353:
240:
1207:
77:
179:
36:
441:, asynchronous traction, and an adjustable number of (motor) poles. The first electrified line for testing was Budapest–Dunakeszi–Alag. The first fully electrified line was Budapest–Győr–Hegyeshalom (part of the Budapest–Vienna line). Although Kandó's solution showed a way for the future, railway operators outside of Hungary showed a lack of interest in the design.
570:
was related to the efficiency of power transmission as a function of voltage and cost, not based on a neat and tidy ratio of the supply voltage. For a given power level, a higher voltage allows for a lower current and usually better efficiency at the greater cost for high-voltage equipment. It was
1131:
overhead line was gradually brought closer to the earthed metalwork of the bridge whilst being subjected to steam from the locomotive's chimney. The distance at which a flashover occurred was measured and this was used as a basis from which new clearances between overhead equipment and structures
519:
It was possible to use AC motors (and some railways did, with varying success), but they have had less than ideal characteristics for traction purposes. This is because control of speed is difficult without varying the frequency and reliance on voltage to control speed gives a torque at any given
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Since only two phases of the high-voltage supply are used, phase imbalance is corrected by connecting each feeder station to a different combination of phases. To avoid the train pantograph bridging together two feeder stations which may be out-of-phase with each other,
771:
This system is now part of the
European Union's Trans-European railway interoperability standards (1996/48/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European high-speed rail system" and 2001/16/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European Conventional rail system").
1258:
kV system. In this system, the current is mainly carried between the overhead line and a feeder transmission line instead of the rail. The overhead line (3) and feeder (5) are on opposite phases so the voltage between them is
575:
was an optimal point, where a higher voltage would still improve efficiency but not by a significant amount in relation to the higher costs incurred by the need for larger insulators and greater clearance from structures.
520:
speed that is not ideal. This is why DC series motors were the most common choice for traction purposes until the 1990s, as they can be controlled by voltage, and have an almost ideal torque vs speed characteristic.
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at feeder stations, and at track sectioning cabins located halfway between feeder stations, provides switching to feed the overhead line from adjacent feeder stations if one feeder station loses grid supply.
1774:
674:
The permissible range of voltages allowed are as stated in the above standards and take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.
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to obtain greater power and increase the distance between substations. Such lines are usually isolated from other lines to avoid complications from interrunning. Examples are:
386:
One of the reasons why it was not introduced earlier was the lack of suitable small and lightweight control and rectification equipment before the development of solid-state
516:
is needed. Until the early 1950s, mercury-arc rectifiers were difficult to operate even in ideal conditions and were therefore unsuitable for use in railway locomotives.
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as a result of research work that demonstrated that the distance between live and earthed equipment could be reduced from that originally thought to be necessary.
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and related technology. Another reason was the increased clearance distances required where it ran under bridges and in tunnels, which would have required major
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In some cases dedicated single-phase AC power lines were built to substations with single phase AC transformers. Such lines were built to supply the French
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The first successful operational and regular use of a utility frequency system dates back to 1931, tests having run since 1922. It was developed by
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Britain's new railway: Electrification of the London-Midland main lines from Euston to
Birmingham, Stoke-on-Trent, Crewe, Liverpool and Manchester
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1298:, with some parts of older lines being gradually converted, French lines (LGV lines and some other lines), most Spanish high-speed rail lines,
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kV system was then adopted as standard in France, but since substantial amounts of mileage south of Paris had already been electrified at 1.5
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system. This part of
Germany was in the French zone of occupation after 1945. As a result of examining the German system in 1951 the
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kV. Periodic autotransformers (9) divert the return current from the neutral rail, step it up, and send it along the feeder line.
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where there was limited clearance under bridges and in tunnels. Rolling stock was dual-voltage with automatic switching between
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This electrification is ideal for railways that cover long distances or carry heavy traffic. After some experimentation before
1698:
The great book of trains : featuring 310 locomotives shown in more than 160 full-colour illustrations and 500 photographs
504:
The main reason why electrification using utility frequency had not been widely adopted before was the lack of reliability of
501:, SNCF also continued some major new DC electrification projects, until dual-voltage locomotives were developed in the 1960s.
2204:
Proceedings of the
British Railways Electrification Conference, London 1960 – Railway Electrification at Industrial Frequency
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kV, are established technologies. Some locomotives in Europe are capable of using four different voltage standards.
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AC has become an international standard. There are two main standards that define the voltages of the system:
615:. This is then fed, sometimes several kilometres away, to a railway feeder station located beside the tracks.
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is connected across two of the three phases of the high-voltage supply and lowers the voltage to
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Traxx MS (multi-system) for operation on both AC (15 and 25 kV) and DC (1·5 and 3 kV) networks
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kV AC electrification is closely connected with that of successfully using utility frequency.
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High-speed lines in France, Spain, Italy, the
Netherlands, Belgium and Turkey operate under
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kV, while the voltage between the overhead line (3) and the running rails (4) remains at 25
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IEE Colloquium on 50kV Autotransformer
Traction Supply Systems - the French Experience
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Hz AC railway electrification in the United
Kingdom was planned to use sections at
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2028:
1844:"Railroad Coordination Manual Of Instruction, Section 2.1.5 Deseret Power Railway"
1810:
BS EN 50163:2004+A1:2007 Railway
Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems
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861:
663:
50163:2004+A1:2007 – "Railway applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"
608:
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that could fit on the train. This in turn related to the requirement to use
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1990:
The remainder of the French lines use 1 Ă— 25 kV booster-transformer system.
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512:, which required the current to be converted from AC to DC and for that a
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Systems based on this standard but with some variations have been used.
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In the 1990s, high-speed trains began to use lighter, lower-maintenance
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1190:
101: in this article. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
17:
2112:
The Age of the
Electric Train – Electric Trains in Britain since 1883
2007:
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2001:
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Hz utility grid yet does not require the larger wire clearance for
670:
60850 – "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"
1912:
Tom McGavin (Autumn 1988). "North Island Main Trunk Electrified".
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AC electrification is usually taken directly from the three-phase
463:
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The first railway to use this system was completed in 1936 by the
351:
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kV to reduce energy losses. It should not be confused with the 50
345:
Hz), which simplifies traction substations. The development of 25
2148:
Machefert-Tassin, Yves; Nouvion, Fernand; Woimant, Jean (1980).
1895:"Why the 2*25 kV alternative? (autotransformer traction supply)"
1011:
or require dual-voltage capability for trains also operating on
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543:
DC (via phase-controlled rectifier with thyristor) to a maximum
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2233:
1123:
The research was done using a steam engine beneath a bridge at
924:(i.e. the New Haven-Boston segment) intercity passenger lines,
1871:. West Coast Railway Association, BC. May 2004. Archived from
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172:
70:
29:
27:
Standard current and voltage settings for most high-speed rail
1833:– "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"
1060:
from Matawan, NJ to Long Branch, NJ (1988–2002; changed to 25
628:
are provided at feeder stations and track sectioning cabins.
1649:
Trains that can operate on more than one voltage, such as 3
1314:
runs in France the voltage was temporarily boosted, to 29.5
1026:
from Pelham, NY to New Haven, CT (Since 1985; previously 11
976:
2087:
Keenor, Garry. Overhead line electrification for railways.
1849:. Utah Department of Transportation. May 2015. p. 102
987:
Some lines in the United States have been electrified at
589:
four Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel
1968:"Balfour Beatty gets ÂŁ16m Crossrail substation contract"
1270:
This system was initially deployed on France's then new
790:
List of railway electrification systems: 25 kV AC, 60 Hz
2043:"French Train Hits 357 MPH Breaking World Speed Record"
360:
in the United Kingdom is electrified using 25 kV 50 Hz
1769:
SVCs for load balancing and trackside voltage control
559:) to run the motors. The system works in reverse for
956:
In Japan, this is used on existing railway lines in
314:, as do high power lines in the former Soviet Union.
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2425:
2399:
2346:
2298:
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188:may lack focus or may be about more than one topic
1250:kV power to the trains, but transmits power at 50
632:are used for load balancing and voltage control.
1732:. "Modern Railways" special. London: Ian Allan.
1406:Central Organisation for Railway Electrification
402:were more generous, this was less of an issue.
2057:"Traxx locomotive family meets European needs"
1808:British Standards Institution (January 2005).
1700:. London: Salamander Books. pp. 254–255.
1696:Hollingsworth, J. B.; Cook, Arthur F. (1998).
607:. At the transmission substation, a step-down
192:Please help improve this article, possibly by
2245:
1302:and some of the Finnish and Hungarian lines.
452:between Freiburg and Neustadt installing a 20
8:
481:in southern France, initially at the same 20
383:, it came into widespread use in the 1950s.
820:Montreal Metropolitan transportation Agency
409:systems have introduced or are introducing
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2252:
2238:
2230:
1922:New Zealand Railway and Locomotive Society
1750:La traction électrique en France 1900–2005
2150:Histoire de la Traction Electrique, vol.1
1178:which was also an isolated coal railway (
806:is used for the railway electrification.
337:. It is usually supplied at the standard
227:Learn how and when to remove this message
161:Learn how and when to remove this message
1205:
972:, of which Hokuriku and Kyushu are at 60
947:, to be completed in the September 2024.
935:and select isolated short lines. In the
676:
531:uses a three-level converter to convert
238:
2206:. London: British Railways Board. 1960.
1688:
1672:List of railway electrification systems
1596:Other voltages on 50 Hz electrification
1274:in 1981, and has gone on to be used by
1944:"Ministry of Railways (Railway Board)"
920:on newer electrified portions of the
679:
405:Railways using older, lower-capacity
7:
1167:which was an isolated coal railway (
1045:Amtrak's 25 Hz traction power system
798:is the normal grid power frequency,
549:variable voltage, variable frequency
196:the article and/or by introducing a
99:adding citations to reliable sources
1639:Multi-system locomotives and trains
1176:Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad
1049:SEPTA's 25 Hz traction power system
421:DC for their new high-speed lines.
333:are used worldwide, especially for
1482:rail electrification in Queensland
1372:Commonwealth of Independent States
1286:, Italian High Speed Railways, UK
398:to live parts. Where pre-existing
394:in order to provide the increased
110:"25 kV AC railway electrification"
25:
2213:Electrifying the East Coast Route
1440:list of railway lines in Portugal
829:on the Tokaido, Sanyo and Kyushu
45:This article has multiple issues.
2587:25 kV AC railway electrification
1667:15 kV AC railway electrification
1518:Auckland railway electrification
1362:: part of the suburban network (
1202:2 Ă— 25 kV autotransformer system
1003:allows direct supply from the 60
177:
75:
34:
2561:Railway electrification systems
1466:: entire suburban network, see
1272:Paris-Lyon High speed rail line
319:Railway electrification systems
244:Railway electrification systems
200:, or discuss this issue on the
86:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
2029:"The Test Tracks: an Overview"
1972:www.theconstructionindex.co.uk
1533:rail transport in South Africa
1427:between Ourense and Santiago (
647:Railway electrification using
1:
2061:Railway Gazette International
903:Taiwan Railway Administration
473:electrified the line between
2566:Tram electrification systems
2381:Electro-diesel multiple unit
1914:New Zealand Railway Observer
905:'s electrified lines (using
448:who electrified part of the
1611:Chemin de fer du Montenvers
1451:25 kV on narrow gauge lines
1116:sections were converted to
943:is currently undergoing an
2608:
2336:Conduit current collection
2186:Electric Euston to Glasgow
2093:East Coast Electrification
1771:, ABB Power Technologies.
1642:
1499:rail transport in Malaysia
1326:25 kV on broad gauge lines
1244:split-phase electric power
1042:
787:
2376:Electro-diesel locomotive
2356:Railway electric traction
2326:Ground-level power supply
1752:. Paris: La Vie du Rail.
1585:rail transport in Tunisia
1387:rail transport in Finland
1223:7. Locomotive transformer
707:
702:
699:
694:
689:
684:
527:AC induction motors. The
2215:. Patrick Stephens Ltd.
1551:rail transport in Taiwan
1374:: parts of the network (
1347:5 ft 6 in
1246:system which supplies 25
911:3 ft 6 in
539:AC (via transformer) to
2592:Electric rail transport
2306:Railway electrification
2261:Railway electrification
2211:Semmens, Peter (1991).
2091:Boocock, Colin (1991).
1728:Haydock, David (1991).
1514:North Island Main Trunk
1402:rail transport in India
1322:kV at different times.
1058:North Jersey Coast Line
952:20 kV AC at 50 or 60 Hz
945:electrification project
2407:Traction power network
2371:Electric multiple unit
2110:Gillham, J.C. (1988).
1869:"GF6C #6001 PRESERVED"
1677:Rotary phase converter
1312:TGV world speed record
1231:
1015:lines. Examples are:
937:San Francisco Bay Area
877:Taiwan High Speed Rail
585:the wrong type of snow
557:pulse-width modulation
547:three-phase AC (via a
506:Mercury arc rectifiers
485:kV but converted to 25
364:
315:
2417:Traction powerstation
2171:. London: Ian Allan.
2129:Glover, John (2003).
1948:indianrailways.gov.in
1893:Courtois, C. (1993).
1748:Cuynet, Jean (2005).
1211:1. Supply transformer
1209:
1165:Deseret Power Railway
433:in Hungary, who used
355:
251: Non-electrified
242:
1875:on February 18, 2009
1795:May 4, 2009, at the
1292:West Coast Main Line
1276:New Zealand Railways
1055:New Jersey Transit's
1020:Metro-North Railroad
561:regenerative braking
358:East Coast Main Line
95:improve this article
2412:Traction substation
2366:Electric locomotive
2331:Stud contact system
2184:Nock, O.S. (1974).
2167:Nock, O.S. (1965).
1645:Multi-system (rail)
983:12.5 kV AC at 60 Hz
816:Deux-Montagnes line
794:In countries where
605:transmission system
599:Electric power for
535:single-phase AC to
446:Deutsche Reichsbahn
341:(typically 50 or 60
323:alternating current
198:disambiguation page
2391:Rubber-tyred metro
2268:Current collectors
2152:. La Vie du Rail.
2006:(Report). Madrid:
1777:2007-02-06 at the
1607:Mont Blanc Tramway
1570:SRT Light Red line
1425:Madrid-Galicia HSL
1232:
1227:9. Autotransformer
1156:iron ore railway (
991:or converted from
926:New Jersey Transit
922:Northeast Corridor
489:kV in 1953. The 25
479:La Roche-sur-Foron
365:
316:
2574:
2573:
1738:978-0-7110-1980-5
1566:SRT Dark Red line
1468:railways in Perth
1085:Pennsylvania Rail
933:RTD Commuter Rail
784:25 kV AC at 60 Hz
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392:civil engineering
339:utility frequency
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2082:Further reading
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2045:. 4 April 2007.
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1213:2. Power supply
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1189:Subdivision of
1185:The now closed
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1154:Sishen–Saldanha
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962:Hokuriku Region
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885:4 ft
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1290:, most of the
1219:5. Feeder line
1210:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1198:
1183:
1172:
1161:
1144:is doubled to
1137:
1134:
1132:were derived.
1093:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1074:
1069:
1040:
1039:12 kV at 25 Hz
1037:
1036:
1035:
1024:New Haven Line
984:
981:
953:
950:
949:
948:
914:
901:gauge) and on
869:
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823:
785:
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777:
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712:
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710:non-permanent
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692:non-permanent
687:
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672:
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664:
644:
641:
596:
593:
581:short circuits
566:The choice of
426:
423:
413:AC instead of
407:direct current
400:loading gauges
362:overhead lines
293:
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247:
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210:September 2022
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2222:0-85059-929-6
2218:
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2201:
2197:
2195:0-7110-0530-3
2191:
2188:. Ian Allan.
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
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2165:
2161:
2159:2-902808-05-4
2155:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2140:0-7110-2934-2
2136:
2133:. Ian Allan.
2132:
2127:
2123:
2121:0-7110-1392-6
2117:
2114:. Ian Allan.
2113:
2108:
2104:
2102:0-7110-1979-7
2098:
2095:. Ian Allan.
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2009:
2002:
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1758:2-915034-38-9
1755:
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1707:0-86101-919-9
1703:
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1668:
1665:
1664:
1660:
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1646:
1638:
1630:
1629:Nord-SĂĽd-Bahn
1626:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1571:
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1459:
1455:
1454:
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1437:
1433:
1426:
1422:
1421:Atlantic Axis
1418:
1414:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1373:
1370:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1342:1,676 mm
1338:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1325:
1323:
1313:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1245:
1241:
1221:6. Pantograph
1208:
1201:
1192:
1188:
1187:Tumbler Ridge
1184:
1177:
1173:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1140:Occasionally
1135:
1133:
1126:
1121:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1025:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1016:
997:12.5 kV 60 Hz
989:12.5 kV 60 Hz
982:
980:
978:
971:
967:
963:
959:
958:Tohoku Region
951:
946:
942:
938:
934:
931:
927:
923:
919:
918:United States
915:
907:1,067 mm
904:
881:1,435 mm
878:
874:
870:
867:
863:
859:
838:
836:1,435 mm
833:lines (using
832:
828:
824:
821:
817:
813:
809:
808:
807:
791:
783:
781:
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773:
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743:
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582:
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554:
550:
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526:
521:
517:
515:
511:
507:
502:
500:
480:
476:
475:Aix-les-Bains
472:
468:
465:
458:
451:
450:Höllentalbahn
447:
442:
432:
424:
422:
408:
403:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
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336:
330:
324:
320:
313:
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245:
241:
231:
228:
213:
203:
199:
195:
189:
186:This article
184:
175:
174:
165:
162:
154:
143:
140:
136:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119:
115:
112: –
111:
107:
106:Find sources:
100:
96:
90:
89:
84:This article
82:
78:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
2386:Multi-system
2290:Contact shoe
2285:Trolley pole
2212:
2203:
2185:
2168:
2149:
2130:
2111:
2092:
2071:
2065:. Retrieved
2063:. 2008-01-07
2051:
2037:
2023:
2012:. Retrieved
1995:
1986:
1975:. Retrieved
1971:
1962:
1951:. Retrieved
1947:
1938:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1898:
1888:
1877:. Retrieved
1873:the original
1863:
1851:. Retrieved
1838:
1826:
1809:
1803:
1785:
1768:
1764:
1749:
1744:
1729:
1724:
1697:
1691:
1648:
1529:South Africa
1309:
1288:High Speed 1
1269:
1242:system is a
1233:
1139:
1122:
1095:
1081:Reading Rail
986:
955:
879:line (using
793:
779:
770:
673:
646:
634:
622:
598:
595:Distribution
578:
565:
522:
518:
503:
443:
431:Kálmán Kandó
428:
404:
385:
377:Black Forest
369:World War II
366:
317:
307:
298:
223:
207:
187:
157:
148:
138:
131:
124:
117:
105:
93:Please help
88:verification
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
2525:Switzerland
2515:Former USSR
2488:New Zealand
2321:Fourth rail
2010:. June 2011
1625:Hambachbahn
1510:New Zealand
1013:11 kV 25 Hz
1009:25 kV 60 Hz
993:11 kV 25 Hz
862:South Korea
609:transformer
571:found that
525:three-phase
375:and in the
2581:Categories
2426:By country
2316:Third rail
2280:Pantograph
2067:2019-09-27
2014:2017-03-30
1977:2023-07-05
1953:2023-07-05
1901:: 1/1–1/4.
1879:2011-01-09
1853:8 November
1683:References
1478:Queensland
1234:The 2 Ă— 25
1102:6.25 kV AC
1092:6.25 kV AC
1079:– Both ex-
999:. Use of
831:Shinkansen
788:See also:
776:Variations
705:permanent
697:permanent
617:Switchgear
388:rectifiers
121:newspapers
50:improve it
2478:Lithuania
2433:Australia
2361:Power car
1930:0028-8624
1831:IEC 60850
1790:TGV power
1653:kV and 25
1458:Australia
1354:Australia
1337:Roca Line
1333:Argentina
1318:kV and 31
1296:Crossrail
579:To avoid
514:rectifier
396:clearance
329:kilovolts
267: 1.5
257: 750
202:talk page
194:splitting
151:July 2009
56:talk page
2498:timeline
2483:Malaysia
2177:59003738
1793:Archived
1775:Archived
1716:60209873
1661:See also
1562:Thailand
1535:(25 and
1495:Malaysia
1436:Portugal
1423:and the
1360:Adelaide
1278:in 1988,
1136:50 kV AC
1118:25 kV AC
1096:Early 50
966:Hokkaido
941:Caltrain
899: in
868:network.
855: in
700:Nominal
685:Voltage
325:(AC) at
287: 15
2535:Ukraine
2453:Germany
2443:Estonia
2438:Austria
1621:Germany
1581:Tunisia
1383:Finland
1349:gauge).
1339:(using
1335:on the
1191:BC Rail
1114:6.25 kV
1112:. The
1110:6.25 kV
1083:and ex-
916:In the
913:gauge).
894:⁄
875:on the
864:on the
857:gauge).
850:⁄
818:of the
814:on the
682:system
545:2,300 V
537:1,520 V
425:History
381:Germany
373:Hungary
277: 3
135:scholar
18:25kV AC
2530:Turkey
2520:Sweden
2510:Russia
2505:Poland
2493:Norway
2473:Latvia
2448:France
2219:
2192:
2175:
2156:
2137:
2118:
2099:
1928:
1924:: 49.
1756:
1736:
1714:
1704:
1655:
1651:
1633:6.6 kV
1603:France
1583:: see
1564:: see
1549:: see
1547:Taiwan
1531:: see
1512:: see
1497:: see
1480:: see
1438:: see
1419:: the
1400:: see
1385:: see
1320:
1316:
1300:Amtrak
1265:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1236:
1098:
1087:sides.
1072:Amtrak
1066:
1062:
1032:
1028:
1005:
974:
970:Kyushu
930:Denver
873:Taiwan
866:Korail
812:Canada
723:
668:
661:
495:
491:
487:
483:
460:
454:
437:AC at
419:1.5 kV
347:
343:
321:using
310:
301:
297:
295:
289:
285:
279:
275:
269:
265:
259:
255:
249:
137:
130:
123:
116:
108:
2554:Lists
2468:Japan
2458:India
2008:Ineco
2004:(PDF)
1920:(1).
1847:(PDF)
1615:11 kV
1589:50 Hz
1574:50 Hz
1555:60 Hz
1540:50 Hz
1537:50 kV
1522:50 Hz
1503:50 Hz
1486:50 Hz
1472:50 Hz
1464:Perth
1444:50 Hz
1429:50 Hz
1417:Spain
1410:50 Hz
1398:India
1391:50 Hz
1376:50 Hz
1364:50 Hz
1195:60 Hz
1180:60 Hz
1169:60 Hz
1158:50 Hz
1146:50 kV
1142:25 kV
1129:25 kV
1125:Crewe
1106:25 kV
1077:SEPTA
1064:kV 60
1030:kV 25
1001:60 Hz
827:Japan
804:60 Hz
800:25 kV
796:60 Hz
653:50 Hz
649:25 kV
613:25 kV
601:25 kV
573:25 kV
568:25 kV
555:with
553:IGBTs
533:25 kV
439:50 Hz
435:16 kV
411:25 kV
303:kV AC
291:kV AC
281:kV DC
271:kV DC
142:JSTOR
128:books
2463:Iran
2217:ISBN
2190:ISBN
2173:OCLC
2154:ISBN
2135:ISBN
2116:ISBN
2097:ISBN
1926:ISSN
1855:2016
1754:ISBN
1734:ISBN
1730:SNCF
1712:OCLC
1702:ISBN
1627:and
1609:and
1568:and
1516:and
1404:and
1310:For
1294:and
1163:The
1152:The
1108:and
1068:Hz).
1047:and
1034:Hz).
968:and
754:27.5
730:17.5
708:Max.
703:Max.
695:Min.
690:Min.
630:SVCs
541:3 kV
477:and
471:SNCF
415:3 kV
356:The
331:(kV)
261:V DC
114:news
1814:doi
1619:In
1601:In
1579:In
1560:In
1545:In
1527:In
1508:In
1493:In
1456:In
1434:In
1415:In
1396:In
1381:In
1352:In
1345:or
1331:In
1238:kV
1022:'s
995:to
909:or
883:or
871:In
860:In
839:or
825:In
810:In
802:at
725:Hz
666:IEC
637:TGV
497:kV
462:50
417:DC/
379:in
371:in
327:25
97:by
2583::
2070:.
2059:.
1970:.
1946:.
1918:45
1916:.
1897:.
1812:.
1710:.
1631::
1623:,
1613::
1605:,
1591:).
1576:).
1557:).
1542:).
1524:).
1505:).
1488:).
1474:).
1460::
1446:).
1431:).
1412:).
1393:).
1378:).
1366:).
1356::
1282:,
1259:50
1197:).
1182:).
1171:).
1160:).
979:.
977:Hz
964:,
960:,
939:,
764:kV
762:29
756:kV
748:kV
746:25
740:kV
738:19
732:kV
721:50
719:kV
717:25
659:EN
651:,
639:.
591:.
563:.
499:DC
467:AC
464:Hz
457:kV
312:kV
308:25
299:25
59:.
2253:e
2246:t
2239:v
2225:.
2198:.
2179:.
2162:.
2143:.
2124:.
2105:.
2031:.
2017:.
1980:.
1956:.
1932:.
1882:.
1857:.
1820:.
1816::
1718:.
1587:(
1572:(
1553:(
1520:(
1501:(
1484:(
1470:(
1442:(
1408:(
1389:(
1193:(
896:2
892:1
889:+
887:8
852:2
848:1
845:+
843:8
822:.
230:)
224:(
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208:(
204:.
190:.
164:)
158:(
153:)
149:(
139:·
132:·
125:·
118:·
91:.
66:)
62:(
20:)
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