:
2829:
2825:
2817:
2804:
2796:
2789:
2781:
2777:
2769:
2762:
2754:
2743:
2735:
2716:
2708:
2695:
2687:
2683:
2675:
2662:
2654:
2645:
2637:
2608:
2600:
2596:
2588:
2573:
2565:
2561:
2553:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2454:
2400:
2398:Popular culture
2395:
1938:
1426:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1396:
1395:
1384:
1350:) and Li Xian (
1335:
1283:Jingtai Emperor
1278:
1223:Jianwen Emperor
1206:
1200:
1191:
1143:
1138:
1111:
1074:
1068:
1063:
987:
925:
889:
884:
765:
722:
713:History of Ming
681:
655:Jingtai Emperor
421:Posthumous name
407:
371:
349:
348:
340:
339:
335:
331:
321:
313:
309:
306:
288:
266:
264:
260:
246:
244:
171:Jingtai Emperor
155:
148:
146:
144:
142:
135:
134:
119:Jingtai Emperor
100:7 February 1435
77:
44:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4652:
4650:
4642:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4596:
4595:
4589:
4588:
4499:
4496:
4495:
4493:
4492:
4486:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4464:
4459:
4453:
4447:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4433:
4431:
4429:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4341:
4339:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4325:
4324:
4317:
4310:
4302:
4294:
4293:
4280:
4275:
4266:
4258:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4246:
4241:
4238:
4223:
4218:
4214:
4213:
4208:
4205:
4201:(First reign)
4190:
4187:Xuande Emperor
4185:
4181:
4180:
4179:Regnal titles
4176:
4175:
4167:
4162:
4155:
4147:
4141:
4140:
4134:
4133:
4113:
4110:
4105:
4104:
4078:
4077:External links
4075:
4074:
4073:
4056:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4027:
4021:
4008:
3991:
3985:
3968:
3947:
3941:
3928:
3922:
3907:
3882:
3876:
3861:
3855:
3842:
3836:
3823:
3817:
3802:
3796:
3783:
3777:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3754:
3752:, p. 298.
3742:
3740:, p. 346.
3730:
3728:, p. 300.
3718:
3716:, p. 145.
3706:
3694:
3682:
3670:
3668:, p. 120.
3653:
3641:
3639:, p. 339.
3629:
3627:, p. 292.
3610:
3595:
3593:, p. 330.
3583:
3577:明人讳称此事为英宗"北狩"。
3548:Han, Weiling.
3540:
3528:
3526:, p. 325.
3516:
3496:
3490:978-1905704965
3489:
3471:
3459:
3457:, p. 291.
3432:
3417:
3400:
3398:, p. 322.
3388:
3386:, p. 321.
3373:
3371:, p. 320.
3361:
3359:, p. 319.
3349:
3347:, p. 318.
3334:
3319:
3304:
3302:, p. 317.
3285:
3266:
3264:, p. 314.
3251:
3249:, p. 108.
3239:
3237:, p. 313.
3227:
3225:, p. 107.
3212:
3210:, p. 106.
3200:
3198:, p. 105.
3188:
3186:, p. 104.
3176:
3174:, p. 316.
3161:
3149:
3137:
3135:, p. 315.
3114:
3099:
3087:
3075:
3054:
3052:, p. 115.
3042:
3040:, p. 114.
3030:
3015:
3000:
2981:
2969:
2954:
2939:
2927:
2910:
2908:, p. 309.
2898:
2896:, p. 312.
2877:
2862:
2835:
2833:, p. 294.
2823:
2821:, p. 293.
2802:
2800:, p. 231.
2787:
2785:, p. 292.
2775:
2760:
2758:, p. 308.
2741:
2714:
2712:, p. 307.
2693:
2681:
2679:, p. 306.
2660:
2658:, p. 305.
2643:
2641:, p. 290.
2606:
2594:
2592:, p. 626.
2571:
2569:, p. 303.
2559:
2557:, p. 289.
2539:
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2533:
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2483:
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2470:
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2460:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2448:
2436:
2421:
2414:
2410:Jang Yeong-sil
2399:
2396:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2379:
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2256:
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2234:
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2229:
2227:
2224:
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2209:
2208:
2205:
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2202:
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2134:
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2113:
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2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2043:Xuande Emperor
2040:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1985:Hongxi Emperor
1982:
1979:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1959:Yongle Emperor
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1907:
1898:
1889:
1880:
1871:
1862:
1853:
1844:
1835:
1826:
1817:
1808:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1795:Tenth daughter
1783:
1782:
1781:
1768:
1766:Ninth daughter
1763:
1762:
1761:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1712:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1687:
1686:
1659:
1658:
1657:
1646:Zhu Jianchun,
1644:
1643:
1642:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1600:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1538:
1529:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1489:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1447:Empress Xiaosu
1444:
1408:
1407:
1398:
1397:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1358:) in protest.
1334:
1331:
1313:), Zhang Yue (
1277:
1274:
1199:
1196:
1190:
1187:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1110:
1107:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1055:Sengoku period
1003:
1002:
986:
983:
941:
940:
924:
921:
888:
885:
883:
880:
764:
761:
727:Hongwu Emperor
721:
718:
687:. His mother,
685:Xuande Emperor
680:
677:
662:Forbidden City
611:Xuande Emperor
600:; pinyin:
582:; pinyin:
507:
506:
501:
497:
496:
494:Xuande Emperor
491:
487:
486:
481:
475:
474:
469:
463:
462:
459:
458:
450:
449:
443:
442:
424:
423:
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416:
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395:
391:
390:
382:
381:
373:
372:
370:
369:
364:
358:
356:
342:
341:
333:
329:Empress Xiaosu
327:
326:
325:
324:
311:
307:
302:
301:
300:
299:
296:
294:
290:
289:
279:
277:
273:
272:
263:(aged 36)
257:
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130:
129:
128:
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116:
112:
111:
109:Xuande Emperor
106:
102:
101:
98:
94:
93:
90:
86:
85:
79:
78:
65:, kept in the
63:hanging scroll
60:
52:
51:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4651:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4497:
4490:
4487:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4444:
4443:Southern Ming
4440:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:(Restoration)
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4323:
4318:
4316:
4311:
4309:
4304:
4303:
4300:
4292:
4290:
4286:
4279:
4272:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4244:
4235:
4232:
4228:
4221:
4215:
4211:
4202:
4199:
4195:
4188:
4182:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4166:
4159:
4154:
4153:
4146:
4142:
4139:
4135:
4130:
4123:
4118:
4117:
4108:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4076:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4042:(in German).
4041:
4036:
4035:
4031:
4024:
4018:
4014:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3986:80-7021-583-6
3982:
3978:
3974:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3948:
3944:
3938:
3934:
3929:
3925:
3923:0-520-20408-5
3919:
3915:
3914:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3883:
3879:
3877:0-8047-1105-4
3873:
3869:
3868:
3862:
3858:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3839:
3833:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3818:0-674-01212-7
3814:
3810:
3809:
3803:
3799:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3780:
3778:0-231-03801-1
3774:
3770:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3751:
3746:
3743:
3739:
3734:
3731:
3727:
3722:
3719:
3715:
3710:
3707:
3703:
3698:
3695:
3692:, p. 97.
3691:
3686:
3683:
3679:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3645:
3642:
3638:
3633:
3630:
3626:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3606:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3587:
3584:
3580:
3565:
3561:
3553:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3529:
3525:
3520:
3517:
3510:全国图书馆文献缩微复制中心
3506:
3500:
3497:
3492:
3486:
3482:
3475:
3472:
3469:, p. 19.
3468:
3463:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3433:
3430:, p. 17.
3429:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3415:, p. 16.
3414:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3392:
3389:
3385:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3365:
3362:
3358:
3353:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3332:, p. 14.
3331:
3326:
3324:
3320:
3317:, p. 13.
3316:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3283:, p. 15.
3282:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3258:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3228:
3224:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3180:
3177:
3173:
3168:
3166:
3162:
3159:, p. 61.
3158:
3153:
3150:
3147:, p. 57.
3146:
3141:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3112:, p. 89.
3111:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3091:
3088:
3085:, p. 85.
3084:
3079:
3076:
3073:, p. 84.
3072:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3046:
3043:
3039:
3034:
3031:
3028:, p. 88.
3027:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3013:, p. 76.
3012:
3007:
3005:
3001:
2998:, p. 83.
2997:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2982:
2979:, p. 75.
2978:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2937:, p. 91.
2936:
2935:Atwell (2002)
2931:
2928:
2925:, p. 90.
2924:
2923:Atwell (2002)
2919:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2899:
2895:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2860:, p. 97.
2859:
2858:Atwell (2002)
2854:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2798:Dreyer (1982)
2794:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2776:
2773:, p. 11.
2772:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2742:
2739:, p. 12.
2738:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2685:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2604:, p. 10.
2603:
2598:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2529:
2519:
2516:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2497:
2494:
2488:
2485:
2478:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2446:
2441:
2438:Portrayed by
2437:
2435:
2434:
2431:
2426:
2423:Portrayed by
2422:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2337:
2336:
2331:
2330:
2322:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2268:
2263:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2247:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2103:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2050:
2044:
2039:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2008:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1992:
1986:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1943:
1942:
1935:
1920:
1919:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1899:
1890:
1881:
1872:
1863:
1854:
1845:
1836:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1791:; 1414–1470)
1784:
1773:
1770:Zhu Jianpei,
1769:
1767:
1764:
1753:
1752:
1744:
1743:
1742:; 1426–1469)
1735:
1722:
1721:
1713:
1704:
1701:Zhu Jianshu,
1700:
1699:
1698:; 1429–1511)
1691:
1678:
1677:
1669:
1668:
1660:
1649:
1645:
1634:
1633:
1625:
1624:
1623:; 1429–1485)
1616:
1605:
1602:Zhu Jianzhi,
1601:
1592:
1588:
1585:
1574:
1573:
1559:
1548:
1547:
1539:
1531:Zhu Jianshi (
1530:
1521:
1518:Zhu Jianlin,
1517:
1516:
1515:; 1432–1468)
1508:
1505:
1494:
1490:
1481:
1477:
1466:
1465:
1457:
1456:
1455:; 1430–1504)
1448:
1445:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1402:
1393:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1341:
1340:Zhihua Temple
1332:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1284:
1275:
1272:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1256:Tumu zhi bian
1252:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1224:
1216:
1205:
1197:
1195:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1159:Toghtoa Bukha
1156:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1115:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1019:nominal value
1015:
1009:
999:
998:
995:
993:
984:
982:
978:
974:
972:
968:
964:
960:
953:, Zhou Chen (
952:
948:
937:
933:
929:
928:
922:
920:
916:
914:
908:
904:
902:
898:
894:
886:
881:
879:
877:
873:
865:
861:
853:
849:
841:
837:
829:
824:
822:
817:
808:), Chen Xun (
791:
778:
774:
769:
760:
758:
753:
751:
746:
744:
740:
736:
730:
728:
719:
717:
715:
714:
708:
706:
702:
696:
694:
690:
686:
678:
676:
674:
669:
667:
663:
658:
656:
652:
648:
643:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
620:
616:
612:
607:
605:
591:
587:
573:
569:
565:
561:
555:
547:
539:
535:
531:
529:Míng Yīngzōng
525:
517:
513:
505:
502:
498:
495:
492:
488:
485:
482:
480:
476:
473:
470:
468:
464:
451:
448:
444:
439:
433:
429:
425:
422:
418:
410:
401:
397:
392:
383:
378:
374:
368:
365:
363:
360:
359:
357:
354:
353:
347:
343:
330:
323:
322:
305:
298:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
278:
274:
258:
254:
242:
238:
234:
231:
228:
224:
221:
218:
214:
210:
206:
203:
199:
195:
191:
188:
184:
181:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
151:
140:
137:
133:
127:
123:
120:
117:
113:
110:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
58:
53:
40:
37:
33:
19:
4537:N. Dynasties
4533:S. Dynasties
4379:
4369:
4289:Qing dynasty
4283:
4277:
4268:
4261:
4255:
4225:
4192:
4170:
4164:
4157:
4150:
4144:
4128:
4121:
4116:House of Zhu
4114:
4098:29 September
4096:. Retrieved
4092:the original
4087:
4060:
4043:
4039:
4012:
4006:(1): 79–123.
4003:
3999:
3976:
3972:
3958:(2): 27–81.
3955:
3951:
3932:
3912:
3894:
3890:
3866:
3846:
3827:
3807:
3787:
3768:
3745:
3733:
3721:
3709:
3697:
3685:
3673:
3644:
3632:
3604:
3598:
3586:
3574:
3567:. Retrieved
3563:
3555:
3543:
3531:
3519:
3504:
3499:
3480:
3474:
3462:
3391:
3364:
3352:
3247:Brook (2003)
3242:
3230:
3223:Brook (2003)
3208:Brook (2003)
3203:
3196:Brook (2003)
3191:
3184:Brook (2003)
3179:
3152:
3140:
3090:
3078:
3050:Huang (1998)
3045:
3038:Huang (1998)
3033:
2972:
2930:
2901:
2826:
2778:
2684:
2597:
2562:
2518:
2509:
2502:Genghis Khan
2496:
2487:
2473:Ming dynasty
2445:Ming Dynasty
2443:
2440:Zhang Yixing
2432:
2429:
2408:
2302:Dong Yangong
1852:; 1446–1514)
1843:; 1427–1507)
1834:; 1430–1467)
1825:; 1431–1467)
1816:; 1430–1474)
1807:; 1426–1512)
1794:
1765:
1491:Zhu Jianze,
1443:; 1426–1468)
1428:
1427:
1414:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1336:
1333:Second reign
1326:
1322:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1286:
1279:
1269:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1242:
1238:
1227:
1207:
1192:
1183:
1178:
1171:
1144:
1131:
1127:
1116:
1112:
1103:
1099:
1086:
1075:
1051:
1010:
1006:
988:
979:
975:
946:
944:
935:
917:
909:
905:
890:
876:Song dynasty
871:
863:
859:
851:
847:
839:
835:
827:
825:
820:
818:
782:
754:
747:
731:
723:
711:
709:
697:
682:
670:
659:
644:
608:
601:
589:
585:Zhèngtǒng Dì
583:
571:
568:Ming dynasty
557:
533:
527:
511:
510:
437:
431:
427:
385:Zhu Qizhen (
350:
261:(1464-02-23)
160:Second reign
131:
97:Enthronement
36:
4609:1464 deaths
4604:1427 births
4529:16 Kingdoms
4046:: 119–148.
3760:Works cited
3738:Mote (1988)
3714:Heer (1986)
3666:Heer (1986)
3569:19 November
3507:. Beijing:
3467:Heer (1986)
3428:Heer (1986)
3413:Heer (1986)
3330:Heer (1986)
3315:Heer (1986)
3281:Heer (1986)
2783:Chan (1988)
2771:Heer (1986)
2737:Heer (1986)
2689:Heer (1986)
2602:Heer (1986)
2590:Mote (2003)
2567:Chan (1988)
2463:Tumu Crisis
2425:Wallace Huo
2269:(1399–1462)
2191:Sun Shiying
2104:(1379–1442)
2045:(1399–1435)
2019:(1362–1407)
1987:(1378–1425)
1961:(1360–1424)
1587:Zhu Jianjun
1271:onslaughts.
1258:. The term
1204:Tumu Crisis
1198:Tumu Crisis
1014:Grand Canal
647:Esen Taishi
603:Tiānshùn Dì
447:Temple name
216:Predecessor
168:Predecessor
152:(1435–1442)
141:(1435–1442)
105:Predecessor
89:First reign
4598:Categories
4521:3 Kingdoms
4491:(doubtful)
4274:1449–1457
4237:1457–1464
4204:1435–1449
4161:1428–1435
4061:T'oung Pao
4022:0521243327
3942:0521243335
3856:0521243327
3837:9004078983
3797:0521243327
2530:References
2407:TV series
1906:; d. 1500)
1897:; d. 1503)
1888:; d. 1504)
1870:; d. 1500)
1861:; d. 1463)
913:Jingdezhen
901:Huai River
836:Dàzàngjīng
701:Mao Qiling
628:Yang Shiqi
559:Zhū Qízhèn
534:Zhu Qizhen
453:Yingzong (
282:Ming tombs
249:宣德二年十一月十一日
4451:Hongguang
4426:Chongzhen
4069:0082-5433
4052:0254-9948
3964:1479-8484
3903:0021-9118
2535:Citations
2325:Lady Dong
2243:Lady Ding
2133:Lady Tong
1858:貞順懿恭敬妃 劉氏
1813:昭肅靖端賢妃 王氏
1804:安和榮靖麗妃 劉氏
1788:恭和安靜順妃 樊氏
1760:) in 1473
1739:恭端莊惠德妃 魏氏
1695:莊靜安榮淑妃 高氏
1664:莊僖端肅安妃 楊氏
1620:端靖安和惠妃 王氏
1512:靖莊安穆宸妃 萬氏
1422:Lady Zhou
1417:Lady Qian
1147:Uriankhai
971:Ray Huang
757:Lady Qian
693:Wang Zhen
640:Wang Zhen
632:Yang Rong
615:Zhengtong
400:Zhengtong
394:Era dates
269:天順八年正月十七日
226:Successor
211:1428–1435
176:Successor
115:Successor
18:Zhengtong
4485:(regent)
4469:(regent)
4458:(regent)
4416:Taichang
4406:Longqing
4386:Chenghua
4380:Yingzong
4370:Yingzong
3558:中国边疆民族研究
2452:See also
2078:Zhang Qi
1936:Ancestry
1909:Unknown
1440:孝莊睿皇后 錢氏
1266:writes:
1230:Zhu Qiyu
1155:Arughtai
1082:Mu Sheng
1078:Möng Mao
959:Zhejiang
951:Nanzhili
868:铜人腧穴针灸图经
860:Wǔlúnshū
743:Jin Ying
739:Fan Hong
735:Wang Jin
689:Lady Sun
666:Tianshun
619:era name
409:Tianshun
293:Consorts
150:Zhang Fu
132:See list
4401:Jiajing
4396:Zhengde
4391:Hongzhi
4375:Jingtai
4350:Jianwen
2354:Lady Qi
1903:惠和麗妃 陳氏
1894:僖恪充妃 余氏
1885:恭僖成妃 張氏
1876:昭懿賢妃 李氏
1867:昭靜恭妃 劉氏
1849:恭靖莊妃 趙氏
1840:榮靖貞妃 王氏
1831:恭安和妃 宮氏
1822:端莊昭妃 武氏
1777:徽莊王 朱見沛
1708:秀懷王 朱見澍
1653:許悼王 朱見淳
1609:忻穆王 朱見治
1596:吉簡王 朱見浚
1525:德莊王 朱見潾
1498:崇簡王 朱見澤
1452:孝肅皇后 周氏
1245:Chinese
1215:Yu Qian
1175:Qinghai
1090:Wang Ji
1043:Shaanxi
1039:Huguang
1035:Jiangxi
1031:Sichuan
1027:Guizhou
992:Guangxi
967:Huguang
963:Jiangxi
947:baochao
936:baochao
932:Huizhou
897:Jiangsu
790:Wang Ji
636:Yang Pu
617:", the
566:of the
564:emperor
516:Chinese
479:Dynasty
428:Emperor
338:
334:
320:
312:
308:
286:Beijing
125:Regents
4561:W. Xia
4489:Dingwu
4483:Dongwu
4478:Yongli
4473:Shaowu
4462:Longwu
4421:Tianqi
4365:Xuande
4360:Hongxi
4355:Yongle
4345:Hongwu
4278:Vacant
4256:Vacant
4165:Vacant
4145:Vacant
4127:
4067:
4050:
4019:
3983:
3962:
3939:
3920:
3901:
3874:
3853:
3834:
3815:
3794:
3775:
3487:
1485:憲宗 朱見深
1382:Family
1323:duomen
1247::
1151:Oirats
1047:Shanxi
1045:, and
1023:Yunnan
965:, and
750:Shanxi
741:, and
634:, and
556::
554:pinyin
548::
540::
526::
524:pinyin
518::
500:Mother
490:Father
352:Detail
276:Burial
208:Tenure
193:Tenure
75:Taiwan
71:Taipei
4505:Shang
4411:Wanli
4129:Died:
4122:Born:
3975:[
3897:(1).
2479:Notes
1167:Gansu
821:xunfu
467:House
380:Names
346:Issue
332:
314:(
310:
4577:Qing
4573:Ming
4569:Yuan
4557:Song
4553:Liao
4545:Tang
4509:Zhou
4337:Ming
4100:2013
4065:ISSN
4048:ISSN
4017:ISBN
3981:ISBN
3960:ISSN
3937:ISBN
3918:ISBN
3899:ISSN
3872:ISBN
3851:ISBN
3832:ISBN
3813:ISBN
3792:ISBN
3773:ISBN
3571:2018
3564:2017
3485:ISBN
2405:KBS1
1915:嘉祥公主
1748:宜興公主
1717:隆慶公主
1673:崇德公主
1629:嘉善公主
1563:廣德公主
1543:淳安公主
1461:重慶公主
1327:fubi
1291:太上皇帝
1260:bian
1163:Hami
1088:War
844:正統道藏
777:Qufu
484:Ming
256:Died
240:Born
4585:PRC
4581:ROC
4565:Jīn
4541:Sui
4525:Jìn
4517:Han
4513:Qin
4501:Xia
2430:The
1534:朱見湜
1319:徐有貞
1307:曹吉祥
1251:).
1179:jin
1123:鄧茂八
1119:鄧茂七
856:五倫書
832:大藏經
775:in
613:. "
598:天順帝
594:天顺帝
580:正統帝
576:正统帝
550:朱祁鎮
542:朱祁镇
520:明英宗
472:Zhu
438:睿皇帝
432:Rui
387:朱祁鎮
47:明英宗
4600::
4583:/
4579:→
4575:→
4571:→
4567:→
4563:/
4559:/
4555:/
4551:→
4547:→
4543:→
4539:→
4535:/
4531:→
4527:/
4523:→
4519:→
4515:→
4511:→
4507:→
4503:→
4291:)
4086:.
4044:54
4004:59
4002:.
3998:.
3954:.
3895:61
3893:.
3889:.
3656:^
3613:^
3573:.
3435:^
3420:^
3403:^
3376:^
3337:^
3322:^
3307:^
3288:^
3269:^
3254:^
3215:^
3164:^
3117:^
3102:^
3057:^
3018:^
3003:^
2984:^
2957:^
2942:^
2913:^
2880:^
2865:^
2838:^
2805:^
2790:^
2763:^
2744:^
2717:^
2696:^
2663:^
2646:^
2609:^
2574:^
2543:^
1924:黃鏞
1757:馬誠
1726:遊泰
1682:楊偉
1638:王增
1589:,
1578:樊凱
1569:延祥
1552:蔡震
1470:周景
1356:軒輗
1352:李賢
1348:薛瑄
1344:旌忠
1315:張軏
1311:石亨
1249:北狩
1219:王直
1211:鄺埜
1057:.
1049:.
1041:,
1037:,
1033:,
1029:,
1025:,
961:,
955:周忱
870:,
858:,
846:,
834:,
814:苗衷
810:陳循
806:高穀
802:馬愉
798:曹鼐
794:幼軍
786:徐晞
737:,
695:.
642:.
630:,
552:;
544:;
522:;
455:英宗
413:天順
404:正統
316:m.
284:,
73:,
69:,
4435:明
4321:e
4314:t
4307:v
4287:(
4102:.
4071:.
4054:.
4025:.
3989:.
3966:.
3956:4
3945:.
3926:.
3905:.
3880:.
3859:.
3840:.
3821:.
3800:.
3781:.
3493:.
2413:.
1879:)
1774:(
1705:(
1650:(
1606:(
1593:(
1522:(
1495:(
1482:(
1289:(
866:(
854:(
842:(
830:(
536:(
514:(
457:)
441:)
434:(
411:(
402:(
389:)
271:)
267:(
251:)
247:(
34:.
20:)
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