1750:
1055:
1733:. Physical collection or removal is not economical or even currently possible. Moving satellites out to a graveyard orbit is also unsustainable because they remain there for hundreds of years. It will lead to the further pollution of space and future issues with space debris. When satellites deorbit much of it is destroyed during re-entry into the atmosphere due to the heat. This introduces more material and pollutants into the atmosphere. There have been concerns expressed about the potential damage to the ozone layer and the possibility of increasing the earth's
634:
1415:
924:
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70:
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1788:, report that orbital pollution is getting increased significantly. A report from the SATCON1 workshop in 2020 concluded that the effects of large satellite constellations can severely affect some astronomical research efforts and lists six ways to mitigate harm to astronomy. The IAU is establishing a center (CPS) to coordinate or aggregate measures to mitigate such detrimental effects.
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Also, it is very easy to transmit a carrier radio signal to a geostationary satellite and thus interfere with the legitimate uses of the satellite's transponder. It is common for Earth stations to transmit at the wrong time or on the wrong frequency in commercial satellite space, and dual-illuminate
1644:
and can also contribute to ozone loss through the formation of ice particles. Black carbon particles emitted by rockets can absorb solar radiation in the stratosphere and cause warming in the surrounding air which can then impact the circulatory dynamics of the stratosphere. Both warming and changes
1393:
Navigational satellites are satellites that use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics, allows satellite
579:
Astérix or A-1 (initially conceptualized as FR.2 or FR-2) is the first French satellite. It was launched on 26 November 1965 by a
Diamant A rocket from the CIEES launch site at Hammaguir, Algeria. With Astérix, France became the sixth country to have an artificial satellite and the third country to
3629:
Sutherland, W.J.; Atkinson, P.W.; Broad, S.; Brown, S.; Clout, M.; Dias, M.P.; Dicks, L.V.; Doran, H.; Fleishman, E.; Garratt, E.L.; Gaston, K.J.; Hughes, A.C.; Le Roux, X.; Lickorish, F.A.; Maggs, L.; Palardy, J.E.; Peck, L.S.; Pettorelli, N.; Pretty, J.; Spalding, M.D.; Tonneijck, F.H.; Walpole,
969:; satellites that are further away are affected more by other bodies' gravitational field by the Moon and the Sun. Satellites utilize ultra-white reflective coatings to prevent damage from UV radiation. Without orbit and orientation control, satellites in orbit will not be able to communicate with
1518:
The environmental impact of satellites is not currently well understood as they were previously assumed to be benign due to the rarity of satellite launches. However, the exponential increase and projected growth of satellite launches are bringing the issue into consideration. The main issues are
1707:
Given the current surge in satellites in the sky, soon hundreds of satellites may be clearly visible to the human eye at dark sites. It is estimated that the overall levels of diffuse brightness of the night skies has increased by up to 10% above natural levels. This has the potential to confuse
1535:
is a preferred metal in satellite construction due to its lightweight and relative cheapness and typically constitutes around 40% of a satellite's mass. Through mining and refining, aluminium has numerous negative environmental impacts and is one of the most carbon-intensive metals. Satellite
1471:
Since the mid-2000s, satellites have been hacked by militant organizations to broadcast propaganda and to pilfer classified information from military communication networks. For testing purposes, satellites in low earth orbit have been destroyed by ballistic missiles launched from the Earth.
1635:
through intermolecular reactions and can have huge impacts in trace amounts. However, it is currently understood that launch rates would need to increase by ten times to match the impact of regulated ozone-depleting substances. Whilst emissions of water vapour are largely deemed as inert,
1246:, atmospheric trace gas content, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields. By monitoring vegetation changes over time, droughts can be monitored by comparing the current vegetation state to its long term average. Anthropogenic emissions can be monitored by evaluating data of tropospheric NO
453:
In
February 1954, Project RAND released "Scientific Uses for a Satellite Vehicle", by R. R. Carhart. This expanded on potential scientific uses for satellite vehicles and was followed in June 1955 with "The Scientific Use of an Artificial Satellite", by H. K. Kallmann and W. W. Kellogg.
1716:
At all points of a satellite's lifetime, its movement and processes are monitored on the ground through a network of facilities. The environmental cost of the infrastructure as well as day-to-day operations is likely to be quite high, but quantification requires further investigation.
1708:
organisms, like insects and night-migrating birds, that use celestial patterns for migration and orientation. The impact this might have is currently unclear. The visibility of man-made objects in the night sky may also impact people's linkages with the world, nature, and culture.
741:
satellites, the first large satellite internet constellation to exceed 1000 active satellites on orbit in 2020, are designed to be 100% demisable and burn up completely on their atmospheric reentry at the end of their life, or in the event of an early satellite failure.
1352:
and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points. Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and
896:
plan to send a wooden satellite prototype called LingoSat into orbit in the summer of 2024. They have been working on this project for few years and sent first wood samples to the space in 2021 to test the material's resilience to space conditions.
299:, on October 4, 1957. As of December 31, 2022, there are 6,718 operational satellites in the Earth's orbit, of which 4,529 belong to the United States (3,996 commercial), 590 belong to China, 174 belong to Russia, and 1,425 belong to other nations.
431:, which stated "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century." The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the
3814:
Lawrence, Andy; Rawls, Meredith L.; Jah, Moriba; Boley, Aaron; Di Vruno, Federico; Garrington, Simon; Kramer, Michael; Lawler, Samantha; Lowenthal, James; McDowell, Jonathan; McCaughrean, Mark (April 2022). "The case for space environmentalism".
1817:
by land-based transmitters. Such jamming is limited to the geographical area within the transmitter's range. GPS satellites are potential targets for jamming, but satellite phone and television signals have also been subjected to jamming.
1765:
are increasing in magnitude and at the same time lack progress in national or international regulation. Space debris pose dangers to the spacecraft (including satellites) in or crossing geocentric orbits and have the potential to drive a
1822:
the transponder, rendering the frequency unusable. Satellite operators now have sophisticated monitoring tools and methods that enable them to pinpoint the source of any carrier and manage the transponder space effectively.
1360:. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.
1665:
is caused by atmospheric drag and to keep the satellite in the correct orbit the platform occasionally needs repositioning. To do this nozzle-based systems use a chemical propellant to create thrust. In most cases
1682:
as gas into the upper atmosphere. Also, the environment of the outer atmosphere causes the degradation of exterior materials. The atomic oxygen in the upper atmosphere oxidises hydrocarbon-based polymers like
1548:, some of which have significant environmental consequences linked to their mining and processing and/or are in limited supply. Launch vehicles require larger amounts of raw materials to manufacture and the
1375:
When an Earth observation satellite or a communications satellite is deployed for military or intelligence purposes, it is known as a spy satellite or reconnaissance satellite.
707:—where on-orbit active satellites more than doubled over a period of five years—the companies building the constellations began to propose regular planned deorbiting of the older satellites that reached the
1599:
emitted by rockets is considered trivial as it contributes significantly less, around 0.01%, than the aviation industry yearly which itself accounts for 2-3% of the total global greenhouse gas emissions.
3186:
Flexer, Victoria; Baspineiro, Celso; Galli, Claudia (2018). "Lithium recovery from brines: A vital raw material for green energies with a potential environmental impact in its mining and processing".
428:
128:, signals intelligence and, potentially, weapon delivery. Other satellites include the final rocket stages that place satellites in orbit and formerly useful satellites that later become defunct.
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1990:
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attach solar panels to the satellite; the slip rings can rotate to be perpendicular with the sunlight and generate the most power. All satellites with a solar panel must also have
399:) and discussed the communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short with the idea of using satellites for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.
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MrĂłz, Przemek; Otarola, Angel; Prince, Thomas A.; Dekany, Richard; Duev, Dmitry A.; Graham, Matthew J.; Groom, Steven L.; Masci, Frank J.; Medford, Michael S. (1 January 2022).
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1510:. On 27 March 2019, India shot down a live test satellite at 300 km altitude in 3 minutes, becoming the fourth country to have the capability to destroy live satellites.
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and their effects are only beginning to be studied and it is likely that the impacts will be more critical than emissions in the troposphere. The stratosphere includes the
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through a negatively-charged grid. Ion propulsion is more efficient propellant-wise than chemical propulsion but its thrust is very small (around 0.5 N or 0.1 lb
308:
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439:. Project RAND eventually released the report, but considered the satellite to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda, rather than a potential military weapon.
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became the United States' first artificial satellite, on 31 January 1958. The information sent back from its radiation detector led to the discovery of the Earth's
332:
3319:
Dallas, J.A.; Raval, S.; Gaitan, J.P.A.; Saydam, S.; Dempster, A.G. (2020). "The environmental impact of emissions from space launches: A comprehensive review".
3052:
Farjana, Shahjadi Hisan; Huda, Nazmul; Mahmud, M.A. Parvez (2019). "Impacts of aluminum production: A cradle to gate investigation using life-cycle assessment".
2751:
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642:
3106:
Gaston, Kevin; Anderson, Karen; Shutler, Jamie; Brewin, Robert; Yan, Xiaoyu (2023). "Environmental impacts of increasing numbers of artificial space objects".
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2. H. K. Kallmann and W. W. Kellogg, Scientific Use of an
Artificial Satellite, Project RAND Research Memorandum. (Rand Corporation, Santa Monica) 8 June 1955.
4198:
566:
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3457:
Ross, Martin; Toohey, Darin; Peinemann, Manfred; Ross, Patrick (2009). "Limits on the Space Launch Market
Related to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion".
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1556:, which were composed mainly of steel, weighed around 38 tons each, to give an idea of the quantity of materials that are often left in the ocean.
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1054:
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Hamacher, Duane; Barsa, John; Passi, Segar; Tapim, Alo (2019). "Indigenous use of stellar scintillation to predict weather and seasonal change".
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1810:. Using wood as an alternative material has been posited in order to reduce pollution and debris from satellites that reenter the atmosphere.
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Their uses include early missile warning, nuclear explosion detection, electronic reconnaissance, and optical or radar imaging surveillance.
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144:
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2130:
R. R. Carhart, Scientific Uses for a
Satellite Vehicle, Project RAND Research Memorandum. (Rand Corporation, Santa Monica) 12 February 1954.
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1982:
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1506:
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734:(LEO)—satellites began to more frequently be designed to get destroyed, or breakup and burnup entirely in the atmosphere. For example,
4764:
2843:
2215:
210:; geostationary means the satellites stay still in the sky (relative to a fixed point on the ground). Some imaging satellites chose a
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around Earth increases, the threat of collision has become more severe. A small number of satellites orbit other bodies (such as the
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1785:
1133:
704:
4414:
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M.; Watson, J.E.M; Wentworth, J.; Thornton, A. (2021). "A 2021 Horizon Scan of
Emerging Global Biological Conservation Issues".
3151:
Norgate, Terry; Haque, Nawshad (2012). "Using life cycle assessment to evaluate some environmental impacts of gold production".
3007:
Schulz, Leonard; Glassmeier, Karl-Heinz (2021). "On the anthropogenic and natural injection of matter into Earth's atmosphere".
2782:
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resource use and the release of pollutants into the atmosphere which can happen at different stages of a satellite's lifetime.
1441:
are satellites that provide a recovery of reconnaissance, biological, space-production and other payloads from orbit to Earth.
1192:
applications. As of 2021, there are over 950 Earth observation satellites, with the largest number of satellites operated with
4029:
1564:
Rocket launches release numerous pollutants into every layer of the atmosphere, especially affecting the atmosphere above the
1552:
stages are usually dropped into the ocean after fuel exhaustion. They are not normally recovered. Two empty boosters used for
1334:
antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite. Others form
387:
explored the idea of using orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground in his 1928 book,
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satellites are proposed satellites that would collect energy from sunlight and transmit it for use on Earth or other places.
509:
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1915:
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to have consistent lighting and obtain a total view of the Earth. Depending on the satellites' functions, they might have a
1086:, because sunlight is blocked inside the launch vehicle and at night. The most common types of batteries for satellites are
680:
rocket from an
American spaceport. The same goes for Australia, whose launch of the first satellite involved a donated U.S.
171:
to space, most satellites are designed to be as lightweight and robust as possible. Most communication satellites are radio
4475:
4351:"Report Offers Roadmap to Mitigate Effects of Large Satellite Constellations on Astronomy | American Astronomical Society"
4292:
2943:
1148:. Most Earth observation satellites are placed in low Earth orbit for a high data resolution, though some are placed in a
684:
rocket and
American support staff as well as a joint launch facility with the United Kingdom. The first Italian satellite
603:
5497:
4151:"Impact of satellite constellations on astronomical observations with ESO telescopes in the visible and infrared domains"
3239:
602:
Early satellites were built to unique designs. With advancements in technology, multiple satellites began to be built on
416:
for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet.
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1342:, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently.
30:
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1954:
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in
February 2008. On 18 November 2015, after two failed attempts, Russia successfully carried out a flight test of an
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can relay information to remote places. The signal delay from satellites and their orbit's predictability are used in
241:
3543:
de Groh, Kim; Banks, Bruce; Miller, Sharon; Dever, Joyce (2018). "Chapter 28 - Degradation of
Spacecraft Materials".
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announced on 29 July 1955 that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as
391:. He described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The book described
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While Canada was the third country to build a satellite which was launched into space, it was launched aboard an
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3402:"Impact of Rocket Launch and Space Debris Air Pollutant Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate"
2704:
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1466:
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1335:
954:
946:
618:
534:
420:
172:
164:
2523:"Digital Connectivity and Low Earth Orbit Satellite Constellations: Opportunities for Asia and the Pacific"
625:
is a commercial off-the-shelf software application for satellite mission analysis, design, and operations.
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136:
2603:"Space - American Elements Assists NASA in Development of Ultra White Coating for Satellite Applications"
1741:
of the earth's climate. After deorbiting 70% of satellites end up in the ocean and are rarely recovered.
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2426:
Technical Innovation in American History: An Encyclopedia of Science and Technology [3 volumes]
2308:
700:. In similar occasions, almost all further first national satellites were launched by foreign rockets.
490:
369:, which was the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the
4288:"Impacts of Large Satellite Constellations on Astronomy: Live Updates | American Astronomical Society"
3908:
3588:"The proliferation of space objects is a rapidly increasing source of artificial night sky brightness"
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1128:
569:(TIROS) program, sent back the first television footage of weather patterns to be taken from space.
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1323:
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341:
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113:
109:
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520:. On 31 July, the Soviet Union announced its intention to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.
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where the byproducts of combustion can reside for extended periods. These pollutants can include
1549:
1438:
1411:
are satellites used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects.
1083:
1041:
966:
436:
374:
227:
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1958:
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navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time.
493:
through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the
384:
4222:"Impact of the SpaceX Starlink Satellites on the Zwicky Transient Facility Survey Observations"
1658:
Several pollutants are released in the upper atmospheric layers during the orbital lifetime of
526:
was launched on 3 November 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named
5439:
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4949:
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4190:
3973:"Chinese official calls for protection of space assets, international coordination mechanisms"
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1962:
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1157:
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because they can scan the entire globe with similar lighting. As the number of satellites and
132:
57:
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1445:
are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.
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4251:
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124:, scientific research, and Earth observation. Additional military uses are reconnaissance,
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542:
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257:
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988:. Hypergolic means able to combust spontaneously when in contact with each other or to a
318:
The first published mathematical study of the possibility of an artificial satellite was
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which could potentially curtail humanity from conducting space endeavors in the future.
703:
After the late 2010s, and especially after the advent and operational fielding of large
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3401:
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1947:
1836:
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1595:, but the mix of pollutants is dependent on rocket design and fuel type. The amount of
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1528:
1331:
1330:, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the
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175:
in orbit and carry dozens of transponders, each with a bandwidth of tens of megahertz.
148:
3493:
1885:
1813:
Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions, they are prone to
1791:
Some notable satellite failures that polluted and dispersed radioactive materials are
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3494:"The Climate and Ozone Impacts of Black Carbon Emissions From Global Rocket Launches"
2690:
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1814:
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When satellites reach the end of life they are intentionally deorbited or moved to a
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336:(1687). The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a
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that are used to insulate and protect the satellite which then emits gasses like CO
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2464:"Material selection for a CubeSat structural bus complying with debris mitigation"
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flows, etc. Environmental monitoring satellites can detect changes in the Earth's
1144:
Earth observation satellites are designed to monitor and survey the Earth, called
957:
or attitude. Satellites close to Earth are affected the most by variations in the
4506:
2752:"Military Satellite Communications Fundamentals | The Aerospace Corporation"
1923:
1172:, or atmospheric instruments. Earth observation satellite's data is most used in
5277:
5143:
4833:
4816:
4688:
4411:"Protection of the Dark and Quiet Sky from Satellite Constellation Interference"
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are satellites that are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a
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Maloney, Christopher; Portmann, Robert; Ross, Martin; Rosenlof, Karen (2022).
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Ryan, Robert; Marais, Eloise; Balhatchet, Chloe; Eastham, Sebastian (2022).
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of obtaining a launch license. The largest artificial satellite ever is the
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3354:
Miraux, Lois (2022). "Environmental limits to the space sector's growth".
3280:"Earth observation from space – The issue of environmental sustainability"
3660:
3517:
3425:
1781:
1679:
1675:
1553:
1497:
1319:
1315:
1137:
1063:
870:
842:
826:
738:
583:
France is the third country to launch a satellite on its own rocket, the
502:
497:. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the
3136:
2634:"How many Earth observation satellites are orbiting the planet in 2021?"
2254:
2150:
572:
In June 1961, three and a half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the
462:
3216:
1671:
1545:
1537:
1493:
1327:
1025:
878:
794:
786:
778:
758:
746:
723:
596:
588:
562:
291:
The first artificial satellite launched into the Earth's orbit was the
160:
74:
541:, and the International Geophysical Year, the Army and Navy worked on
5235:
5099:
4640:
4595:"Libya Pinpointed as Source of Months-Long Satellite Jamming in 2006"
3127:
1778:
1734:
1688:
1684:
1527:
Resource use is difficult to monitor and quantify for satellites and
1473:
1434:
1239:
1074:
to generate power, and a few in deep space with limited sunlight use
874:
850:
846:
838:
830:
806:
790:
766:
762:
735:
611:
501:
in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the
3755:
2912:"Navy Missile Successful as Spy Satellite Is Shot Down (With Video)"
1488:
have demonstrated the ability to eliminate satellites. In 2007, the
489:
as chief designer. Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high
202:. As of 2018, about 90% of the satellites orbiting the Earth are in
4238:
4167:
3829:
3746:
3604:
3021:
1016:), and thus requires a longer burn time. The thrusters usually use
268:. Because satellites can see a large portion of the Earth at once,
3771:"Environmental sustainability of future proposed space activities"
1748:
1692:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1413:
1311:
1299:
1279:
1203:
1165:
1127:
1053:
1017:
922:
862:
814:
810:
798:
782:
774:
770:
632:
527:
461:
105:
78:
68:
3878:"Problem Weltraumschrott: Die kosmische Müllkippe – Wissenschaft"
2689:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
696:(Virginia, United States) with an Italian launch team trained by
2581:"Japanese scientists want to send a wooden satellite into space"
2154:
2063:
2059:"Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship"
1541:
1227:
1211:
893:
802:
697:
4661:
4321:"SpaceX's Dark Satellites Are Still Too Bright for Astronomers"
4120:"Light pollution from satellites will get worse. But how much?"
1492:
military shot down an aging weather satellite, followed by the
1152:
for an uninterrupted coverage. Some satellites are placed in a
992:. The most commonly used propellant mixtures on satellites are
147:(RTGs). Most satellites also have a method of communication to
5116:
4657:
3586:
Kocifaj, M.; Kundracik, F.; Barentine, J.C.; Bara, S. (2021).
2092:
Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center
1580:
1231:
429:
Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship
117:
112:. They have a variety of uses, including communication relay,
3809:
3807:
2182:"50th anniversary of first U.S. satellite launch celebrated"
1645:
in circulation can then cause depletion of the ozone layer.
56:
This article is about human-made satellites. For moons, see
3769:
Miraux, Lois; Willson, Andrew; Calabuig, Guillermo (2022).
916:"Altitude control" redirects here. Not to be confused with
159:
to save cost and work, the most popular of which are small
4060:"What happens if two bits of space junk actually collide?"
3592:
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters
163:. Similar satellites can work together as groups, forming
4149:
Hainaut, Olivier R.; Williams, Andrew P. (1 April 2020).
3683:
Foster, J.; Smolka, J.; Nilsson, D.E.; Dacke, M. (2018).
2237:
Tatem, Andrew J.; Goetz, Scott J.; Hay, Simon I. (2008).
722:
By the early 2000s, and particularly after the advent of
565:
spacecraft, launched on April 1, 1960, as part of NASA's
2844:"AsiaSat accuses Falungong of hacking satellite signals"
2783:"8 types of satellites that make your modern world work"
4381:"Astronomers stand up to satellite mega-constellations"
3943:"What would a sustainable space environment look like?"
3689:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2876:
Broad, William J.; Sanger, David E. (18 January 2007).
1004:
bipropellants. Ion thrusters on satellites usually are
651: Satellite operation, launched by foreign supplier
178:
Satellites are placed from the surface to the orbit by
34:
4468:"Japan developing wooden satellites to cut space junk"
2944:"India successfully tests anti-satellite weapon: Modi"
1611:
and pollutants emitted from rockets can contribute to
610:. The first standardized satellite bus design was the
190:. Satellites can then change or maintain the orbit by
5495:
4499:"U.S.-Led Forces Destroy GPS Jamming Systems in Iraq"
4030:"Space is becoming too crowded, Rocket Lab CEO warns"
1531:
due to their commercially sensitive nature. However,
1322:
applications. Many communications satellites are in
2294:
Portree, David S. F.; Loftus, Joseph P. Jr. (1999).
1945:
Bleiler, Everett Franklin; Bleiler, Richard (1991).
1753:
The growth of all tracked objects in space over time
1737:, reducing warming but also resulting in accidental
1670:
is the chemical propellant used which then releases
5430:
5383:
5335:
5221:
5157:
5062:
4982:
4973:
4861:
4695:
2879:"China Tests Anti-Satellite Weapon, Unnerving U.S."
4413:. Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, Bonn.
2877:
2371:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
1946:
1536:manufacturing also requires rare elements such as
373:required for a minimal orbit, and inferred that a
309:Timeline of first artificial satellites by country
2554:"The Countries with the Most Satellites in Space"
1916:"Rockets in Science Fiction (Late 19th Century)"
1140:, collecting data on Earth's weather and climate
730:—frequently launched to the lower altitudes of
545:with two competing programs. The army used the
745:In different periods, many countries, such as
4673:
4090:"IAU's statement on satellite constellations"
2239:"Fifty Years of Earth-observation Satellites"
976:Chemical thrusters on satellites usually use
508:In the context of activities planned for the
442:In 1946, American theoretical astrophysicist
8:
4562:"Iran government jamming exile satellite TV"
3734:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria
2106:"Hubble Essentials: About Lyman Spitzer, Jr"
1806:Generally liability has been covered by the
1348:used for telecommunications links travel by
1062:'s black solar panels on the left and white
533:In early 1955, after being pressured by the
367:Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices
2149:Gray, Tara; Garber, Steve (2 August 2004).
2021:Pratt, Timothy; Allnutt, Jeremy E. (2019).
1729:further away from Earth in order to reduce
688:was launched on 15 December 1964 on a U.S.
549:, while the civilian–Navy program used the
333:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
18:
4979:
4680:
4666:
4658:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3265:
2521:Garrity, John; Husar, Arndt (April 2021).
2462:Slejko, EA; Gregorio, A; Lughi, V (2021).
1784:, the astronomical community, such as the
4255:
4237:
4184:
4166:
3936:
3934:
3828:
3745:
3708:
3659:
3613:
3603:
3560:
3433:
3303:
3215:
3135:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3091:
3020:
3002:
3000:
2423:Welch, Rosanne; Lamphier, Peg A. (2019).
2270:
1302:. Communications satellites are used for
576:cataloged 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.
567:Television Infrared Observation Satellite
4630:) is being considered for deletion. See
4437:"International Astronomical Union | IAU"
3108:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
2335:Space Programs Outside the United States
1326:22,236 miles (35,785 km) above the
1032:and storable as a high-pressure liquid.
1008:, which generate thrust by accelerating
667:project at advanced stage or indigenous
574:United States Space Surveillance Network
412:described in detail the possible use of
408:article, English science fiction writer
24:This is an accepted version of this page
5502:
5165:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
4003:"The Kessler Effect and how to stop it"
3395:
3393:
2871:
2869:
2814:"Hack a Satellite while it is in orbit"
2730:"Satellites - Communication Satellites"
1877:
1853:
591:A rocket from the CIEES launch site at
139:system for equipment on board, such as
51:Objects intentionally placed into orbit
20:
5187:Psychological and sociological effects
4361:from the original on 24 September 2020
3545:Handbook of Environmental Degreadation
3278:Durrieu, Sylvie; Nelson, Ross (2013).
2214:. New Mexico Museum of Space History.
1993:from the original on 16 September 2016
1104:Transponder (satellite communications)
1076:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
145:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
4530:"Homemade GPS jammers raise concerns"
4478:from the original on 29 December 2020
4201:from the original on 19 December 2020
2703:Labrador, Virgil (19 February 2015).
2443:from the original on 14 February 2021
2151:"A Brief History of Animals in Space"
1896:from the original on 20 December 2019
621:launched in 1972. Beginning in 1997,
580:launch a satellite on its own rocket
348:" (1869). The idea surfaced again in
7:
4574:from the original on 14 January 2006
3876:Seidler, Christoph (22 April 2017).
2579:Cairns, Rebecca (11 November 2023).
2161:from the original on 11 October 2004
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
280:are satellites designed for robotic
230:) or many bodies at once (two for a
4605:from the original on 29 April 2008.
4466:Harper, Justin (29 December 2020).
4331:from the original on 2 January 2021
3909:"Space Debris and Human Spacecraft"
2985:from the original on 1 January 2018
2664:"Drought and Vegetation Monitoring"
2560:from the original on 4 October 2023
2112:from the original on 9 October 2018
473:The first artificial satellite was
264:to observe objects with the entire
88:'s Small Satellite Orbital Deployer
4896:Weather and environment monitoring
4447:from the original on 13 March 2022
4417:from the original on 15 March 2022
4391:from the original on 10 March 2022
4300:from the original on 19 April 2022
4130:from the original on 28 April 2021
4009:from the original on 22 March 2022
3953:from the original on 22 March 2022
3919:from the original on 22 March 2022
3888:from the original on 23 April 2017
3553:10.1016/B978-0-323-52472-8.00029-0
2920:. 21 February 2008. Archived from
2892:from the original on 17 April 2017
2850:. 22 November 2004. Archived from
2793:from the original on 30 March 2024
2552:Buchholz, Katharina (4 May 2023).
288:are in essence crewed satellites.
81:after being deployed from the ISS
49:
4634:to help reach a consensus. ›
4226:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
3983:from the original on 21 July 2022
3632:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3524:from the original on 18 June 2024
3250:from the original on 6 March 2023
2954:from the original on 12 July 2021
2644:from the original on 21 July 2022
2613:from the original on 6 April 2023
2533:from the original on 21 July 2022
2180:Chang, Alicia (30 January 2008).
2071:from the original on 15 June 2010
705:satellite internet constellations
395:satellites (first put forward by
5517:
5505:
5479:
5469:
5468:
4100:from the original on 27 May 2020
4094:International Astronomical Union
4070:from the original on 26 May 2022
4040:from the original on 26 May 2022
3356:Science of the Total Environment
3188:Science of the Total Environment
3054:Science of the Total Environment
2975:"India's Anti-Satellite Weapons"
2781:Ericsson, Karin (13 June 2018).
2684:
2502:from the original on 3 June 2022
2218:from the original on 15 May 2018
1949:Science-fiction, the Early Years
1282:telecommunication signals via a
1134:Earth Radiation Budget Satellite
937:Most satellites use chemical or
892:Japan's space agency (JAXA) and
889:, had some satellites in orbit.
260:take advantage of outer space's
4940:Space launch market competition
3798:10.1016/j.actaastro.2022.07.034
3376:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150862
3208:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.223
3074:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.400
2400:Springer Science+Business Media
1773:With increase in the number of
5177:Health threat from cosmic rays
3907:Garcia, Mark (13 April 2015).
3685:"How animals follow the stars"
3305:10.1016/j.spacepol.2013.07.003
2973:Vasani, Harsh (14 June 2016).
2812:Morrill, Dan (13 April 2007).
2758:. 1 April 2010. Archived from
2304:Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
2296:"Orbital Debris: A Chronology"
1832:High-altitude platform station
657: Satellite in development
510:International Geophysical Year
1:
4293:American Astronomical Society
3341:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120209
3321:Journal of Cleaner Production
3173:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.01.042
3153:Journal of Cleaner Production
1890:Union of Concerned Scientists
4155:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2862:– via AccessMyLibrary.
2307:. p. 18. Archived from
1920:Marshall Space Flight Center
1699:and CO into the atmosphere.
481:on 4 October 1957 under the
242:Earth observation satellites
5293:Self-replicating spacecraft
5129:International Space Station
4186:10.1051/0004-6361/202037501
1983:"Introduction to satellite"
1955:Kent State University Press
1712:Ground-based infrastructure
1124:Earth observation satellite
1060:International Space Station
717:International Space Station
629:Later Satellite Development
587:, on 26 November 1965 by a
539:National Science Foundation
389:The Problem of Space Travel
5566:
4807:Space Liability Convention
4593:Selding, Peter de (2007).
3847:10.1038/s41550-022-01655-6
3652:10.1016/j.tree.2020.10.014
3009:Advances in Space Research
2468:Advances in Space Research
2090:Rosenthal, Alfred (1968).
1745:Pollution and interference
1654:Low earth orbit satellites
1640:O is the source gas for HO
1456:
1401:
1386:
1368:
1298:at different locations on
1278:that relays and amplifies
1261:
1121:
1101:
1050:Solar panels on spacecraft
1039:
996:-based monopropellants or
915:
909:
906:Orbit and altitude control
726:and increased launches of
322:, a thought experiment by
306:
135:, most satellites have an
100:is an object, typically a
62:Satellite (disambiguation)
55:
5463:
5170:Space adaptation syndrome
4651:23 September 2013 at the
3479:10.1080/14777620902768867
3244:The European Space Agency
3039:10.1016/j.asr.2020.10.036
2732:. Satellites.spacesim.org
2705:"satellite communication"
2488:10.1016/j.asr.2020.11.037
2429:. ABC-CLIO. p. 126.
2333:Burleson, Daphne (2005).
2027:John Wiley & Sons Ltd
1860:to distinguish them from
559:Van Allen radiation belts
414:communications satellites
326:to explain the motion of
270:communications satellites
4903:Communications satellite
4632:templates for discussion
4257:10.3847/2041-8213/ac470a
2396:Europe's Space Programme
2023:Satellite Communications
1886:"UCS Satellite Database"
1775:satellite constellations
1603:Rocket emissions in the
1371:Reconnaissance satellite
1336:satellite constellations
1272:communications satellite
1264:Communications satellite
1182:environmental monitoring
266:electromagnetic spectrum
155:. Many satellites use a
31:latest accepted revision
5407:reusable launch systems
5024:Extravehicular activity
4935:Commercial use of space
4839:Militarisation of space
4812:Registration Convention
4728:Accidents and incidents
4497:Singer, Jeremy (2003).
4177:2020A&A...636A.121H
2632:Andy (18 August 2021).
2339:McFarland & Company
2186:San Francisco Chronicle
1631:deplete stratospheric O
1467:Early warning satellite
1447:Space-based solar power
1409:Astronomical satellites
1234:mapping, boundaries of
645:and satellite operation
619:communication satellite
553:to launch a satellite.
535:American Rocket Society
421:United States Air Force
244:gather information for
182:, high enough to avoid
5455:Mission control center
5417:Non-rocket spacelaunch
4851:Billionaire space race
3701:10.1098/rspb.2017.2322
3615:10.1093/mnrasl/slab030
2670:. NASA. Archived from
2394:Harvey, Brian (2003).
1754:
1422:
1420:Hubble Space Telescope
1141:
1067:
1046:Nuclear power in space
955:three axis of rotation
934:
673:
604:single model platforms
470:
397:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
365:(1857–1935) published
363:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
284:outside of Earth, and
276:systems, such as GPS.
256:, ocean, forest, etc.
254:monitoring the weather
167:. Because of the high
137:electricity generation
89:
60:. For other uses, see
5305:Spacecraft propulsion
4755:European Space Agency
2820:Blogs. Archived from
1752:
1615:in a number of ways.
1498:defunct spy satellite
1463:Anti-satellite weapon
1417:
1288:communication channel
1154:Sun-synchronous orbit
1131:
1057:
1006:Hall-effect thrusters
984:(two-parts) that are
926:
912:Spacecraft propulsion
910:Further information:
636:
465:
446:proposed an orbiting
433:Bureau of Aeronautics
212:Sun-synchronous orbit
72:
4930:Satellite navigation
4528:Brewin, Bob (2003).
3518:10.1029/2021JD036373
3426:10.1029/2021EF002612
3412:(6): e2021EF002612.
2848:Press Trust of India
2208:"James A. Van Allen"
1989:. 2 September 2016.
1842:Satellite refuelling
1808:Liability Convention
1649:Operational lifetime
1514:Environmental Impact
1389:Satellite navigation
1276:artificial satellite
1224:sand and dust storms
1070:Most satellites use
1002:dinitrogen tetroxide
947:maintain their orbit
381:could achieve this.
274:satellite navigation
98:artificial satellite
5315:Electric propulsion
5002:Life-support system
4886:Imagery and mapping
4846:Private spaceflight
4646:EO Portal directory
4387:. 4 February 2022.
4325:Scientific American
4248:2022ApJ...924L..30M
4066:. 16 October 2020.
3839:2022NatAs...6..428L
3790:2022AcAau.200..329M
3644:2021TEcoE..36...87S
3510:2022JGRD..12736373M
3471:2009AstPo...7...50R
3418:2022EaFut..1002612R
3368:2022ScTEn.80650862M
3333:2020JCPro.25520209D
3296:2013SpPol..29..238D
3200:2018ScTEn.639.1188F
3165:2012JCPro..29...53N
3120:2023FrEE...21..289G
3066:2019ScTEn.663..958F
3031:2021AdSpR..67.1002S
2762:on 5 September 2015
2480:2021AdSpR..67.1468S
2314:on 1 September 2000
2255:10.1511/2008.74.390
2196:on 1 February 2008.
2094:. NASA. p. 15.
1926:on 1 September 2000
1439:Recovery satellites
1324:geostationary orbit
1150:geostationary orbit
998:monomethylhydrazine
963:gravitational field
711:, as a part of the
355:The Begum's Fortune
342:Edward Everett Hale
320:Newton's cannonball
262:near perfect vacuum
208:geostationary orbit
114:weather forecasting
21:Page version status
5268:Robotic spacecraft
5194:Space and survival
5049:Space colonization
4945:Space architecture
4797:Outer Space Treaty
3949:. Universe Today.
2885:The New York Times
2243:American Scientist
1862:natural satellites
1755:
1423:
1200:Weather satellites
1142:
1132:Deployment of the
1090:, and in the past
1068:
1042:Batteries in space
967:radiation pressure
935:
713:regulatory process
674:
669:ballistic missiles
491:atmospheric layers
477:, launched by the
471:
437:United States Navy
375:multi-stage rocket
328:natural satellites
133:passive satellites
90:
27:
5550:Soviet inventions
5493:
5492:
5440:Flight controller
5217:
5216:
4975:Human spaceflight
4950:Space exploration
4876:Earth observation
4028:Wattles, Jackie.
3979:. 10 March 2022.
3778:Acta Astronautica
3572:978-0-323-52472-8
2950:. 27 March 2019.
2917:Popular Mechanics
2674:on 19 August 2008
2668:Earth Observatory
2607:American Elements
2436:978-1-61069-094-2
2409:978-1-85233-722-3
2380:978-1-56347-705-8
2367:Blazing the Trail
2348:978-0-7864-1852-7
2212:nmspacemuseum.org
2036:978-1-119-48217-8
1968:978-0-87338-416-2
1597:green house gases
1504:missile known as
1431:Tether satellites
1290:between a source
1118:Earth observation
953:to control their
512:(1957–1958), the
419:In May 1946, the
377:fueled by liquid
282:space exploration
58:Natural satellite
39:16 September 2024
5557:
5522:
5521:
5520:
5510:
5509:
5508:
5501:
5483:
5472:
5471:
5182:Space psychology
5007:Animals in space
4980:
4960:Space technology
4802:Rescue Agreement
4682:
4675:
4668:
4659:
4607:
4606:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4579:
4558:
4552:
4551:
4549:
4547:
4542:on 22 April 2008
4538:. Archived from
4525:
4519:
4518:
4516:
4514:
4505:. Archived from
4494:
4488:
4487:
4485:
4483:
4463:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4433:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4377:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4347:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4336:
4316:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4305:
4284:
4278:
4277:
4259:
4241:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4206:
4188:
4170:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4126:. 14 June 2019.
4116:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4086:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4075:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4025:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4014:
3999:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3988:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3958:
3941:Williams, Matt.
3938:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3873:
3867:
3866:
3832:
3817:Nature Astronomy
3811:
3802:
3801:
3775:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3749:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3712:
3680:
3674:
3673:
3663:
3626:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3607:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3564:
3562:2060/20040112017
3540:
3534:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3437:
3397:
3388:
3387:
3351:
3345:
3344:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3275:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3240:"Boosters (EAP)"
3236:
3230:
3229:
3219:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3148:
3142:
3141:
3139:
3128:10.1002/fee.2624
3103:
3086:
3085:
3049:
3043:
3042:
3024:
3015:(3): 1002–1025.
3004:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2881:
2873:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2824:on 20 March 2008
2809:
2803:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2700:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2649:
2629:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2507:
2474:(5): 1468–1476.
2459:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2313:
2300:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2274:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2192:. Archived from
2190:Associated Press
2177:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2146:
2140:
2137:
2131:
2128:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2025:(3rd ed.).
2018:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1952:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1922:. Archived from
1912:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1882:
1865:
1858:
1768:Kessler syndrome
1496:shooting down a
1024:, can be easily
959:Earth's magnetic
918:Attitude control
662:
656:
650:
640:
547:Jupiter C rocket
518:Project Vanguard
458:First satellites
410:Arthur C. Clarke
258:Space telescopes
157:standardized bus
77:orbiting around
5565:
5564:
5560:
5559:
5558:
5556:
5555:
5554:
5530:
5529:
5528:
5518:
5516:
5506:
5504:
5496:
5494:
5489:
5459:
5426:
5398:Escape velocity
5379:
5331:
5298:Space telescope
5251:Reentry capsule
5213:
5153:
5058:
5029:Overview effect
5012:Bioastronautics
4969:
4857:
4691:
4686:
4653:Wayback Machine
4635:
4616:
4611:
4610:
4592:
4591:
4587:
4577:
4575:
4560:
4559:
4555:
4545:
4543:
4527:
4526:
4522:
4512:
4510:
4496:
4495:
4491:
4481:
4479:
4465:
4464:
4460:
4450:
4448:
4435:
4434:
4430:
4420:
4418:
4409:
4408:
4404:
4394:
4392:
4379:
4378:
4374:
4364:
4362:
4349:
4348:
4344:
4334:
4332:
4318:
4317:
4313:
4303:
4301:
4286:
4285:
4281:
4219:
4218:
4214:
4204:
4202:
4148:
4147:
4143:
4133:
4131:
4118:
4117:
4113:
4103:
4101:
4088:
4087:
4083:
4073:
4071:
4064:The Independent
4058:
4057:
4053:
4043:
4041:
4027:
4026:
4022:
4012:
4010:
4001:
4000:
3996:
3986:
3984:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3956:
3954:
3940:
3939:
3932:
3922:
3920:
3906:
3905:
3901:
3891:
3889:
3875:
3874:
3870:
3813:
3812:
3805:
3773:
3768:
3767:
3763:
3756:10.1071/RS19003
3731:
3730:
3726:
3682:
3681:
3677:
3628:
3627:
3623:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3527:
3525:
3498:JGR Atmospheres
3491:
3490:
3486:
3456:
3455:
3451:
3399:
3398:
3391:
3353:
3352:
3348:
3318:
3317:
3313:
3277:
3276:
3263:
3253:
3251:
3238:
3237:
3233:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3150:
3149:
3145:
3105:
3104:
3089:
3051:
3050:
3046:
3006:
3005:
2998:
2988:
2986:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2957:
2955:
2942:
2941:
2937:
2927:
2925:
2924:on 1 April 2008
2910:
2909:
2905:
2895:
2893:
2875:
2874:
2867:
2857:
2855:
2854:on 19 July 2012
2842:
2841:
2837:
2827:
2825:
2811:
2810:
2806:
2796:
2794:
2787:Melbourne Space
2780:
2779:
2775:
2765:
2763:
2750:
2749:
2745:
2735:
2733:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2713:
2711:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2685:
2677:
2675:
2662:
2661:
2657:
2647:
2645:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2614:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2586:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2563:
2561:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2536:
2534:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2505:
2503:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2446:
2444:
2437:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2402:. p. 114.
2393:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2373:. p. 426.
2361:
2360:
2356:
2349:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2298:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2221:
2219:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2164:
2162:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2115:
2113:
2108:. Hubble Site.
2104:
2103:
2099:
2089:
2088:
2084:
2074:
2072:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2037:
2020:
2019:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1969:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1929:
1927:
1914:
1913:
1909:
1899:
1897:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1868:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1828:
1763:light pollution
1747:
1727:graveyard orbit
1723:
1714:
1705:
1698:
1660:LEO satellites.
1656:
1651:
1643:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1613:ozone depletion
1586:
1581:nitrogen oxides
1577:
1562:
1529:launch vehicles
1525:
1516:
1469:
1457:Main articles:
1455:
1428:
1406:
1404:Space telescope
1400:
1391:
1385:
1373:
1367:
1362:
1361:
1340:low Earth orbit
1286:; it creates a
1266:
1260:
1253:
1249:
1126:
1120:
1115:
1106:
1100:
1092:nickel–hydrogen
1052:
1040:Main articles:
1038:
1015:
971:ground stations
951:reaction wheels
949:, coupled with
933:'s ion thruster
921:
914:
908:
903:
732:low Earth orbit
672:
660:
658:
654:
652:
648:
646:
638:
631:
608:satellite buses
551:Vanguard rocket
543:Project Orbiter
483:Sputnik program
466:Replica of the
460:
448:space telescope
385:Herman PotoÄŤnik
316:
314:Early proposals
311:
305:
236:Lissajous orbit
204:low Earth orbit
180:launch vehicles
149:ground stations
65:
52:
47:
46:
45:
44:
43:
42:
26:
12:
11:
5:
5563:
5561:
5553:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5532:
5531:
5527:
5526:
5514:
5491:
5490:
5488:
5487:
5476:
5464:
5461:
5460:
5458:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5445:Ground station
5442:
5436:
5434:
5432:Ground segment
5428:
5427:
5425:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5400:
5395:
5389:
5387:
5381:
5380:
5378:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5365:Interplanetary
5362:
5361:
5360:
5358:Geosynchronous
5355:
5345:
5339:
5337:
5333:
5332:
5330:
5329:
5328:
5327:
5325:Gravity assist
5322:
5317:
5312:
5302:
5301:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5265:
5260:
5259:
5258:
5256:Service module
5253:
5248:
5246:Orbital module
5238:
5233:
5231:Launch vehicle
5227:
5225:
5219:
5218:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5211:
5209:Space sexology
5206:
5201:
5199:Space medicine
5196:
5191:
5190:
5189:
5179:
5174:
5173:
5172:
5161:
5159:
5155:
5154:
5152:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5114:
5109:
5108:
5107:
5102:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5059:
5057:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5034:Weightlessness
5031:
5026:
5021:
5020:
5019:
5014:
5009:
4999:
4998:
4997:
4986:
4984:
4977:
4971:
4970:
4968:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4955:Space research
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4926:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4900:
4899:
4898:
4893:
4891:Reconnaissance
4888:
4883:
4873:
4867:
4865:
4859:
4858:
4856:
4855:
4854:
4853:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4821:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4789:
4788:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4760:European Union
4757:
4752:
4747:
4737:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4705:
4699:
4697:
4693:
4692:
4687:
4685:
4684:
4677:
4670:
4662:
4656:
4655:
4643:
4619:
4615:
4614:External links
4612:
4609:
4608:
4585:
4553:
4520:
4509:on 26 May 2008
4489:
4458:
4428:
4402:
4372:
4342:
4319:Zhang, Emily.
4311:
4279:
4212:
4141:
4111:
4081:
4051:
4020:
3994:
3964:
3930:
3899:
3868:
3823:(4): 428–435.
3803:
3784:(1): 329–346.
3761:
3724:
3675:
3621:
3598:(1): L40–L44.
3578:
3571:
3535:
3484:
3449:
3406:Earth's Future
3389:
3346:
3311:
3290:(4): 238–250.
3261:
3231:
3178:
3143:
3114:(6): 289–296.
3087:
3044:
2996:
2965:
2935:
2903:
2865:
2835:
2804:
2773:
2743:
2721:
2709:Britannica.com
2695:
2655:
2624:
2594:
2571:
2544:
2527:think-asia.org
2513:
2454:
2435:
2415:
2408:
2386:
2379:
2354:
2347:
2341:. p. 43.
2325:
2286:
2249:(5): 390–398.
2229:
2199:
2172:
2141:
2132:
2123:
2097:
2082:
2050:
2035:
2004:
1974:
1967:
1937:
1907:
1892:. 1 May 2022.
1876:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1837:Solar aircraft
1834:
1827:
1824:
1801:Transit 5-BN-3
1746:
1743:
1739:geoengineering
1722:
1719:
1713:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1696:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1584:
1575:
1561:
1558:
1524:
1521:
1515:
1512:
1502:anti-satellite
1454:
1451:
1427:
1424:
1402:Main article:
1399:
1396:
1387:Main article:
1384:
1381:
1369:Main article:
1366:
1365:Spy satellites
1363:
1332:satellite dish
1268:
1267:
1262:Main article:
1259:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1236:ocean currents
1190:reconnaissance
1146:remote sensing
1122:Main article:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1109:
1102:Main article:
1099:
1098:Communications
1096:
1037:
1034:
1020:because it is
1013:
980:(one-part) or
978:monopropellant
973:on the Earth.
965:and the Sun's
939:ion propulsion
907:
904:
902:
899:
883:United Kingdom
694:Wallops Island
665:Orbital launch
659:
653:
647:
643:Orbital launch
637:
630:
627:
615:geosynchronous
499:Sputnik crisis
487:Sergei Korolev
459:
456:
405:Wireless World
346:The Brick Moon
315:
312:
304:
301:
286:space stations
246:reconnaissance
234:, three for a
173:relay stations
165:constellations
116:, navigation (
110:celestial body
104:, placed into
50:
48:
28:
22:
19:
17:
16:
15:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5562:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5537:
5535:
5525:
5515:
5513:
5503:
5499:
5486:
5482:
5477:
5475:
5466:
5465:
5462:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5435:
5433:
5429:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5393:Direct ascent
5391:
5390:
5388:
5386:
5382:
5376:
5375:Intergalactic
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5350:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5340:
5338:
5334:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5310:Rocket engine
5308:
5307:
5306:
5303:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5270:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5243:
5242:
5241:Space capsule
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5228:
5226:
5224:
5220:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5204:Space nursing
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5171:
5168:
5167:
5166:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5158:Health issues
5156:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5123:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5112:Space Shuttle
5110:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5097:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5067:
5065:
5061:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5044:Space tourism
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5003:
5000:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4991:
4988:
4987:
4985:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4972:
4966:
4965:Space weather
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4905:
4904:
4901:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4864:
4860:
4852:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4844:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4829:Space command
4827:
4826:
4825:
4824:Space warfare
4822:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4794:
4793:
4790:
4786:
4785:United States
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4703:Astrodynamics
4701:
4700:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4683:
4678:
4676:
4671:
4669:
4664:
4663:
4660:
4654:
4650:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4638:
4633:
4629:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4617:
4613:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4589:
4586:
4573:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4557:
4554:
4541:
4537:
4536:
4535:Computerworld
4531:
4524:
4521:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4493:
4490:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4462:
4459:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4429:
4416:
4412:
4406:
4403:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4376:
4373:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4346:
4343:
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4124:astronomy.com
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3459:Astropolitics
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3197:
3194:: 1188–1204.
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3162:
3158:
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2699:
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2692:
2691:public domain
2673:
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2363:Mike Gruntman
2358:
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2127:
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2111:
2107:
2101:
2098:
2093:
2086:
2083:
2070:
2067:. July 1946.
2066:
2065:
2060:
2054:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2005:
1992:
1988:
1987:www.sasmac.cn
1984:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1950:
1941:
1938:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1908:
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1709:
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1700:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1663:Orbital decay
1661:
1653:
1648:
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1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1598:
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1478:United States
1475:
1468:
1464:
1460:
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1450:
1448:
1444:
1443:Biosatellites
1440:
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1432:
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1412:
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1405:
1397:
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1390:
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1350:line of sight
1347:
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1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
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1277:
1273:
1265:
1258:Communication
1257:
1255:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1214:, effects of
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:normal camera
1155:
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1147:
1139:
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1130:
1125:
1117:
1112:
1108:
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1105:
1097:
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1081:
1077:
1073:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1028:, has a high
1027:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1010:positive ions
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
974:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
932:
931:
925:
919:
913:
905:
900:
898:
895:
890:
888:
887:United States
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
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808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
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780:
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772:
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764:
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756:
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748:
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733:
729:
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720:
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581:
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531:
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500:
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492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
469:
464:
457:
455:
451:
449:
445:
444:Lyman Spitzer
440:
438:
434:
430:
427:released the
426:
422:
417:
415:
411:
407:
406:
400:
398:
394:
393:geostationary
390:
386:
382:
380:
376:
372:
371:orbital speed
368:
364:
359:
357:
356:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
334:
329:
325:
321:
313:
310:
302:
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294:
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287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
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251:
247:
243:
239:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
200:ion thrusters
197:
194:, usually by
193:
189:
185:
184:orbital decay
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
129:
127:
126:early warning
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
87:
85:
80:
76:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
40:
36:
32:
25:
5385:Space launch
5370:Interstellar
5336:Destinations
5272:
5105:Apollo–Soyuz
5054:Space diving
5039:Space toilet
4863:Applications
4780:Soviet Union
4740:Space policy
4735:Space launch
4625:
4588:
4576:. Retrieved
4565:
4556:
4544:. Retrieved
4540:the original
4533:
4523:
4511:. Retrieved
4507:the original
4492:
4480:. Retrieved
4471:
4461:
4449:. Retrieved
4440:
4431:
4419:. Retrieved
4405:
4393:. Retrieved
4384:
4375:
4365:16 September
4363:. Retrieved
4354:
4345:
4335:16 September
4333:. Retrieved
4324:
4314:
4302:. Retrieved
4291:
4282:
4229:
4225:
4215:
4203:. Retrieved
4158:
4154:
4144:
4132:. Retrieved
4123:
4114:
4102:. Retrieved
4093:
4084:
4072:. Retrieved
4063:
4054:
4042:. Retrieved
4033:
4023:
4011:. Retrieved
3997:
3985:. Retrieved
3976:
3967:
3955:. Retrieved
3946:
3921:. Retrieved
3912:
3902:
3890:. Retrieved
3881:
3871:
3820:
3816:
3781:
3777:
3764:
3737:
3733:
3727:
3692:
3688:
3678:
3638:(1): 87–97.
3635:
3631:
3624:
3595:
3591:
3581:
3544:
3538:
3526:. Retrieved
3501:
3497:
3487:
3465:(1): 50–82.
3462:
3458:
3452:
3409:
3405:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3287:
3284:Space Policy
3283:
3252:. Retrieved
3243:
3234:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3156:
3152:
3146:
3137:10871/132935
3111:
3107:
3057:
3053:
3047:
3012:
3008:
2987:. Retrieved
2979:The Diplomat
2978:
2968:
2956:. Retrieved
2947:
2938:
2926:. Retrieved
2922:the original
2915:
2906:
2894:. Retrieved
2883:
2856:. Retrieved
2852:the original
2838:
2826:. Retrieved
2822:the original
2807:
2795:. Retrieved
2786:
2776:
2764:. Retrieved
2760:the original
2755:
2746:
2734:. Retrieved
2724:
2712:. Retrieved
2708:
2698:
2676:. Retrieved
2672:the original
2667:
2658:
2646:. Retrieved
2637:
2627:
2615:. Retrieved
2606:
2597:
2585:. Retrieved
2574:
2562:. Retrieved
2556:. statista.
2547:
2535:. Retrieved
2526:
2516:
2504:. Retrieved
2471:
2467:
2457:
2445:. Retrieved
2425:
2418:
2395:
2389:
2366:
2357:
2334:
2328:
2316:. Retrieved
2309:the original
2302:
2289:
2246:
2242:
2232:
2220:. Retrieved
2211:
2202:
2194:the original
2185:
2175:
2163:. Retrieved
2144:
2135:
2126:
2114:. Retrieved
2100:
2091:
2085:
2073:. Retrieved
2062:
2053:
2022:
1995:. Retrieved
1986:
1977:
1948:
1940:
1928:. Retrieved
1924:the original
1910:
1898:. Retrieved
1889:
1880:
1856:
1820:
1812:
1805:
1790:
1772:
1761:, radio and
1759:space debris
1757:Issues like
1756:
1731:space debris
1724:
1721:Degeneration
1715:
1706:
1657:
1605:stratosphere
1602:
1593:water vapour
1570:black carbon
1563:
1526:
1523:Resource use
1517:
1505:
1470:
1459:Space weapon
1429:
1426:Experimental
1407:
1392:
1378:
1374:
1269:
1198:
1143:
1113:Applications
1072:solar panels
1069:
1066:on the right
982:bipropellant
975:
936:
930:Deep Space 1
928:
891:
859:South Africa
855:Saudi Arabia
744:
721:
702:
690:Scout rocket
675:
601:
582:
578:
571:
532:
522:
507:
479:Soviet Union
472:
452:
441:
425:Project RAND
418:
403:
401:
388:
383:
366:
360:
353:
331:
324:Isaac Newton
317:
293:Soviet Union
290:
278:Space probes
240:
216:space debris
177:
153:transponders
141:solar panels
130:
122:broadcasting
97:
93:
91:
83:
66:
53:
38:
29:This is the
23:
5524:Outer space
5512:Spaceflight
5343:Sub-orbital
5278:Space probe
5144:New Shepard
5122:Shuttle–Mir
4881:Archaeology
4834:Space force
4817:Moon Treaty
4689:Spaceflight
4620:‹ The
4482:29 December
4441:www.iau.org
4205:22 November
3882:Der Spiegel
3547:: 601–645.
3217:11336/91034
3060:: 958–970.
2896:23 February
2766:10 February
2736:10 February
2714:10 February
2587:11 November
2564:11 November
2318:21 November
1930:21 November
1797:Kosmos 1402
1609:ozone layer
1358:frequencies
1346:radio waves
1292:transmitter
1284:transponder
1208:city lights
1194:Planet Labs
1186:meteorology
1178:cartography
1174:archaeology
1088:lithium-ion
1030:atomic mass
867:Switzerland
835:Netherlands
823:South Korea
709:end of life
686:San Marco 1
514:White House
379:propellants
350:Jules Verne
338:short story
169:launch cost
131:Except for
5545:Spacecraft
5540:Satellites
5534:Categories
5412:Launch pad
5403:Expendable
5353:Geocentric
5320:Solar sail
5263:Spaceplane
5223:Spacecraft
5017:Space suit
4995:commercial
4923:Television
4718:Space Race
4567:Iran Focus
4239:2201.05343
4232:(2): L30.
4168:2003.01992
4134:7 November
3830:2204.10025
3747:1903.01060
3605:2103.17125
3022:2008.13032
2638:Pixalytics
2116:16 October
2045:1098222848
1957:. p.
1872:References
1793:Kosmos 954
1619:such as NO
1566:tropopause
1383:Navigation
1304:television
1244:vegetation
1170:photometer
1080:Slip rings
986:hypergolic
927:Firing of
901:Components
819:Kazakhstan
555:Explorer 1
495:ionosphere
402:In a 1945
307:See also:
232:halo orbit
226:, and the
192:propulsion
188:atmosphere
102:spacecraft
5422:Spaceport
5273:Satellite
4990:Astronaut
4918:Telephone
4871:Astronomy
4792:Space law
4745:Australia
4637:Satellite
4599:Space.com
4503:Space.com
4472:bbc.co.uk
4274:245986575
4266:2041-8205
4195:0004-6361
3977:SpaceNews
3863:248300127
3855:2397-3366
3740:(1): 24.
3159:: 53–63.
2818:ITtoolbox
2756:Aerospace
2496:233841294
2447:4 October
2263:0003-0996
1703:Night sky
1668:hydrazine
1627:, and ClO
1589:aluminium
1533:aluminium
1398:Telescope
1355:microwave
1308:telephone
1216:pollution
1084:batteries
1064:radiators
994:hydrazine
755:Australia
751:Argentina
728:microsats
623:FreeFlyer
593:Hammaguir
524:Sputnik 2
475:Sputnik 1
468:Sputnik 1
361:In 1903,
330:, in his
297:Sputnik 1
151:, called
108:around a
94:satellite
5474:Category
5139:Tiangong
5134:Shenzhou
5063:Programs
4908:Internet
4713:Timeline
4649:Archived
4622:template
4603:Archived
4578:25 March
4572:Archived
4570:. 2008.
4546:25 March
4513:25 March
4476:Archived
4451:10 March
4445:Archived
4421:10 March
4415:Archived
4395:10 March
4389:Archived
4385:BBC News
4359:Archived
4329:Archived
4304:22 March
4298:Archived
4199:Archived
4161:: A121.
4128:Archived
4098:Archived
4068:Archived
4038:Archived
4013:22 March
4007:Archived
3987:22 March
3981:Archived
3957:22 March
3951:Archived
3947:phys.org
3923:22 March
3917:Archived
3892:22 April
3886:Archived
3719:29367394
3695:(1871).
3670:33213887
3522:Archived
3444:35865359
3384:34637875
3254:10 April
3248:Archived
3226:29929287
3082:30739864
2989:27 March
2983:Archived
2958:27 March
2952:Archived
2948:The Week
2928:25 March
2890:Archived
2828:25 March
2791:Archived
2642:Archived
2611:Archived
2558:Archived
2531:Archived
2500:Archived
2441:Archived
2365:(2004).
2281:19498953
2216:Archived
2159:Archived
2110:Archived
2069:Archived
1991:Archived
1900:30 March
1894:Archived
1826:See also
1799:and the
1782:Starlink
1680:nitrogen
1676:hydrogen
1617:Radicals
1560:Launches
1554:Ariane 5
1320:military
1316:internet
1296:receiver
1202:monitor
1138:STS-41-G
990:catalyst
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