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voltage superimposed on it. That bias is required so that the positive peaks of the signal never drive the grid positive with respect to the cathode which would result in grid current and non-linear behaviour. A sufficiently negative voltage on the grid (usually around 3-5 volts in small tubes such as the 6AV6, but as much as –130 volts in early audio power devices such as the '45), will prevent any electrons from getting through to the anode, turning off the anode current. This is called the "cutoff voltage". Since beyond cutoff the anode current ceases to respond to the grid voltage, the voltage on the grid must remain above the cutoff voltage for faithful (linear) amplification as well as not exceeding the cathode voltage.
686:, which gives it the appearance of a "lighthouse". The disk-shaped cathode, grid and plate form planes up the center of the tube - a little like a sandwich with spaces between the layers. The cathode at the bottom is attached to the tube's pins, but the grid and plate are brought out to low inductance terminals on the upper level of the tube: the grid to a metal ring halfway up, and the plate to a metal button at the top. These are one example of "disk seal" design. Smaller examples dispense with the octal pin base shown in the illustration and rely on contact rings for all connections, including heater and D.C. cathode.
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277:, intended to be used as radio detectors. The one which became the design of the triode, in which the grid was located between the filament and plate, was patented January 29, 1907. Like the von Lieben vacuum tube, De Forest's Audions were incompletely evacuated and contained some gas at low pressure. von Lieben's vacuum tube did not see much development due to his death seven years after its invention, shortly before the outbreak of the
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envelope of the tube is often made of more durable ceramic rather than glass, and all the materials have higher melting points to withstand higher heat levels produced. Tubes with anode power dissipation over several hundred watts are usually actively cooled; the anode, made of heavy copper, projects through the wall of the tube and is attached to a large external finned metal
836:. Because, in contrast, the JFET's drain current is virtually unaffected by drain voltage, it appears as a constant-current device, similar in action to a tetrode or pentode tube (high dynamic output impedance). Both the JFET and tetrode/pentode valves are thereby capable of much higher voltage gains than the triode which seldom exceeds 100. However the
17:
805:
negative voltage on the grid will allow more electrons from the cathode to reach the anode, increasing the anode current. Therefore, an input AC signal on the grid of a few volts (or less), even at a very high impedance (since essentially no current flows through the grid) can control a much more powerful anode current, resulting in
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935:. Many types are used only at low to moderate frequency and power levels. Large water-cooled triodes may be used as the final amplifier in radio transmitters, with ratings of thousands of watts. Specialized types of triode ("lighthouse" tubes, with low capacitance between elements) provide useful gain at microwave frequencies.
62:
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so it produces more electrons. The grid is constructed of a helix or screen of thin wires surrounding the cathode. The anode is a cylinder or rectangular box of sheet metal surrounding the grid. It is blackened to radiate heat and is often equipped with heat-radiating fins. The electrons travel in
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added to the tungsten diffuses to the surface and forms a monolayer which increases electron emission. As the monolayer is removed by ion bombardment it is continually renewed by more thorium diffusing to the surface. These generally run at higher temperatures than indirectly heated cathodes. The
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are unsuitable, such as radio transmitters and industrial heating equipment. However, more recently the triode and other vacuum tube devices have been experiencing a resurgence and comeback in high fidelity audio and musical equipment. They also remain in use as vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs),
689:
As well, high-frequency performance is limited by transit time: the time required for electrons to travel from cathode to anode. Transit time effects are complicated, but one simple effect is input conductance, also known as grid loading. At extreme high frequencies, electrons arriving at the grid
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Although S.G. Brown's Type G Telephone Relay (using a magnetic "earphone" mechanism driving a carbon microphone element) was able to give power amplification and had been in use as early as 1914, it was a purely mechanical device with limited frequency range and fidelity. It was suited only to a
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The triode is a normally "on" device; and current flows to the anode with zero voltage on the grid. The anode current is progressively reduced as the grid is made more negative relative to the cathode. Usually a constant DC voltage ("bias") is applied to the grid along with the varying signal
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so that electrons can travel between the cathode and the anode without losing energy in collisions with gas molecules. A positive DC voltage, which can be as low as 20V or up to thousands of volts in some transmitting tubes, is present on the anode. The negative electrons are attracted to the
804:
The magnitude of this current can be controlled by a voltage applied on the grid (relative to the cathode). The grid acts like a gate for the electrons. A more negative voltage on the grid will repel more of the electrons, so fewer get through to the anode, reducing the anode current. A less
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consisting of a screen of wires between them to control the current. These are sealed inside a glass container from which the air has been removed to a high vacuum, about 10 atm. Since the filament eventually burns out, the tube has a limited lifetime and is made as a replaceable unit; the
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after its purchase of the Audion rights, allowed telephone calls to travel beyond the unamplified limit of about 800 miles. The opening by Bell of the first transcontinental telephone line was celebrated 3 years later, on
January 25, 1915. Other inventions made possible by the triode were
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Transit time effects are reduced by reduced spacings in the tube. Tubes such as the 416B (a
Lighthouse design) and the 7768 (an all-ceramic miniaturised design) are specified for operation to 4 GHz. They feature greatly reduced grid-cathode spacings of the order of 0.1 mm.
1103:
described above). Amplifying either the voltage or current results in power amplification, the general purpose of an amplifying tube (after all, either the current or voltage alone could be increased by decreasing the other just using a transformer, a passive device).
813:. If a suitable load resistance is inserted in the anode circuit, although the transconductance is somewhat lowered, the varying anode current will cause a varying voltage across that resistance which can be much larger than the input voltage variations, resulting in
697:
These greatly reduced grid spacings also give a much higher amplification factor than conventional axial designs. The 7768 has an amplification factor of 225, compared with 100 for the 6AV6 used in domestic radios and about the maximum possible for an axial design.
832:) or VGS(off); i.e., the voltage point at which output current essentially reaches zero. This similarity is limited, however. The triode's anode current is highly dependent on anode voltage as well as grid voltage, thus limiting the
828:; it is normally on, and exhibits progressively lower and lower plate/drain current as the grid/gate is pulled increasingly negative relative to the source/cathode. Cutoff voltage corresponds to the JFET's pinch-off voltage (V
165:
and industrial RF heating devices. In recent years there has been a resurgence in demand for low power triodes due to renewed interest in tube-type audio systems by audiophiles who prefer the sound of tube-based electronics.
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Anode-grid capacitance is not especially low in these designs. The 6AV6 anode-grid capacitance is 2 picofarads (pF), the 7768 has a value of 1.7 pF. The close electrode spacing used in microwave tubes
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may become out of phase with those departing towards the anode. This imbalance of charge causes the grid to exhibit a reactance that is much less than its low-frequency "open circuit" characteristic.
792:. In some tubes the filament itself is the cathode, while in most tubes there is a separate filament which heats the cathode but is electrically isolated from it. The interior of the tube is well
206:
De Forest Audion tube from 1908, the first triode. The flat plate is visible on the top, with the zigzag wire grid under it. The filament was originally present under the grid but was burnt out.
1072: − 10 kΩ × 1.4 mA = 208 V (green curve). Therefore a 1 V peak-peak signal on the input (grid) causes an output voltage change of about 17 V.
284:
De Forest's Audion did not see much use until its ability to amplify was recognized around 1912 by several researchers, who used it to build the first successful amplifying radio receivers and
67:
3CX1500A7, a modern 1.5 kW power triode used in radio transmitters. The cylindrical structure is a heat sink attached to the plate, through which air is blown during operation.
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and was intended to amplify weak telephone signals. Starting in
October 1906 De Forest patented a number of three-element tube designs by adding an electrode to the diode, which he called
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Now suppose we impress on the −1 V bias voltage a signal of 1 V peak-peak, so that the grid voltage varies between −0.5 V and −1.5 V. When V
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electrodes are attached to terminal pins which plug into a socket. The operating lifetime of a triode is about 2000 hours for small tubes and 10,000 hours for power tubes.
457:, invented in 1947, which brought the "vacuum tube era" introduced by the triode to a close. Today triodes are used mostly in high-power applications for which solid state
1816:
809:. When used in its linear region, variation in the grid voltage will cause an approximately proportional variation in the anode current; this ratio is called the
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269:, between the filament and plate to control current. Von Lieben's partially-evacuated three-element tube, patented in March 1906, contained a trace of
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triodes. The name "triode" appeared later, when it became necessary to distinguish it from other kinds of vacuum tubes with more or fewer elements (
289:
288:. The many uses for amplification motivated its rapid development. By 1913 improved versions with higher vacuum were developed by Harold Arnold at
2331:
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1400:
John Bray, The
Communications Miracle: The Telecommunication Pioneers from Morse to the Information Superhighway, Springe - 2013, pages 64-65
801:(or "plate"), and flow through the spaces between the grid wires to it, creating a flow of electrons through the tube from cathode to anode.
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1613:
John Bray, The
Communications Miracle: The Telecommunication Pioneers from Morse to the Information Superhighway, Springe - 2013, page 64
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devices. However, more recently, vacuum tubes have been making somewhat of a comeback. Triodes continue to be used in certain high-power
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Structure of a modern low-power triode vacuum tube. The glass and outer electrodes are shown partly cut away to reveal the construction.
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442:(Gilles Holst and Bernardus Dominicus Hubertus Tellegen, 1926), which remedied some of the shortcomings of the triode detailed below.
2012:
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triode amplifier, one might place an anode resistor (connected between the anode and the positive power supply). If we choose R
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394:, allowing families to listen together. This resulted in the evolution of radio from a commercial message service to the first
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of −1 V. This implies a quiescent plate (anode) current of 2.2 mA (using the yellow curve on the graph). In a
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1786:— A French page on thermionic valves. Of particular interest is the 17-minute video showing the manual production of triodes.
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of the particular triode. Then the output voltage and amplification of the triode can be evaluated graphically by drawing a
840:, or the output power obtained from a certain AC input voltage is often of greater interest. When these devices are used as
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metal evaporated onto the inside of the glass, helps maintain the vacuum by absorbing gas released in the tube over time.
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The discovery of the triode's amplifying ability in 1912 revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of
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and are supported by stiff wires attached to the base, where the electrodes are brought out to connecting pins. A "
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capacitances, but this increase is offset by their overall reduced dimensions compared to lower-frequency tubes.
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1052: = −0.5 V, the anode current will increase to 3.1 mA, lowering the anode voltage to V
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718:
1064: = −1.5 V, the anode current will decrease to 1.4 mA, raising the anode voltage to V
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In the example characteristic shown on the image, suppose we wish to operate it at a quiescent anode voltage V
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The triode was the first non-mechanical device to provide power gain at audio and radio frequencies, and made
249:. It was an evacuated glass bulb containing two electrodes, a heated filament (cathode) and a plate (anode).
346:) electrical devices. The triode was immediately applied to many areas of communication. During World War I,
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Anton A. Huurdeman, The
Worldwide History of Telecommunications, John Wiley & Sons - 2003, page 226
358:) which were simple enough that the pilot in a single seat aircraft could use it while flying. Triode "
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a radial direction, from cathode through the grid to the anode. The elements are held in position by
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Lieben-Reisz tube, another primitive triode developed the same time as the Audion by Robert v. Lieben
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Dawn of the
Electronic Age: Electrical Technologies in the Shaping of the Modern World, 1914 to 1945
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This article is about the electronic vacuum tube. For the
Eastern Orthodox structure of hymns, see
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The triode served as the technological base from which later vacuum tubes developed, such as the
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316:, etc.). There were lengthy lawsuits between De Forest and von Lieben, and De Forest and the
55:, a dual triode used in 1960-era audio equipment, showing the orange glow of the hot cathode.
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Thus voltage amplification of the signal is obtained. The ratio of these two changes, the
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around 1920. Triodes made transcontinental telephone service possible. Vacuum tube triode
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1060: − 10 kΩ × 3.1 mA = 191 V (orange curve). When V
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which serves as the cathode (a directly heated cathode) because the emission coating on
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used the principle of grid control while conducting photoelectric experiments in 1902.
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wire, which heats the cathode red-hot (800 - 1000 °C). This type is called an "
522:, with the grid and anode as circular or oval cylinders surrounding the cathode. The
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Planar
Microwave Engineering: A Practical Guide to Theory, Measurement, and Circuits
788:. The cathode is heated red hot by a separate current flowing through a thin metal
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1495:, Nos. 1665 and 1666, November 30, 1907 and December 7, 1907, p.348-350 and 354-356
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which come in a variety of implementations but all are essentially triode devices.
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678:(UHF), the "lighthouse" tube, has a planar construction to reduce interelectrode
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1753:"Tubes Versus Solid-State Audio Amps—The Last Word (Or "House Of Fire," Part 2)"
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Ginoux, Jean-Marc; Rosetto, Bruno, "The
Singing Arc: The oldest memrister?" in
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Lee de Forest and the Fatherhood of Radio Political, and Economic Development
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applications, the solid-state MOSFET has similar performance characteristics.
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Tyne, Gerald F.J., Saga of the Vacuum Tube, 1977, Howard W. Sams, pp 201~202
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954:. While proponents of vacuum tubes claim their superiority in areas such as
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in which there is no voltage amplification but a huge reduction in dynamic
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1474:. American Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: 735–763.
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890: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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634: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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limited range of audio frequencies - essentially voice frequencies.
848:), they all have a voltage "gain" of just under 1, but with a large
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called the "heater" consisting of a narrow strip of high resistance
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292:, which had purchased the rights to the Audion from De Forest, and
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990:) are usually given. From here, a circuit designer can choose the
978:
In triode datasheets, characteristics linking the anode current (I
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189:(road, way), originally meaning the place where three roads meet.
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is a narrow metal tube down the center. Inside the cathode is a
31:
Single-grid amplifying vacuum tube having three active electrodes
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replaced them. Today, their main remaining use is in high-power
2848:
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1235:
Communications: An International History of the Formative Years
859:
603:
265:
independently patented tubes that added a third electrode, a
1262:
The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932
824:
The triode is somewhat similar in operation to the n-channel
583:
is destroyed by the higher ion bombardment in power tubes. A
153:
devices such as radios and televisions until the 1970s, when
1083:) is 17 in this case. It is also possible to use triodes as
1017: = 10000 Ω, the voltage drop on it would be V
133:
and the ancestor of other types of vacuum tubes such as the
942:, having been overtaken by less expensive transistor-based
121:, a partial vacuum tube that added a grid electrode to the
1238:. London: Institute of Electrical Engineers. p. 339.
300:, who named his tube the "Pliotron", These were the first
1423:(ed.) "History of wireless", John Wiley and Sons, 2006.
1037:= 2.2 mA. Thus we require a power supply voltage V
505:(anode) to which the electrons are attracted, with a
1464:"The Audion; A New Receiver for Wireless Telegraphy"
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1515:, filed January 29, 1907, issued February 18, 1908
257:Triodes came about in 1906 when American engineer
169:The name "triode" was coined by British physicist
1690:"Some Recent Developments in the Audion Receiver"
1655:"Some Recent Developments in the Audion Receiver"
1623:Hempstead, Colin; William E. Worthington (2005).
518:Low power triodes have a concentric construction
3202:Telecommunications-related introductions in 1906
1626:Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology, Vol. 2
1593:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–14.
2860:
1810:
1491:The link is to a reprint of the paper in the
1033:= 22 V for the chosen anode current of I
501:, which releases electrons, and a flat metal
489:for a triode, showing symbols for electrodes.
93:inside an evacuated glass envelope: a heated
8:
1780:
538:". The cathode is coated with a mixture of
1286:Fisher, David E.; Fisher, Marshall (1996).
1265:. Princeton University Press. p. 195.
938:Vacuum tubes are obsolete in mass-marketed
736:Triode in which filament serves as cathode.
2867:
2853:
2845:
1840:
1817:
1803:
1795:
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1205:Adamatzky, Andrew; Chen, Guanrong (2013).
1183:. Cambridge University Press. p. 78.
780:are released into the tube from the metal
724:Triode with separate cathode and filament.
453:until it was replaced in the 1960s by the
1528:Lee de Forest and the Fatherhood of Radio
1156:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 14–15.
1145:
1143:
1141:
1139:
906:Learn how and when to remove this message
650:Learn how and when to remove this message
754:Schematic circuit symbols for triodes. (
596:which is cooled by forced air or water.
374:, allowing the transmission of sound by
290:American Telephone and Telegraph Company
218:Before thermionic valves were invented,
173:some time around 1920, derived from the
89:in British English) consisting of three
20:Examples of low power triodes from 1918
1531:. Lehigh University Press. p. 77.
1350:
1348:
1333:(3). Chicago, IL: Ziff-Davis: 26–28, 91
1313:
1311:
1309:
1135:
149:possible. Triodes were widely used in
1582:
1580:
1578:
1045: = 200 V on the anode.
674:A type of low power triode for use at
587:filament is most often used, in which
141:. Its invention helped make amplified
129:), the triode was the first practical
1629:. Taylor & Francis. p. 643.
1357:"The Saga of the Vacuum Tube, Part 8"
1320:"The Saga of the Vacuum Tube, Part 6"
1318:Tyne, Gerald F. J. (September 1943).
974:ECC83 triode operating characteristic
366:replaced the cumbersome inefficient "
354:sets were made possible in 1917 (see
7:
2249:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
1355:Tyne, Gerald F. J. (November 1943).
888:adding citations to reliable sources
632:adding citations to reliable sources
2030:Programmable unijunction transistor
1370:(5). Chicago, IL: Ziff-Davis: 26–28
575:High-power triodes generally use a
445:The triode was very widely used in
390:, which had to be listened to with
1931:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
14:
3207:Audiovisual introductions in 1906
1909:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
1289:Tube: The Invention of Television
1211:. World Scientific. p. 500.
1208:Chaos, CNN, Memristors and Beyond
1180:Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony
1041:= 222 V in order to obtain V
449:such as radios, televisions, and
2153:Heterostructure barrier varactor
1880:Chemical field-effect transistor
927:practical. Triodes are used for
864:
784:by heating it, a process called
741:
729:
717:
608:
60:
45:
24:to miniature tubes of the 1960s
2201:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
1725:Lehigh University Press, 1992.
1462:De Forest, Lee (January 1906).
875:needs additional citations for
619:needs additional citations for
382:, which had the power to drive
1493:Scientific American Supplement
748:Filament omitted from diagram.
398:medium, with the beginning of
1:
1561:. IOS Press. pp. 17–22.
324:, the inventor of the diode.
2232:Silicon controlled rectifier
2094:Organic light-emitting diode
1984:Diffused junction transistor
1292:. Counterpoint. p. 54.
1101:common-cathode configuration
1077:voltage amplification factor
2036:Static induction transistor
1973:Bipolar junction transistor
1925:MOS field-effect transistor
1897:Fin field-effect transistor
1480:10.1109/t-aiee.1906.4764762
563:", a small amount of shiny
542:oxides such as calcium and
3228:
2243:Static induction thyristor
1671:10.1109/jrproc.1915.216677
1259:Aitken, Hugh G.J. (2014).
1232:Burns, Russell W. (2004).
1150:Nebeker, Frederik (2009).
581:indirectly heated cathodes
33:
2990:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
2412:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
2164:Hybrid integrated circuit
2007:Light-emitting transistor
1709:10.1109/jproc.1997.573757
1558:History of Electron Tubes
1525:Hijiya, James A. (1997).
1442:History of Electron Tubes
1005:of 200 V and a grid
536:indirectly heated cathode
3009:Backward-wave oscillator
2459:Backward-wave oscillator
2169:Light emitting capacitor
2025:Point-contact transistor
1995:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
1757:www.electronicdesign.com
378:(AM). Amplifying triode
2470:Crossed-field amplifier
1989:Field-effect transistor
1697:Proceedings of the IEEE
1587:Lee, Thomas H. (2004).
666:Soviet lighthouse tube
493:All triodes have a hot
425:talking motion pictures
261:and Austrian physicist
2883:Theoretical principles
2639:Voltage-regulator tube
2206:MOS integrated circuit
2071:Constant-current diode
2047:Unijunction transistor
1781:
1659:Proceedings of the IRE
1555:Okamura, Sōgo (1994).
1177:Turner, L. B. (1921).
1114:Faithful amplification
1099:(as it also is in the
1091:; in other words, the
975:
671:
497:electrode heated by a
490:
475:
417:public address systems
372:spark-gap transmitters
286:electronic oscillators
229:used in radio was the
215:
207:
28:
3039:Inductive output tube
2708:Electrolytic detector
2481:Inductive output tube
2297:Low-dropout regulator
2212:Organic semiconductor
2143:Printed circuit board
1979:Darlington transistor
1826:Electronic components
1790:Triode valve tutorial
986:) and grid voltage (V
982:) to anode voltage (V
973:
676:ultrahigh frequencies
665:
481:
473:
459:semiconductor devices
213:
205:
19:
3181:List of tube sockets
3176:List of vacuum tubes
3014:Beam deflection tube
2526:Beam deflection tube
2195:Metal-oxide varistor
2088:Light-emitting diode
1942:Thin-film transistor
1903:Floating-gate MOSFET
1124:List of vacuum tubes
940:consumer electronics
884:improve this article
628:improve this article
447:consumer electronics
376:amplitude modulation
338:, the technology of
322:John Ambrose Fleming
239:John Ambrose Fleming
151:consumer electronics
131:electronic amplifier
3099:Traveling-wave tube
2890:Thermionic emission
2502:Traveling-wave tube
2302:Switching regulator
2138:Printed electronics
2115:Step recovery diode
1892:Depletion-load NMOS
1506:U.S. patent 879,532
1440:Sōgo Okamura (ed),
797:positively charged
786:thermionic emission
520:(see drawing right)
2807:Crystal oscillator
2667:Variable capacitor
2342:Switched capacitor
2284:Voltage regulators
2158:Integrated circuit
2042:Tetrode transistor
2020:Pentode transistor
2013:Organic LET (OLET)
2000:Organic FET (OFET)
1653:(September 1915).
1444:, IOS Press, 1994
976:
960:professional audio
672:
585:thoriated tungsten
571:High-power triodes
546:which reduces its
491:
476:
400:radio broadcasting
396:mass communication
364:radio transmitters
320:, who represented
216:
208:
163:radio transmitters
145:and long-distance
113:). Developed from
29:
3189:
3188:
3128:Numbering systems
3109:Video camera tube
3094:Talaria projector
2876:Thermionic valves
2842:
2841:
2802:Ceramic resonator
2614:Mercury-arc valve
2566:Video camera tube
2518:Cathode-ray tubes
2278:
2277:
1886:Complementary MOS
1721:James A. Hijiya,
1683:. Republished as
1097:greatly amplified
1085:cathode followers
916:
915:
908:
842:cathode followers
660:
659:
652:
514:Low power triodes
263:Robert von Lieben
198:Precursor devices
78:is an electronic
3219:
2999:Cathode-ray tube
2869:
2862:
2855:
2846:
2696:electrical power
2581:Gas-filled tubes
2465:Cavity magnetron
2292:Linear regulator
1841:
1819:
1812:
1805:
1796:
1784:
1782:Les lampes radio
1767:
1766:
1764:
1763:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1734:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1694:
1682:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1584:
1573:
1572:
1552:
1543:
1542:
1522:
1516:
1512:Space Telegraphy
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1459:
1453:
1438:
1432:
1418:
1412:
1407:
1401:
1398:
1392:
1389:
1380:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1361:
1352:
1343:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1324:
1315:
1304:
1303:
1283:
1277:
1276:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1147:
911:
904:
900:
897:
891:
868:
860:
846:source followers
811:transconductance
745:
733:
721:
655:
648:
644:
641:
635:
612:
604:
600:Lighthouse tubes
487:circuit diagrams
483:Schematic symbol
386:, replaced weak
298:General Electric
231:thermionic diode
143:radio technology
123:thermionic diode
87:thermionic valve
64:
49:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3185:
3164:
3150:Mullard–Philips
3123:
3074:Photomultiplier
2934:
2915:Suppressor grid
2878:
2873:
2843:
2838:
2776:
2691:audio and video
2676:
2643:
2575:
2512:
2440:
2421:Photomultiplier
2346:
2274:
2222:Quantum circuit
2130:
2124:
2066:Avalanche diode
2052:
1964:
1957:
1846:
1835:
1828:
1823:
1776:
1771:
1770:
1761:
1759:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1720:
1716:
1692:
1686:Armstrong, E.H.
1684:
1651:Armstrong, E.H.
1649:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1586:
1585:
1576:
1569:
1554:
1553:
1546:
1539:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1484:
1482:
1461:
1460:
1456:
1439:
1435:
1421:Tapan K. Sarkar
1419:
1415:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1383:
1373:
1371:
1359:
1354:
1353:
1346:
1336:
1334:
1322:
1317:
1316:
1307:
1300:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1273:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1246:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1219:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1149:
1148:
1137:
1132:
1110:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1004:
992:operating point
989:
985:
981:
968:
966:Characteristics
950:amplifiers and
918:
912:
901:
895:
892:
881:
869:
858:
831:
776:In the triode,
774:
773:
772:
771:
751:
750:
749:
746:
738:
737:
734:
726:
725:
722:
711:
656:
645:
639:
636:
625:
613:
602:
573:
516:
503:plate electrode
468:
436:Walter Schottky
380:radio receivers
360:continuous wave
330:
318:Marconi Company
294:Irving Langmuir
279:First World War
255:
247:radio receivers
200:
195:
72:
71:
70:
69:
68:
65:
57:
56:
50:
39:
32:
12:
11:
5:
3225:
3223:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3194:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3165:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3079:Selectron tube
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2944:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2874:
2872:
2871:
2864:
2857:
2849:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2786:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2770:Wollaston wire
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2585:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2551:Selectron tube
2548:
2543:
2541:Magic eye tube
2538:
2533:
2528:
2522:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2478:
2473:
2467:
2462:
2455:
2453:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2356:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2288:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2246:
2240:
2235:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2203:
2198:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2166:
2161:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2110:Schottky diode
2107:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2074:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2050:
2044:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2016:
2015:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1969:
1967:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1939:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1889:
1883:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1851:
1849:
1838:
1830:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1814:
1807:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1775:
1774:External links
1772:
1769:
1768:
1744:
1735:
1714:
1703:(4): 685–697.
1688:(April 1997).
1665:(9): 215–247.
1642:
1635:
1615:
1606:
1599:
1574:
1567:
1544:
1537:
1517:
1497:
1454:
1433:
1413:
1402:
1393:
1381:
1344:
1305:
1298:
1278:
1272:978-1400854608
1271:
1251:
1244:
1224:
1218:978-9814434812
1217:
1196:
1189:
1169:
1163:978-0470409749
1162:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1109:
1106:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1002:
998:on the graph.
987:
983:
979:
967:
964:
914:
913:
872:
870:
863:
857:
854:
829:
753:
752:
747:
740:
739:
735:
728:
727:
723:
716:
715:
714:
713:
712:
710:
707:
658:
657:
616:
614:
607:
601:
598:
572:
569:
540:alkaline earth
515:
512:
467:
464:
408:Bell Telephone
406:, invented at
388:crystal radios
329:
328:Wider adoption
326:
254:
251:
237:, invented by
220:Philipp Lenard
199:
196:
194:
191:
171:William Eccles
161:amplifiers in
66:
59:
58:
51:
44:
43:
42:
41:
40:
30:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3224:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3145:Marconi-Osram
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3120:
3119:Fleming valve
3117:
3115:
3114:Williams tube
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2925:Glowing anode
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2895:Work function
2893:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2870:
2865:
2863:
2858:
2856:
2851:
2850:
2847:
2833:
2832:mercury relay
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2655:Potentiometer
2653:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2571:Williams tube
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2390:Fleming valve
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2217:Photodetector
2215:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2185:Memtransistor
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2127:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1960:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:Semiconductor
1831:
1827:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1745:
1739:
1736:
1733:, pages 93-94
1732:
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1455:
1451:
1450:90-5199-145-2
1447:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1429:0-471-71814-9
1426:
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1129:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1119:Hanso Idzerda
1117:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
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1078:
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941:
936:
934:
930:
926:
921:
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907:
899:
889:
885:
879:
878:
873:This section
871:
867:
862:
861:
855:
853:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
827:
822:
818:
816:
812:
808:
807:amplification
802:
800:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
769:
765:
761:
758:) filament, (
757:
744:
732:
720:
708:
706:
704:
699:
695:
691:
687:
685:
681:
677:
669:
664:
654:
651:
643:
633:
629:
623:
622:
617:This section
615:
611:
606:
605:
599:
597:
595:
590:
586:
582:
578:
570:
568:
566:
562:
558:
554:
549:
548:work function
545:
544:thorium oxide
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
513:
511:
508:
504:
500:
496:
488:
484:
480:
472:
465:
463:
460:
456:
452:
451:audio systems
448:
443:
441:
437:
433:
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
352:two way radio
349:
345:
341:
337:
336:
327:
325:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
282:
280:
276:
272:
271:mercury vapor
268:
264:
260:
259:Lee de Forest
252:
250:
248:
244:
241:in 1904 as a
240:
236:
235:Fleming valve
232:
228:
223:
221:
212:
204:
197:
192:
190:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
167:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
127:Fleming valve
124:
120:
116:
115:Lee De Forest
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
81:
77:
63:
54:
48:
37:
27:
23:
18:
3212:Vacuum tubes
3084:Storage tube
2978:Beam tetrode
2957:
2910:Control grid
2905:Space charge
2589:Cold cathode
2556:Storage tube
2446:Vacuum tubes
2435:
2395:Neutron tube
2370:Beam tetrode
2352:Vacuum tubes
1937:Power MOSFET
1760:. Retrieved
1756:
1747:
1738:
1722:
1717:
1700:
1696:
1662:
1658:
1645:
1625:
1618:
1609:
1589:
1557:
1527:
1520:
1510:
1500:
1492:
1483:. Retrieved
1471:
1467:
1457:
1441:
1436:
1416:
1405:
1396:
1374:November 30,
1372:. Retrieved
1367:
1363:
1337:November 30,
1335:. Retrieved
1330:
1326:
1288:
1281:
1261:
1254:
1234:
1227:
1207:
1199:
1179:
1172:
1152:
1092:
1080:
1074:
1047:
1007:voltage bias
1000:
977:
952:transmitters
937:
922:
917:
902:
893:
882:Please help
877:verification
874:
856:Applications
850:current gain
834:voltage gain
823:
819:
815:voltage gain
803:
775:
767:
763:
762:) cathode, (
759:
755:
702:
700:
696:
692:
688:
673:
667:
646:
637:
626:Please help
621:verification
618:
574:
519:
517:
492:
466:Construction
444:
438:, 1916) and
429:
384:loudspeakers
333:
331:
283:
267:control grid
256:
224:
217:
186:
185:(three) and
182:
178:
168:
86:
75:
73:
25:
21:
3089:Sutton tube
2900:Hot cathode
2755:Transformer
2497:Sutton tube
2337:Charge pump
2190:Memory cell
2120:Zener diode
2082:Laser diode
1965:transistors
1847:transistors
1468:Trans. AIEE
944:solid-state
933:oscillators
680:capacitance
555:or ceramic
421:phonographs
419:, electric
368:damped wave
356:TM (triode)
335:electronics
302:vacuum tube
227:vacuum tube
155:transistors
83:vacuum tube
3196:Categories
3104:Trochotron
3034:Iconoscope
3024:Compactron
3019:Charactron
2963:Acorn tube
2827:reed relay
2817:Parametron
2750:Thermistor
2728:resettable
2687:Connector
2648:Adjustable
2624:Nixie tube
2594:Crossatron
2561:Trochotron
2536:Iconoscope
2531:Charactron
2508:X-ray tube
2380:Compactron
2360:Acorn tube
2317:Buck–boost
2238:Solaristor
2100:Photodiode
2077:Gunn diode
2073:(CLD, CRD)
1855:Transistor
1762:2022-04-20
1731:0934223238
1636:1579584640
1600:0521835267
1568:9051991452
1538:0934223238
1411:DRP 179807
1364:Radio News
1327:Radio News
1299:1887178171
1245:0863413277
1190:110762956X
1130:References
929:amplifiers
896:March 2012
838:power gain
684:inductance
640:April 2022
557:insulators
455:transistor
413:television
344:amplifying
225:The first
91:electrodes
80:amplifying
3069:Phototube
3064:Monoscope
3059:Magnetron
3054:Magic eye
3044:Kinescope
2988:Pentagrid
2790:Capacitor
2634:Trigatron
2629:Thyratron
2619:Neon lamp
2546:Monoscope
2426:Phototube
2410:Pentagrid
2375:Barretter
2260:Trancitor
2255:Thyristor
2180:Memristor
2105:PIN diode
1882:(ChemFET)
1485:March 30,
1089:impedance
1021:− V
996:load line
794:evacuated
778:electrons
766:) grid, (
709:Operation
703:increases
682:and lead
594:heat sink
404:repeaters
392:earphones
253:Invention
177:τρίοδος,
147:telephony
3169:Examples
3049:Klystron
3029:Eidophor
3004:Additron
2968:Nuvistor
2812:Inductor
2782:Reactive
2760:Varistor
2740:Resistor
2718:Antifuse
2604:Ignitron
2599:Dekatron
2487:Klystron
2476:Gyrotron
2405:Nuvistor
2322:Split-pi
2208:(MOS IC)
2175:Memistor
1933:(MuGFET)
1927:(MOSFET)
1899:(FinFET)
1108:See also
956:high-end
790:filament
577:filament
532:tungsten
528:filament
499:filament
485:used in
314:pentodes
310:tetrodes
243:detector
117:'s 1906
105:, and a
95:filament
36:Triodion
3160:Russian
2983:Pentode
2973:Tetrode
2713:Ferrite
2681:Passive
2672:Varicap
2660:digital
2609:Krytron
2431:Tetrode
2416:Pentode
2270:Varicap
2251:(3D IC)
2227:RF CMOS
2131:devices
1905:(FGMOS)
1836:devices
1679:2116636
1452:page 20
1431:, p.335
1093:current
1011:class-A
782:cathode
770:) plate
589:thorium
524:cathode
495:cathode
440:pentode
432:tetrode
275:Audions
193:History
181:, from
179:tríodos
139:pentode
135:tetrode
99:cathode
26:(right)
2994:Nonode
2958:Triode
2953:Audion
2930:Getter
2745:Switch
2436:Triode
2400:Nonode
2365:Audion
2245:(SITh)
2129:Other
2096:(OLED)
2058:Diodes
2009:(LET)
1991:(FET)
1963:Other
1911:(IGBT)
1888:(CMOS)
1875:BioFET
1870:BiCMOS
1729:
1677:
1633:
1597:
1565:
1535:
1448:
1427:
1296:
1269:
1242:
1215:
1187:
1160:
670:(6S5D)
565:barium
561:getter
423:, and
350:voice
340:active
306:diodes
119:Audion
76:triode
22:(left)
3140:RETMA
2948:Diode
2940:Types
2920:Anode
2822:Relay
2795:types
2733:eFUSE
2504:(TWT)
2492:Maser
2483:(IOT)
2472:(CFA)
2461:(BWO)
2385:Diode
2332:SEPIC
2312:Boost
2265:TRIAC
2234:(SCR)
2197:(MOV)
2171:(LEC)
2090:(LED)
2049:(UJT)
2038:(SIT)
2032:(PUT)
1975:(BJT)
1944:(TFT)
1920:LDMOS
1915:ISFET
1693:(PDF)
1675:S2CID
1360:(PDF)
1323:(PDF)
925:radio
799:anode
187:hodós
175:Greek
111:anode
107:plate
53:ECC83
2765:Wire
2723:Fuse
2307:Buck
2160:(IC)
2148:DIAC
2084:(LD)
1953:UMOS
1948:VMOS
1865:PMOS
1860:NMOS
1845:MOS
1727:ISBN
1631:ISBN
1595:ISBN
1563:ISBN
1533:ISBN
1487:2021
1446:ISBN
1425:ISBN
1376:2016
1339:2016
1294:ISBN
1267:ISBN
1240:ISBN
1213:ISBN
1185:ISBN
1158:ISBN
1079:(or
1056:= V
958:and
931:and
844:(or
826:JFET
668:6С5Д
553:mica
507:grid
245:for
183:tri-
137:and
103:grid
101:, a
85:(or
3155:JIS
3135:RMA
2327:Ćuk
1705:doi
1667:doi
1476:doi
1095:is
1068:= V
1029:× R
1025:= I
886:by
630:by
296:at
233:or
97:or
3198::
2701:RF
2450:RF
1755:.
1701:85
1699:.
1695:.
1673:.
1661:.
1657:.
1577:^
1547:^
1509:,
1472:25
1470:.
1466:.
1384:^
1368:30
1366:.
1362:.
1347:^
1331:30
1329:.
1325:.
1308:^
1138:^
1081:mu
948:RF
852:.
817:.
427:.
415:,
370:"
362:"
348:AM
312:,
308:,
281:.
159:RF
74:A
2868:e
2861:t
2854:v
2452:)
2448:(
1818:e
1811:t
1804:v
1765:.
1711:.
1707::
1681:.
1669::
1663:3
1639:.
1603:.
1571:.
1541:.
1489:.
1478::
1378:.
1341:.
1302:.
1275:.
1248:.
1221:.
1193:.
1166:.
1070:+
1066:a
1062:g
1058:+
1054:a
1050:g
1043:a
1039:+
1035:a
1031:a
1027:a
1023:a
1019:+
1015:a
1003:a
988:g
984:a
980:a
909:)
903:(
898:)
894:(
880:.
830:p
768:P
764:G
760:C
756:F
653:)
647:(
642:)
638:(
624:.
434:(
342:(
125:(
109:(
38:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
