257:
814:, officially recommending the use of authentication methods that depend on more than one factor (specifically, what a user knows, has, and is) to determine the user's identity. In response to the publication, numerous authentication vendors began improperly promoting challenge-questions, secret images, and other knowledge-based methods as "multi-factor" authentication. Due to the resulting confusion and widespread adoption of such methods, on August 15, 2006, the FFIEC published supplemental guidelines—which state that by definition, a "true" multi-factor authentication system must use distinct instances of the three factors of authentication it had defined, and not just use multiple instances of a single factor.
971:), as well as private banks, which tend to prefer multi-factor authentication schemes for their customers that involve more accessible, less expensive means of identity verification, such as an app installed onto a customer-owned smartphone. Despite the variations that exist among available systems that organizations may have to choose from, once a multi-factor authentication system is deployed within an organization, it tends to remain in place, as users invariably acclimate to the presence and use of the system and embrace it over time as a normalized element of their daily process of interaction with their relevant information system.
326:, device, or application). The resource requires the user to supply the identity by which the user is known to the resource, along with evidence of the authenticity of the user's claim to that identity. Simple authentication requires only one such piece of evidence (factor), typically a password. For additional security, the resource may require more than one factor—multi-factor authentication, or two-factor authentication in cases where exactly two pieces of evidence are to be supplied.
2518:
436:
142:
462:
43:
84:
842:. Two-factor authentication in web applications are especially susceptible to phishing attacks, particularly in SMS and e-mails, and, as a response, many experts advise users not to share their verification codes with anyone, and many web application providers will place an advisory in an e-mail or SMS containing a code.
531:, where the credentials are stored on a dedicated hardware device and therefore cannot be duplicated, absent physical invasion of the device). A soft token may not be a device the user interacts with. Typically an X.509v3 certificate is loaded onto the device and stored securely to serve this purpose.
743:
Data
Security Standard, requirement 8.3, requires the use of MFA for all remote network access that originates from outside the network to a Card Data Environment (CDE). Beginning with PCI-DSS version 3.2, the use of MFA is required for all administrative access to the CDE, even if the user is within
614:
The major drawback of authentication including something the user possesses is that the user must carry around the physical token (the USB stick, the bank card, the key or similar), practically at all times. Loss and theft are risks. Many organizations forbid carrying USB and electronic devices in or
414:
A password is a secret word or string of characters that is used for user authentication. This is the most commonly used mechanism of authentication. Many multi-factor authentication techniques rely on passwords as one factor of authentication. Variations include both longer ones formed from multiple
1711:
Commission
Delegated Regulation (EU) 2018/389 of 27 November 2017 supplementing Directive (EU) 2015/2366 of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to regulatory technical standards for strong customer authentication and common and secure open standards of communication (Text with EEA
619:
and data theft risks, and most important machines do not have USB ports for the same reason. Physical tokens usually do not scale, typically requiring a new token for each new account and system. Procuring and subsequently replacing tokens of this kind involves costs. In addition, there are inherent
610:
Many multi-factor authentication vendors offer mobile phone-based authentication. Some methods include push-based authentication, QR code-based authentication, one-time password authentication (event-based and time-based), and SMS-based verification. SMS-based verification suffers from some security
443:
Possession factors ("something only the user has") have been used for authentication for centuries, in the form of a key to a lock. The basic principle is that the key embodies a secret that is shared between the lock and the key, and the same principle underlies possession factor authentication in
587:
Increasingly, a fourth factor is coming into play involving the physical location of the user. While hard wired to the corporate network, a user could be allowed to login using only a pin code. Whereas if the user was off the network or working remotely, a more secure MFA method such as entering a
966:
Research into deployments of multi-factor authentication schemes has shown that one of the elements that tend to impact the adoption of such systems is the line of business of the organization that deploys the multi-factor authentication system. Examples cited include the U.S. government, which
937:
There are drawbacks to multi-factor authentication that are keeping many approaches from becoming widespread. Some users have difficulty keeping track of a hardware token or USB plug. Many users do not have the technical skills needed to install a client-side software certificate by themselves.
860:
the account holder's computers in an attempt to steal their bank account credentials and phone numbers. Then the attackers purchased access to a fake telecom provider and set up a redirect for the victim's phone number to a handset controlled by them. Finally, the attackers logged into victims'
631:
provides an alternative to dedicated physical devices. To authenticate, people can use their personal access codes to the device (i.e. something that only the individual user knows) plus a one-time-valid, dynamic passcode, typically consisting of 4 to 6 digits. The passcode can be sent to their
329:
The use of multiple authentication factors to prove one's identity is based on the premise that an unauthorized actor is unlikely to be able to supply the factors required for access. If, in an authentication attempt, at least one of the components is missing or supplied incorrectly, the user's
795:
IT regulatory standards for access to federal government systems require the use of multi-factor authentication to access sensitive IT resources, for example when logging on to network devices to perform administrative tasks and when accessing any computer using a privileged login.
537:
can also be applied in physical security systems. These physical security systems are known and commonly referred to as access control. Multi-factor authentication is typically deployed in access control systems through the use, firstly, of a physical possession (such as a fob,
546:
displayed on a device) which acts as the identification credential, and secondly, a validation of one's identity such as facial biometrics or retinal scan. This form of multi-factor authentication is commonly referred to as facial verification or facial authentication.
330:
identity is not established with sufficient certainty and access to the asset (e.g., a building, or data) being protected by multi-factor authentication then remains blocked. The authentication factors of a multi-factor authentication scheme may include:
987:
claimed to have invented two-factor authentication in a 2000 patent, and briefly threatened to sue all the major web services. However, the
European Patent Office revoked his patent in light of an earlier 1998 U.S. patent held by AT&T.
726:
Modern smartphones are used both for receiving email and SMS. So if the phone is lost or stolen and is not protected by a password or biometric, all accounts for which the email is the key can be hacked as the phone can receive the second
611:
concerns. Phones can be cloned, apps can run on several phones and cell-phone maintenance personnel can read SMS texts. Not least, cell phones can be compromised in general, meaning the phone is no longer something only the user has.
861:
online bank accounts and requested for the money on the accounts to be withdrawn to accounts owned by the criminals. SMS passcodes were routed to phone numbers controlled by the attackers and the criminals transferred the money out.
809:
issued guidance for financial institutions recommending financial institutions conduct risk-based assessments, evaluate customer awareness programs, and develop security measures to reliably authenticate customers remotely accessing
2263:
950:
in large industries such as banking or even within large enterprises needs to be managed. In addition to deployment costs, multi-factor authentication often carries significant additional support costs. A 2008 survey of over 120
974:
While the perception is that multi-factor authentication is within the realm of perfect security, Roger Grimes writes that if not properly implemented and configured, multi-factor authentication can in fact be easily defeated.
2315:
1759:
938:
Generally, multi-factor solutions require additional investment for implementation and costs for maintenance. Most hardware token-based systems are proprietary, and some vendors charge an annual fee per user. Deployment of
1385:
2278:
676:
Depending on the solution, passcodes that have been used are automatically replaced in order to ensure that a valid code is always available, transmission/reception problems do not, therefore, prevent logins.
934:, it is possible to limit the overheads outlined above to a single application. With other multi-factor authentication technology such as hardware token products, no software must be installed by end-users.
636:
or can be generated by a one-time passcode-generator app. In both cases, the advantage of using a mobile phone is that there is no need for an additional dedicated token, as users tend to carry their
454:
have no connections to the client computer. They typically use a built-in screen to display the generated authentication data, which is manually typed in by the user. This type of token mostly uses a
2370:
Attackers breached the servers of RSA and stole information that could be used to compromise the security of two-factor authentication tokens used by 40 million employees (register.com, 18 Mar 2011)
930:. This translates to four or five packages on which version control has to be performed, and four or five packages to check for conflicts with business applications. If access can be operated using
511:) is a type of two-factor authentication security device that may be used to authorize the use of computer services. Software tokens are stored on a general-purpose electronic device such as a
256:
1733:
875:
An increasingly common approach to defeating MFA is to bombard the user with many requests to accept a log-in, until the user eventually succumbs to the volume of requests and accepts one.
607:
Two-factor authentication over text message was developed as early as 1996, when AT&T described a system for authorizing transactions based on an exchange of codes over two-way pagers.
830:, because the victim's password would no longer be enough to give a thief permanent access to their information. However, many multi-factor authentication approaches remain vulnerable to
802:
Special
Publication 800-63-3 discusses various forms of two-factor authentication and provides guidance on using them in business processes requiring different levels of assurance.
384:(something the user possesses) and a PIN (something the user knows) allows the transaction to be carried out. Two other examples are to supplement a user-controlled password with a
696:
Despite their growing popularity, some users may not even own a mobile device, and take umbrage at being required to own one as a condition of using some service on their home PC.
647:
draft guideline proposed deprecating it as a form of authentication. A year later NIST reinstated SMS verification as a valid authentication channel in the finalized guideline.
399:
app enables two-factor authentication in a different way, usually by showing a randomly generated and constantly refreshing code which the user can use, rather than sending an
1810:
588:
code from a soft token as well could be required. Adapting the type of MFA method and frequency to a users' location will enable you to avoid risks common to remote working.
806:
1411:
591:
Systems for network admission control work in similar ways where the level of network access can be contingent on the specific network a device is connected to, such as
1185:
1979:
2288:
2412:
644:
159:
56:
776:
mandated two-factor authentication for all online transactions made using a debit or credit card using either a password or a one-time password sent over
1331:
884:
870:
534:
2956:
1785:
1501:
657:
Security of mobile-delivered security tokens fully depends on the mobile operator's operational security and can be easily breached by wiretapping or
310:
Usage of MFA has increased in recent years, however, there are numerous threats that consistently makes it hard to ensure MFA is entirely secure.
643:
Notwithstanding the popularity of SMS verification, security advocates have publicly criticized SMS verification, and in July 2016, a United States
2380:
2177:
792:
Details for authentication for federal employees and contractors in the U.S. are defined in
Homeland Security Presidential Directive 12 (HSPD-12).
1478:
1042:
1882:
1857:
1552:
480:
connected to the computer to be used. Those devices transmit data automatically. There are a number of different types, including USB tokens,
2933:
2103:
1661:
411:
Knowledge factors are a form of authentication. In this form, the user is required to prove knowledge of a secret in order to authenticate.
94:
1276:
856:
vulnerabilities to bypass SMS based two-step authentication to do unauthorized withdrawals from users' bank accounts. The criminals first
206:
105:
2964:
178:
2405:
952:
2896:
1284:
784:
have been mandated by the bank to amend their payment processing systems in compliance with this two-factor authentication rollout.
243:
225:
123:
70:
1242:
185:
2201:
2995:
2692:
1686:"Official PCI Security Standards Council Site – Verify PCI Compliance, Download Data Security and Credit Card Security Standards"
62:
1582:
2990:
2946:
2335:
1961:
1193:
757:
354:
192:
163:
31:
1987:
780:. This requirement was removed in 2016 for transactions up to â‚ą2,000 after opting-in with the issuing bank. Vendors such as
2759:
2398:
706:
1858:"SANS Institute, Critical Control 10: Secure Configurations for Network Devices such as Firewalls, Routers, and Switches"
1215:
307:—from being accessed by an unauthorized third party that may have been able to discover, for example, a single password.
673:
As they are constantly changed, dynamically generated passcodes are safer to use than fixed (static) log-in information.
174:
1355:
1302:"Analysis and improvement of a multi-factor biometric authentication scheme: Analysis and improvement of a MFBA scheme"
2951:
2672:
690:
that looks identical to the actual website. The attacker can then get the authentication code, user name and password.
2928:
2886:
2542:
753:
520:
152:
2789:
2507:
2234:
1012:
1002:
968:
845:
Multi-factor authentication may be ineffective against modern threats, like ATM skimming, phishing, and malware.
497:
280:
2374:
1432:
1106:
709:
attacks against mobile-operator companies have resulted in the handing over of duplicate SIM cards to criminals.
2774:
2652:
2547:
1835:
894:
to make multi-factor authentication systems work. Some vendors have created separate installation packages for
857:
839:
420:
377:
2862:
2814:
2477:
1027:
853:
777:
358:
1811:"Uber now complies with India's two-factor authentication requirement, calls it unnecessary and burdensome"
2369:
1634:
Toorani, Mohsen; Beheshti, A. (2008). "SSMS - A secure SMS messaging protocol for the m-payment systems".
761:
693:
A mobile phone is not always available—it can be lost, stolen, have a dead battery, or otherwise not work.
670:
No additional tokens are necessary because it uses mobile devices that are (usually) carried all the time.
1685:
699:
Mobile phone reception is not always available—large areas, particularly outside of towns, lack coverage.
199:
2903:
2637:
1734:"Finally, Indians can use credit cards online without painful OTPs—but only for purchases under Rs2,000"
1608:
1032:
1017:
773:
740:
713:
686:
Users may still be susceptible to phishing attacks. An attacker can send a text message that links to a
650:
In 2016 and 2017 respectively, both Google and Apple started offering user two-step authentication with
98:
that states a
Knowledge (XXG) editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
2153:
2127:
849:
2310:
2258:
1760:"Payment firms applaud RBI's move to waive off two-factor authentication for small value transactions"
1456:
1380:
822:
According to proponents, multi-factor authentication could drastically reduce the incidence of online
2923:
2835:
2784:
2729:
2597:
2570:
2552:
2517:
2450:
2421:
1527:
1037:
288:
2010:
1886:
2707:
2482:
2440:
2387:
in favour of two-factor authentication in forthcoming versions of
Windows (vnunet.com, 14 Mar 2005)
1955:"Frequently Asked Questions on FFIEC Guidance on Authentication in an Internet Banking Environment"
1861:
1560:
1007:
568:
2219:
Libicki, Martin C.; Balkovich, Edward; Jackson, Brian A.; Rudavsky, Rena; Webb, Katharine (2011).
1843:
30:"Two-factor authentication" redirects here. For two-factor authentication on Knowledge (XXG), see
2891:
2819:
2724:
2084:
1667:
1639:
1401:"Anonymous Two-Factor Authentication in Distributed Systems: Certain Goals Are Beyond Attainment"
1164:
919:
888:
835:
576:
369:
595:
vs wired connectivity. This also allows a user to move between offices and dynamically receive
2104:"Two-factor authentication? Not as secure as you'd expect when logging into email or your bank"
2939:
2697:
2632:
2582:
2529:
2487:
2435:
1657:
1280:
1156:
1083:
455:
385:
2908:
2848:
2612:
2602:
2497:
2074:
1649:
1502:"Google prompt: You can now just tap 'yes' or 'no' on iOS, Android to approve Gmail sign-in"
1313:
1220:
1148:
1075:
895:
572:
564:
512:
323:
2799:
2779:
2502:
2492:
959:
reported on the support costs associated with two-factor authentication. In their report,
651:
339:
304:
2220:
2036:
2969:
2867:
2717:
2667:
2642:
2607:
2587:
2467:
2455:
2205:
1301:
997:
947:
943:
939:
923:
823:
811:
528:
504:
445:
335:
296:
292:
2061:
Siadati, Hossein; Nguyen, Toan; Gupta, Payas; Jakobsson, Markus; Memon, Nasir (2017).
967:
employs an elaborate system of physical tokens (which themselves are backed by robust
2984:
2879:
2840:
2809:
2804:
2657:
2647:
2617:
1168:
637:
493:
396:
389:
334:
Something the user has: Any physical object in the possession of the user, such as a
300:
2088:
1709:
2913:
2769:
2472:
2283:
1954:
1671:
1613:
717:
624:
539:
524:
17:
1883:"SANS Institute, Critical Control 12: Controlled Use of Administrative Privileges"
435:
1479:"Rollback! The United States NIST no longer recommends "Deprecating SMS for 2FA""
2853:
2687:
2662:
2627:
2462:
2063:"Mind your SMSes: Mitigating Social Engineering in Second Factor Authentication"
1786:"RBI eases two-factor authentication for online card transactions up to Rs2,000"
1182:
1022:
852:, a German mobile service provider, confirmed that cybercriminals had exploited
702:
687:
658:
560:
141:
2079:
2062:
461:
2918:
2734:
2682:
2565:
2445:
2366:- TwoFactorAuth.org - An in-depth online resource for (2FA) and all it entails
1653:
984:
927:
911:
903:
628:
556:
500:(W3C), have become popular with mainstream browser support beginning in 2015.
481:
416:
365:
349:
Something the user knows: Certain knowledge only known to the user, such as a
2279:"Kim Dotcom claims he invented two-factor authentication—but he wasn't first"
2261:, Schmitz, Kim, "Method for authorizing in data transmission systems"
1160:
1087:
1079:
2794:
2749:
2744:
2592:
2560:
2340:
381:
376:
An example of two-factor authentication is the withdrawing of money from an
343:
1933:
1609:"Two-factor FAIL: Chap gets pwned after 'AT&T falls for hacker tricks'"
723:
Account recovery typically bypasses mobile-phone two-factor authentication.
2754:
2712:
2575:
2384:
1383:, "Transaction authorization and alert system", issued 1996-12-04
1136:
1063:
931:
915:
891:
831:
350:
319:
2764:
2739:
2702:
2390:
2313:, Blonder, et al., "Transaction authorization and alert system"
2154:"Real-World SS7 Attack – Hackers Are Stealing Money From Bank Accounts"
1137:"An Extensive Formal Analysis of Multi-factor Authentication Protocols"
616:
543:
473:
284:
1400:
291:
only after successfully presenting two or more pieces of evidence (or
2677:
2622:
2537:
1317:
620:
conflicts and unavoidable trade-offs between usability and security.
516:
424:
2178:"MFA Fatigue: Hackers' new favorite tactic in high-profile breaches"
1457:"NIST is No Longer Recommending Two-Factor Authentication Using SMS"
1152:
392:(e.g. a security token or smartphone) that only the user possesses.
1907:
1583:"Google: Phishing Attacks That Can Beat Two-Factor Are on the Rise"
1216:"How to Secure Your Accounts With Better Two-Factor Authentication"
1644:
1433:"So Hey You Should Stop Using Texts For Two-factor Authentication"
827:
592:
489:
460:
434:
255:
2363:
2128:"The Failure of Two-Factor Authentication – Schneier on Security"
1332:"11 Tips for Protecting Active Directory While Working from Home"
364:
Something the user is: Some physical characteristic of the user (
799:
781:
485:
2394:
1147:(2). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery: 1–34.
1107:"Two-factor authentication: What you need to know (FAQ) – CNET"
439:
RSA SecurID token, an example of a disconnected token generator
427:, but can also be written down on a hidden paper or text file.
1980:"Security Fix – Citibank Phish Spoofs 2-Factor Authentication"
1553:"How Russia Works on Intercepting Messaging Apps – bellingcat"
907:
899:
633:
400:
135:
77:
36:
2516:
1399:
Wang, Ding; He, Debiao; Wang, Ping; Chu, Chao-Hsien (2014).
555:
These are factors associated with the user, and are usually
95:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
2221:"Influences on the Adoption of Multifactor Authentication"
2037:"Why you shouldn't ever send verification codes to anyone"
1356:"Does Kim Dotcom have original 'two-factor' login patent?"
2202:"Study Sheds New Light On Costs, Effects Of Multi-Factor"
914:. For such products, there may be four or five different
419:) and the shorter, purely numeric, PIN commonly used for
101:
1271:
van
Tilborg, Henk C.A.; Jajodia, Sushil, eds. (2011).
2375:
961:
software certificates and software toolbar approaches
1408:
IEEE Transactions on
Dependable and Secure Computing
1135:
Jacomme, Charlie; Kremer, Steve (February 1, 2021).
423:
access. Traditionally, passwords are expected to be
2828:
2528:
2428:
1636:
2008 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications
1273:
Encyclopedia of Cryptography and Security, Volume 1
1186:"Back to basics: Multi-factor authentication (MFA)"
730:
Mobile carriers may charge the user messaging fees.
166:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
807:Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council
705:gives hackers access to mobile phone connections.
1412:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
963:were reported to have the highest support costs.
720:. Thus third parties can steal and use the token.
458:that can only be used for that specific session.
318:Authentication takes place when someone tries to
303:—which may include personal identification or
283:method in which a user is granted access to a
2406:
1836:"Homeland Security Presidential Directive 12"
8:
2235:"Hacking Multifactor Authentication | Wiley"
575:recognition. Behavioral biometrics such as
368:), such as a fingerprint, eye iris, voice,
71:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2413:
2399:
2391:
2011:"The Failure of Two-Factor Authentication"
871:Multi-factor authentication fatigue attack
388:(OTP) or code generated or received by an
2957:Security information and event management
2078:
1643:
946:may get damaged or lost, and issuance of
244:Learn how and when to remove this message
226:Learn how and when to remove this message
124:Learn how and when to remove this message
1300:Cao, Liling; Ge, Wancheng (2015-03-10).
1141:ACM Transactions on Privacy and Security
1101:
1099:
1097:
1064:"Bypassing Multi-Factor Authentication"
1054:
716:are insecure and can be intercepted by
1459:. Schneier on Security. August 3, 2016
1043:Identity threat detection and response
942:is logistically challenging. Hardware
448:is an example of a possession factor.
372:, pattern in key press intervals, etc.
2934:Host-based intrusion detection system
2336:"Two-factor authentication is a mess"
1277:Springer Science & Business Media
760:" on most electronic payments in the
712:Text messages to mobile phones using
260:Hardware authentication security keys
7:
1784:Nair, Vishwanath (6 December 2016).
1758:Agarwal, Surabhi (7 December 2016).
1266:
1264:
1130:
1128:
1126:
380:; only the correct combination of a
164:adding citations to reliable sources
2965:Runtime application self-protection
1732:Karnik, Madhura (7 December 2016).
1306:Security and Communication Networks
2334:Brandom, Russell (July 10, 2017).
623:Two-step authentication involving
279:, along with similar terms) is an
25:
2897:Security-focused operating system
1912:NIST Special Publication 800-63-3
887:products require users to deploy
603:Mobile phone-based authentication
527:and can be duplicated. (Contrast
492:capable tokens, supported by the
52:This article has multiple issues.
27:Method of computer access control
2693:Insecure direct object reference
1967:from the original on 2012-11-15.
1842:. August 1, 2008. Archived from
1243:"Configuring One-Time Passwords"
1214:Barrett, Brian (July 22, 2018).
597:the same level of network access
140:
82:
41:
2947:Information security management
1840:Department of Homeland Security
1607:Nichols, Shaun (10 July 2017).
922:PC in order to make use of the
661:by national security agencies.
322:a computer resource (such as a
151:needs additional citations for
60:or discuss these issues on the
2383:, Microsoft preparing to dump
2381:Microsoft to abandon passwords
2204:. 4 April 2008. Archived from
758:strong customer authentication
32:Help:Two-factor authentication
1:
2377:, (slashdot.org, 20 Oct 2005)
2009:Bruce Schneier (March 2005).
1978:Brian Krebs (July 10, 2006).
1908:"Digital Identity Guidelines"
1581:Kan, Michael (7 March 2019).
1431:Andy Greenberg (2016-06-26).
1062:Russell, Steve (2023-02-22).
918:packages to push down to the
175:"Multi-factor authentication"
2277:Brodkin, Jon (23 May 2013).
1690:www.pcisecuritystandards.org
1559:. 2016-04-30. Archived from
1526:Chance Miller (2017-02-25).
805:In 2005, the United States'
2952:Information risk management
2873:Multi-factor authentication
2429:Related security categories
2035:Alex Perekalin (May 2018).
885:multi-factor authentication
741:Payment Card Industry (PCI)
535:Multi-factor authentication
265:Multi-factor authentication
3012:
2929:Intrusion detection system
2887:Computer security software
2543:Advanced persistent threat
2080:10.1016/j.cose.2016.09.009
1528:"Apple prompting iOS 10.3"
1410:. Piscataway, New Jersey:
868:
764:since September 14, 2019.
754:Payment Services Directive
735:Legislation and regulation
654:as an alternative method.
29:
2514:
2508:Digital rights management
1654:10.1109/ISCC.2008.4625610
1013:Multi-party authorization
1003:Electronic authentication
969:Public Key Infrastructure
840:man-in-the-middle attacks
812:online financial services
615:out of premises owing to
498:World Wide Web Consortium
403:or using another method.
281:electronic authentication
273:two-factor authentication
2653:Denial-of-service attack
2548:Arbitrary code execution
2067:Computers & Security
299:mechanism. MFA protects
2996:Computer access control
2863:Computer access control
2815:Rogue security software
2478:Electromagnetic warfare
1028:Reliance authentication
2991:Authentication methods
2909:Obfuscation (software)
2638:Browser Helper Objects
2522:
1846:on September 16, 2012.
1080:10.1093/combul/bwad023
998:Authentication factors
762:European Economic Area
466:
440:
261:
104:by rewriting it in an
2904:Data-centric security
2785:Remote access trojans
2520:
1960:. FFIEC. 2006-08-15.
1934:"FFIEC Press Release"
1914:. NIST. June 22, 2017
1033:Strong authentication
1018:Mutual authentication
774:Reserve Bank of India
640:around at all times.
464:
438:
259:
2836:Application security
2730:Privilege escalation
2598:Cross-site scripting
2451:Cybersex trafficking
2422:Information security
2102:Shankland, Stephen.
2015:Schneier on Security
1638:. pp. 700–705.
1038:Universal 2nd Factor
957:Credit Union Journal
465:A USB security token
444:computer systems. A
160:improve this article
2483:Information warfare
2441:Automotive security
2152:Khandelwal, Swati.
1336:www.darkreading.com
1275:. Berlin, Germany:
1008:Identity management
744:a trusted network.
559:methods, including
452:Disconnected tokens
18:2-step verification
2892:Antivirus software
2760:Social engineering
2725:Polymorphic engine
2678:Fraudulent dialers
2583:Hardware backdoors
2523:
1764:The Economic Times
953:U.S. credit unions
836:man-in-the-browser
707:Social-engineering
652:push notifications
579:can also be used.
577:keystroke dynamics
467:
441:
262:
106:encyclopedic style
93:is written like a
2978:
2977:
2940:Anomaly detection
2845:Secure by default
2698:Keystroke loggers
2633:Drive-by download
2521:vectorial version
2488:Internet security
2436:Computer security
2364:TwoFactorAuth.org
1663:978-1-4244-2702-4
1247:www.sonicwall.com
826:and other online
632:mobile device by
386:one-time password
254:
253:
246:
236:
235:
228:
210:
134:
133:
126:
75:
16:(Redirected from
3003:
2849:Secure by design
2780:Hardware Trojans
2613:History sniffing
2603:Cross-site leaks
2498:Network security
2415:
2408:
2401:
2392:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2287:. Archived from
2274:
2268:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2208:on July 8, 2011.
2198:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2182:BleepingComputer
2174:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2124:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2082:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1986:. Archived from
1975:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1959:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1942:
1941:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1885:. Archived from
1879:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1860:. Archived from
1854:
1848:
1847:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1781:
1775:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1696:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1647:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1621:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1568:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1405:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1367:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1342:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1318:10.1002/sec.1010
1297:
1291:
1290:
1279:. p. 1305.
1268:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1201:
1192:. Archived from
1179:
1173:
1172:
1132:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1103:
1092:
1091:
1059:
962:
598:
513:desktop computer
488:. Increasingly,
470:Connected tokens
324:computer network
305:financial assets
249:
242:
231:
224:
220:
217:
211:
209:
168:
144:
136:
129:
122:
118:
115:
109:
86:
85:
78:
67:
45:
44:
37:
21:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3005:
3004:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2974:
2824:
2524:
2512:
2503:Copy protection
2493:Mobile security
2424:
2419:
2360:
2355:
2346:
2344:
2333:
2329:
2327:Further reading
2324:
2323:
2316:
2309:
2308:
2304:
2294:
2292:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2264:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2243:
2241:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2186:
2184:
2176:
2175:
2171:
2162:
2160:
2158:The Hacker News
2151:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2134:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2112:
2110:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2045:
2043:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2019:
2017:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1991:
1990:on July 3, 2011
1984:Washington Post
1977:
1976:
1972:
1964:
1957:
1953:
1952:
1948:
1939:
1937:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1917:
1915:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1892:
1890:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1867:
1865:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1820:
1818:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1794:
1792:
1783:
1782:
1778:
1768:
1766:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1742:
1740:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1718:
1716:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1694:
1692:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1664:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1619:
1617:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1591:
1589:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1566:
1564:
1551:
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1546:
1536:
1534:
1525:
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1510:
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1499:
1498:
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1482:
1477:
1476:
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1462:
1460:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1441:
1439:
1430:
1429:
1425:
1416:
1414:
1403:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1365:
1363:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1340:
1338:
1330:
1329:
1325:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1287:
1270:
1269:
1262:
1252:
1250:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1226:
1224:
1213:
1212:
1208:
1199:
1197:
1181:
1180:
1176:
1153:10.1145/3440712
1134:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1113:
1105:
1104:
1095:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1051:
994:
981:
960:
940:hardware tokens
881:
873:
867:
820:
790:
770:
750:
737:
688:spoofed website
605:
596:
585:
553:
529:hardware tokens
433:
409:
316:
250:
239:
238:
237:
232:
221:
215:
212:
169:
167:
157:
145:
130:
119:
113:
110:
102:help improve it
99:
87:
83:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3009:
3007:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2983:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2970:Site isolation
2967:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2954:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2868:Authentication
2860:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2846:
2843:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2668:Email spoofing
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2608:DOM clobbering
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2588:Code injection
2585:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2468:Cyberterrorism
2465:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2456:Computer fraud
2453:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2425:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2410:
2403:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2378:
2372:
2367:
2359:
2358:External links
2356:
2354:
2353:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2302:
2291:on 9 July 2019
2269:
2250:
2226:
2211:
2193:
2169:
2144:
2119:
2094:
2053:
2027:
2001:
1970:
1946:
1925:
1899:
1874:
1849:
1827:
1802:
1776:
1750:
1724:
1701:
1677:
1662:
1626:
1599:
1573:
1544:
1518:
1492:
1481:. July 6, 2017
1470:
1448:
1423:
1391:
1372:
1347:
1323:
1312:(4): 617–625.
1292:
1285:
1260:
1234:
1206:
1184:(2016-06-28).
1174:
1122:
1093:
1053:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
993:
990:
980:
977:
880:
879:Implementation
877:
869:Main article:
866:
863:
824:identity theft
819:
816:
789:
786:
772:In India, the
769:
766:
749:
748:European Union
746:
736:
733:
732:
731:
728:
724:
721:
710:
700:
697:
694:
691:
681:Disadvantages:
678:
677:
674:
671:
638:mobile devices
604:
601:
584:
581:
552:
549:
505:software token
446:security token
432:
429:
408:
405:
395:A third-party
374:
373:
362:
347:
336:security token
315:
312:
297:authentication
252:
251:
234:
233:
148:
146:
139:
132:
131:
90:
88:
81:
76:
50:
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3008:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2880:Authorization
2878:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2861:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2841:Secure coding
2839:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2827:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2810:SQL injection
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2790:Vulnerability
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2775:Trojan horses
2773:
2771:
2770:Software bugs
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2658:Eavesdropping
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2648:Data scraping
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2618:Cryptojacking
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2519:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2411:
2409:
2404:
2402:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2386:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2331:
2326:
2312:
2306:
2303:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2273:
2270:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2240:
2236:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2215:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2197:
2194:
2183:
2179:
2173:
2170:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2145:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2120:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2054:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2002:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1971:
1963:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1935:
1929:
1926:
1913:
1909:
1903:
1900:
1889:on 2013-01-28
1888:
1884:
1878:
1875:
1864:on 2013-01-28
1863:
1859:
1853:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1831:
1828:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1803:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1777:
1765:
1761:
1754:
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1728:
1725:
1714:
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1673:
1669:
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1641:
1637:
1630:
1627:
1616:
1615:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1574:
1563:on 2016-04-30
1562:
1558:
1554:
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1522:
1519:
1507:
1503:
1496:
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1427:
1424:
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1337:
1333:
1327:
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1311:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1293:
1288:
1286:9781441959058
1282:
1278:
1274:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1223:
1222:
1217:
1210:
1207:
1196:on 2021-04-06
1195:
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893:
890:
886:
878:
876:
872:
864:
862:
859:
855:
851:
850:O2 TelefĂłnica
848:In May 2017,
846:
843:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
817:
815:
813:
808:
803:
801:
797:
793:
788:United States
787:
785:
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779:
775:
767:
765:
763:
759:
755:
747:
745:
742:
734:
729:
725:
722:
719:
718:IMSI-catchers
715:
711:
708:
704:
701:
698:
695:
692:
689:
685:
684:
683:
682:
675:
672:
669:
668:
667:
666:
662:
660:
655:
653:
648:
646:
641:
639:
635:
630:
626:
625:mobile phones
621:
618:
612:
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494:FIDO Alliance
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2914:Data masking
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2473:Cyberwarfare
2345:. Retrieved
2339:
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2293:. Retrieved
2289:the original
2284:Ars Technica
2282:
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2206:the original
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2132:schneier.com
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2020:20 September
2018:. Retrieved
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1994:20 September
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1936:. 2005-10-12
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1817:. 2014-11-30
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1614:The Register
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1505:
1500:Tung, Liam.
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1362:. 2013-05-23
1360:the Guardian
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1249:. Sonic Wall
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1194:the original
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216:January 2021
213:
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182:
170:
158:Please help
153:verification
150:
120:
111:
92:
68:
61:
55:
54:Please help
51:
2854:Misuse case
2688:Infostealer
2663:Email fraud
2628:Data breach
2463:Cybergeddon
1918:February 2,
1815:VentureBeat
1743:10 December
1712:relevance.)
1592:9 September
1023:Out-of-band
912:credentials
910:connection
904:credentials
865:MFA fatigue
752:The second
703:SIM cloning
665:Advantages:
659:SIM cloning
629:smartphones
561:fingerprint
482:smart cards
289:application
2985:Categories
2919:Encryption
2795:Web shells
2735:Ransomware
2683:Hacktivism
2446:Cybercrime
2311:US 5708422
2259:US 6078908
2244:2020-12-17
2187:2023-08-12
2163:2017-05-05
2137:23 October
2113:2020-09-27
2046:17 October
1940:2011-05-13
1893:2013-02-11
1868:2013-02-11
1821:2021-09-05
1719:2021-04-06
1695:2016-07-25
1620:2017-07-11
1567:2016-04-30
1557:bellingcat
1442:2018-05-12
1417:2018-03-23
1381:EP 0745961
1366:2022-11-02
1341:2024-08-29
1253:19 January
1200:2021-04-06
1116:2015-10-31
1049:References
985:Kim Dotcom
928:smart card
756:requires "
509:soft token
478:physically
431:Possession
417:passphrase
366:biometrics
186:newspapers
57:improve it
2750:Shellcode
2745:Scareware
2593:Crimeware
2553:Backdoors
2385:passwords
2341:The Verge
2239:Wiley.com
2073:: 14–28.
2041:Kaspersky
1645:1002.3171
1169:231791299
1161:2471-2566
1088:1746-5702
983:In 2013,
932:web pages
599:in each.
557:biometric
476:that are
425:memorized
415:words (a
407:Knowledge
382:bank card
344:bank card
340:USB stick
63:talk page
2924:Firewall
2829:Defenses
2755:Spamming
2740:Rootkits
2713:Phishing
2673:Exploits
2347:July 10,
2089:10821943
1962:Archived
1790:Livemint
1532:9to5 Mac
992:See also
916:software
892:software
858:infected
832:phishing
818:Security
583:Location
551:Inherent
507:(a.k.a.
496:and the
351:password
320:log into
295:) to an
2765:Spyware
2708:Payload
2703:Malware
2643:Viruses
2623:Botnets
2530:Threats
2295:25 July
1795:28 June
1769:28 June
1672:5066992
1485:May 21,
979:Patents
955:by the
902:access
898:login,
896:network
727:factor.
617:malware
544:QR-code
540:keycard
474:devices
314:Factors
293:factors
285:website
200:scholar
100:Please
2959:(SIEM)
2936:(HIDS)
2820:Zombie
2557:Bombs
2538:Adware
2317:
2265:
2087:
1738:Quartz
1670:
1660:
1587:PC Mag
1506:ZD Net
1387:
1283:
1167:
1159:
1086:
948:tokens
944:tokens
920:client
906:, and
889:client
838:, and
517:laptop
361:, etc.
202:
195:
188:
181:
173:
2805:Worms
2800:Wiper
2718:Voice
2566:Logic
2085:S2CID
1965:(PDF)
1958:(PDF)
1668:S2CID
1640:arXiv
1437:Wired
1404:(PDF)
1221:Wired
1165:S2CID
1068:ITNOW
924:token
883:Many
828:fraud
768:India
593:Wi-Fi
571:, or
569:voice
542:, or
523:, or
490:FIDO2
342:), a
275:, or
207:JSTOR
193:books
2571:Time
2561:Fork
2349:2017
2297:2019
2139:2015
2108:CNET
2048:2020
2022:2016
1996:2016
1920:2018
1797:2020
1771:2020
1745:2023
1658:ISBN
1594:2019
1539:2017
1513:2017
1487:2019
1465:2017
1281:ISBN
1255:2022
1229:2020
1190:NIST
1157:ISSN
1111:CNET
1084:ISSN
800:NIST
782:Uber
739:The
645:NIST
627:and
573:iris
565:face
484:and
472:are
179:news
2576:Zip
2075:doi
1650:doi
1314:doi
1149:doi
1076:doi
926:or
908:VPN
900:Web
854:SS7
778:SMS
714:SMS
634:SMS
521:PDA
456:OTP
421:ATM
401:SMS
378:ATM
359:PUK
355:PIN
287:or
277:2FA
271:;
269:MFA
162:by
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