574:
years. The HAOM-bearing melt could then have risen to the upper crust. This model is supported by the fact that aluminum is more soluble in orthopyroxene at high pressure. In this model, the HAOM represent lower-crustal cumulates that are related to the anorthosite source-magma. One problem with this model is that it requires the anorthosite source-magma to sit in the low crust for a considerable time. To solve this, some authors suggest that the HAOMs may have formed in the lower crust independent of the anorthosite source-magma. Later, the anorthosite source-magma may have entrained pieces of the HAOM-bearing lower crust on its way upward. Other researchers consider the chemical compositions of the HAOM to be the product of rapid crystallization at moderate or low pressures, eliminating the need for a lower-crustal origin altogether.
633:
anorthosites, because it does not fit with, among other things, some important isotopic measurements made on anorthositic rocks in the Nain
Plutonic Suite. The Nd and Sr isotopic data show the magma which produced the anorthosites cannot have been derived only from the mantle. Instead, the magma that gave rise to the Nain Plutonic Suite anorthosites must have had a significant crustal component. This discovery led to a slightly more complicated version of the previous hypothesis: Large amounts of basaltic magma form a magma chamber at the base of the crust, and, while crystallizing, assimilating large amounts of crust.
416:
794:
43:
770:
782:
604:
of an anorthositic magma is too high for it to exist as a liquid for very long at normal ambient crustal temperatures, so this appears to be unlikely. The presence of water vapor has been shown to lower the solidus temperature of anorthositic magma to more reasonable values, but most anorthosites are
619:
Many researchers have argued that anorthosites are the products of basaltic magma, and that mechanical removal of mafic minerals has occurred. Since the mafic minerals are not found with the anorthosites, these minerals must have been left at either a deeper level or the base of the crust. A typical
636:
This small addendum explains both the isotopic characteristics and certain other chemical niceties of
Proterozoic anorthosite. However, at least one researcher has cogently argued, on the basis of geochemical data, that the mantle's role in production of anorthosites must actually be very limited:
596:
composition. Under normal conditions, the composition of basaltic magma requires it to crystallize between 50 and 70% plagioclase, with the bulk of the remainder of the magma crystallizing as mafic minerals. However, anorthosites are defined by a high plagioclase content (90–100% plagioclase), and
443:
on fresh surfaces. The feldspar variety labradorite is commonly present in anorthosites. Mineralogically, labradorite is a compositional term for any calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar containing 50–70 molecular percent anorthite (An 50–70), regardless of whether it shows labradorescence. The mafic
573:
The origins of HAOMs are debated. One possible model suggests that, during anorthosite formation, a mantle-derived melt (or partially-crystalline mush) was injected into the lower crust and began crystallizing. HAOMs would have crystallized out during this time, perhaps as long as 80–120 million
541:
The trace-element chemistry of
Proterozoic anorthosites, and the associated rock types, has been examined in some detail by researchers with the aim of arriving at a plausible genetic theory. However, there is still little agreement on just what the results mean for anorthosite genesis; see the
632:
This theory has many appealing features, of which one is the capacity to explain the chemical composition of high-alumina orthopyroxene megacrysts (HAOM). This is detailed below in the section devoted to the HAOM. However, on its own, this hypothesis cannot coherently explain the origins of
691:
Archean anorthosites are distinct texturally and mineralogically from
Proterozoic anorthosite bodies. Their most characteristic feature is the presence of equant, euhedral megacrysts (up to 30 cm) of plagioclase surrounded by a fine-grained mafic groundmass. The plagioclase in these
557:
determinations for anorthosites, particularly for anorthosites of the Nain
Plutonic Suite (NPS). Such isotopic determinations are of use in gauging the viability of prospective sources for magmas that gave rise to anorthosites. Some results are detailed below in the 'Origins' section.
569:
HAOM are distinctive because 1) they contain higher amounts of Al than typically seen in orthopyroxenes; 2) they are cut by numerous thin lathes of plagioclase, which may represent exsolution lamellae; and 3) they appear to be older than the anorthosites in which they are found.
597:
are not found in association with contemporaneous ultramafic rocks. This is now known as 'the anorthosite problem.' Proposed solutions to the anorthosite problem have been diverse, with many of the proposals drawing on different geological subdisciplines.
1276:"Torcivia & Neal (2022) "Unraveling the Components Within Apollo 16 Ferroan Anorthosite Suite Cataclastic Anorthosite Sample 60025: Implications for the Lunar Magma Ocean Model", Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, volume 127, e2020JE006799.
624:
large amounts of mafic minerals, which sink to the bottom of the chamber. The co-crystallizing plagioclase crystals float, and eventually are emplaced into the crust as anorthosite plutons. Most of the sinking mafic minerals form
537:
components in addition to plagioclase. These phases can include olivine, pyroxene, Fe-Ti oxides, and/or apatite. Mafic minerals in
Proterozoic anorthosites have a wide range of composition, but are not generally highly magnesian.
669:, with the Mg-suite forming from later impacts and plutonism. However, debate exists on the magma ocean fractionation complicated by surface impact mixing with evidence potentially indicating MAN being older and more primitive.
612:
in the Nain
Plutonic Suite, suggested that the possibility of anorthositic magmas existing at crustal temperatures needed to be reexamined. However, the dykes were later shown to be more complex than was originally thought.
1101:
Bybee, G.M.; Ashwal, L.D.; Shirey, S.B.; Horan, M.; Mock, T.; Andersen, T.B. (2014). "Pyroxene megacrysts in
Proterozoic anorthosites: Implications for tectonic setting, magma source and magmatic processes at the Moho".
637:
the mantle provides only the impetus (heat) for crustal melting, and a small amount of partial melt in the form of basaltic magma. Thus anorthosites are, in this view, derived almost entirely from lower crustal melts.
620:
theory is as follows: partial melting of the mantle generates a basaltic magma, which does not immediately ascend into the crust. Instead, the basaltic magma forms a large magma chamber at the base of the crust and
1459:
Emslie, R. F.; Hamilton, M. A.; Theriault, R. J. (1994). "Petrogenesis of a Mid-Proterozoic
Anorthosite-Mangerite-Charnockite-Granite (AMCG) Complex: Isotopic and Chemical Evidence from the Nain Plutonic Suite".
483:
and the accompanying mafic mineral are more than a few centimetres long. Less commonly, plagioclase crystals are megacrystic, or larger than one metre long. However, most
Proterozoic anorthosites are
605:
relatively dry. It may be postulated, then, that water vapor be driven off by subsequent metamorphism of the anorthosite, but some anorthosites are undeformed, thereby invalidating the suggestion.
178:
based on their density. Plagioclase crystals are usually less dense than magma; so, as plagioclase crystallizes in a magma chamber, the plagioclase crystals float to the top, concentrating there.
688:
Archean anorthosites represent the second largest anorthosite deposits on Earth. Most have been dated between 3,200 and 2,800 Ma, and commonly associated with basalts and/or greenstone belts.
280:. The areal extent of anorthosite batholiths ranges from relatively small (dozens or hundreds of square kilometers) to nearly 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi), in the instance of the
1516:"Chronology, geochemistry, and petrology of a ferroan noritic anorthosite clast from Descartes breccia 67215: Clues to the age, origin, structure, and impact history of the lunar crust"
600:
It was suggested early in the history of anorthosite debate that a special type of magma, anorthositic magma, had been generated at depth, and emplaced into the crust. However, the
566:
Many Proterozoic-age anorthosites contain large crystals of orthopyroxene with distinctive compositions. These are the so-called high-alumina orthopyroxene megacrysts (HAOM).
526:). This compositional range is intermediate, and is one of the characteristics which distinguish Proterozoic anorthosites from Archean anorthosites (which are typically >An
494:
While many Proterozoic anorthosite plutons appear to have no large-scale relict igneous structures (having instead post-emplacement deformational structures), some do have
1334:
Graham, R. C.; Herbert, B. E.; Ervin, J. O. (1988). "Mineralogy and Incipient Pedogenesis of Entisols in Anorthosite Terrane of the San Gabriel Mountains, California".
1288:
Takeda et al. (2006) "Magnesian anorthosites and a deep crustal rock from the farside crust of the moon", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, volume 247, pp. 171–184.
323:
Many Proterozoic anorthosites occur in spatial association with other highly distinctive, contemporaneous rock types: the so-called 'anorthosite suite' or 'anorthosite-
1623:
Xue, S.; Morse, S. A. (1994). "Chemical characteristics of plagioclase and pyroxene megacrysts and their significance to the petrogenesis of the Nain Anorthosites".
1144:"Comment on Bybee et al. (2014): Pyroxene megacrysts in Proterozoic anorthosites: Implications for tectonic setting, magma source and magmatic processes at the Moho"
1004:
793:
1312:
Stoffler et al.(1980) "Recommended classification and nomenclature of lunar highland rocks – a committee report" Proc.Conf. Lunar Highlands Crust. pp. 51–70.
616:
In summary, though liquid-state processes clearly operate in some anorthosite plutons, the plutons are probably not derived from anorthositic magmas.
763:, soils on anorthosite have a dominance of 1:1 clay minerals (kaolinite and halloysite) in contrast to more mafic rock over which 2:1 clays develop.
582:
The origins of Proterozoic anorthosites have been a subject of theoretical debate for many decades. A brief synopsis of this problem is as follows:
230:
Of these, the first two are the most common. These two types have different modes of occurrence, appear to be restricted to different periods in
1658:
1671:
1267:
Heiken, Vaniman & French (1991) "Lunar Sourcebook A User’s Guide to the Moon", Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521--33444-6, page 214.
1372:
Bédard, Jean H. (2001). "Parental magmas of the Nain Plutonic Suite anorthosites and mafic cumulates: a trace element modelling approach".
621:
175:
1717:
542:'Origins' section below. A very short list of results, including results for rocks thought to be related to Proterozoic anorthosites,
311:
continental configuration of that eon, these occurrences are all contained in a single straight belt, and must all have been emplaced
936:
862:
315:. The conditions and constraints of this pattern of origin and distribution are not clear. However, see the Origins section below.
928:
1077:
Emslie, R.F. (1975). "Pyroxene megacrysts from anorthositic rocks: new clues to the sources and evolution of the parent magmas".
1680:
1663:
1669:
History of the Emplacement and Deformation of Anorthosite Bodies in the Eastern Marcy Massif, Adirondacks Mountains, New York
498:, which may be defined by crystal size, mafic content, or chemical characteristics. Such layering clearly has origins with a
174:
Anorthosites are of enormous geologic interest, because it is still not fully understood how they form. Most models involve
1594:
Xue, S.; Morse, S. A. (1993). "Geochemistry of the Nain massif anorthosite, Labrador: Magma diversity in five intrusions".
1142:
Vander Auwera, Jacqueline; Charlier, Bernard; Duchesne, Jean Clair; Bingen, Bernard; Longhi, John; Bolle, Olivier (2014).
735:
Anorthosite was prominently represented in rock samples brought back from the Moon, and is important in investigations of
996:
769:
1436:"Rapakivi and related granitoids of the Nain Plutonic Suite: geochemistry, mineral assemblages and fluid equilibria"
347:: an orthopyroxene-bearing quartz-feldspar rock, once thought to be intrusive igneous, now recognized as metamorphic
240:
anorthosites constitute the light-coloured areas of the Moon's surface and have been the subject of much research.
206:
514:
Proterozoic anorthosites are typically >90% plagioclase, and the plagioclase composition is commonly between An
488:
484:
435:, to be grey or bluish. Individual plagioclase crystals may be black, white, blue, or grey, and may exhibit an
415:
202:
194:
anorthosite (also known as massif or massif-type anorthosite) – the most abundant type of anorthosite on Earth
2714:
1770:
1750:
1710:
658:
2195:
1411:"Pyroxene megacrysts from anorthositic rocks: new clues to the sources and evolution of the parent magmas"
781:
397:
654:
281:
2160:
760:
292:
431:
Since they are primarily composed of plagioclase feldspar, most of Proterozoic anorthosites appear, in
495:
2724:
1632:
1603:
1558:
1527:
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1381:
1343:
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1030:
382:
1668:
601:
237:
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42:
1991:
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1485:
1397:
1046:
972:
814:
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In the Adirondack Mountains, soils on anorthositic rock tend to be stony loamy sand with classic
386:
1321:
1946:
1574:
1447:
1422:
942:
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858:
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589:
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The problem begins with the generation of magma, the necessary precursor of any igneous rock.
198:
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2142:
2011:
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1355:
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1171:
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1159:
1119:
1115:
1038:
959:
898:
850:
396:, these rocks likely represent chemically-independent magmas, likely produced by melting of
359:
285:
231:
94:
1549:
Wood, J. A.; Dickey, J. S. Jr.; Marvin, U. B.; Powell, B. N. (1970). "Lunar Anorthosites".
2455:
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2006:
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48:
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1981:
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1067:(1994); Xue and Morse (1994); Emslie and Stirling (1993); and Xue and Morse (1993).
800:
33:
1324:
National Cooperative Soil Survey U.S.A. Official Series Description Santanoni Soil
491:
to form smaller crystals, leaving only the outline of the larger crystals behind.
291:
Major occurrences of Proterozoic anorthosite are found in the southeast U.S., the
1570:
854:
2507:
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2378:
2368:
2295:
2245:
2170:
2016:
1951:
1921:
1876:
1834:
1807:
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1792:
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Longhi, John; Fram, M. S.; Vander Auwera, J.; Montieth, J. N. (1 October 1993).
1289:
1211:
Wiebe, Robert A. (1979). "Anorthositic dikes, southern Nain complex, Labrador".
713:
709:
440:
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378:
344:
328:
300:
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Proterozoic anorthosites were emplaced during the Proterozoic Eon (c. 2,500–542
191:
141:
69:
1300:"Geologic History of the Moon", USGS Professional Paper 1348. (1987) page 140.
1167:
1123:
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intrusion (1.29 to 1.35 billion years), Labrador. Polished slab; blue color is
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2001:
1971:
1931:
1906:
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1871:
1780:
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677:
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which covers ~80% of the lunar surface. Lunar anorthosite is characterized as
476:
404:
247:
anorthosites has also been confirmed and is the subject of on-going research.
130:
52:
1499:"Pressure effects, kinetics, and rheology of anorthositic and related magmas"
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2150:
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1976:
1966:
1941:
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1911:
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1812:
1775:
1691:
Mercury – Evidence for Anorthosite and Basalt from mid-Infrared Spectroscopy
1143:
902:
744:
721:
661:(MAN). Pristine lunar FAN is some of the oldest lunar rock and the original
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523:
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355:
338:
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277:
160:
20:
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1961:
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1986:
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185:
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137:
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1996:
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2225:
2180:
2175:
1514:
Norman, M. D.; Borg, L. E.; Nyquist, L. E.; Bogard, D. D. (2003).
997:"This moon mission is landing in Labrador's Mistastin Lake crater"
977:
American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2012, abstract id.P44A-07
740:
534:
503:
461:
414:
407:
rocks are not found in association with Proterozoic anorthosites.
261:
148:
79:
16:
Mafic intrusive igneous rock composed predominantly of plagioclase
1695:
2330:
2275:
2190:
2122:
736:
720:
and a building material. Archean anorthosites, because they are
646:
1699:
295:(e.g., the Honeybrook Upland of eastern Pennsylvania), eastern
729:
1322:
https://soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/S/SANTANONI.html
109:
106:
971:
Carter, J.; Poulet, F.; Flahaut, J.; Ody, A. (2012-12-01).
672:
Lunar anorthosite is associated with two other rock types:
588:
Magma generated by small amounts of partial melting of the
118:
112:
97:
889:
Ashwal, L. D. (2010). "The Temporality of Anorthosites".
680:. Together, they comprise the "ANT" suite of moon rocks.
264:), though most were emplaced between 1,800 and 1,000 Ma.
724:-rich, have large amounts of aluminium substituting for
700:
The primary economic value of anorthosite bodies is the
226:
in other rocks (often granites, kimberlites, or basalts)
1021:
Bowen, N.L. (1917). "The problem of the anorthosites".
272:
Proterozoic anorthosites typically occur as extensive
181:
Anorthosite on Earth can be divided into five types:
1434:
Emslie, R. F.; Stirling, J. A. R. (1 December 1993).
341:: a pyroxene-bearing monzonite intrusive igneous rock
115:
103:
121:
2516:
2354:
2141:
1731:
845:Sen, Gautam (2014). "Anorthosites and Komatiites".
817: – List of rock types recognized by geologists
100:
75:
65:
60:
849:. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 261–276.
608:The discovery, in the late 1970s, of anorthositic
1686:Lunar Anorthosite Specimen 60025 Photomicrographs
234:, and are thought to have had different origins.
533:Proterozoic anorthosites often have significant
299:(e.g., the Grenville Province), across southern
649:, anorthosite is the dominant rock type of the
140:rock characterized by its composition: mostly
1711:
562:High-alumina orthopyroxene megacrysts (HAOMs)
8:
1290:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.04.004
759:profile development usually evident. In the
716:, which is quarried for its value as both a
26:
487:, and such large plagioclase crystals have
1718:
1704:
1696:
799:Anorthosite from the Moon, the Apollo 15 "
444:mineral in Proterozoic anorthosite may be
1539:
1374:Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology
712:anorthosite bodies have large amounts of
1302:https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1348/report.pdf
973:"Detection of anorthosite rocks on Mars"
1356:10.2136/sssaj1988.03615995005200030026x
1336:Soil Science Society of America Journal
826:
765:
479:; that is, the individual plagioclase
400:into which the anorthosites intruded.
25:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1096:
1094:
1092:
728:; a few of these bodies are mined as
629:which stay at the base of the crust.
510:Chemical and isotopic characteristics
7:
1278:https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JE006799
1016:
1014:
914:
912:
884:
882:
880:
878:
876:
874:
840:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
1659:Anorthosite Complexes (web archive)
1148:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1104:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
578:Origins of Proterozoic anorthosites
1541:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2003.tb00031.x
692:anorthosites is commonly An80-90.
475:Most anorthosite plutons are very
14:
1681:Anorthosite – Lunar Highland Rock
1664:How does anorthosite crystallize?
1520:Meteoritics and Planetary Science
775:Anorthosite from southern Finland
1007:from the original on 2021-08-31.
792:
780:
768:
93:
41:
1625:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1596:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
751:Soil development on anorthosite
251:Proterozoic anorthosite massifs
176:separating plagioclase crystals
403:Importantly, large volumes of
334:These rock types can include:
288:in northern Labrador, Canada.
1:
545:Some research has focused on
1645:10.1016/0016-7037(94)90336-0
1616:10.1016/0016-7037(93)90344-V
1571:10.1126/science.167.3918.602
1409:Emslie, R. F. (1 May 1975).
855:10.1007/978-3-642-38800-2_12
1213:American Journal of Science
1201:e.g. Xue and Morse, (1994).
960:PSRD: The Oldest Moon Rocks
2741:
1168:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.06.031
1124:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.12.015
929:Springer Berlin Heidelberg
331:-granite (AMCG) complex'.
147:(90–100%), with a minimal
18:
919:Ashwal, Lewis D. (1993).
891:The Canadian Mineralogist
40:
31:
419:Nain Anorthosite, a mid-
411:Physical characteristics
19:Not to be confused with
1771:Basaltic trachyandesite
1751:Alkali feldspar granite
1532:2003M&PS...38..645N
1160:2014E&PSL.401..378V
1116:2014E&PSL.389...74B
903:10.3749/canmin.48.4.711
787:Anorthosite from Poland
171:most commonly present.
1192:(1993); Emslie (1975).
1063:Bédard (2001); Emslie
428:
2161:Banded iron formation
1503:American Mineralogist
1440:Canadian Mineralogist
1415:Canadian Mineralogist
1394:10.1007/s004100100268
1233:10.2475/ajs.279.4.394
1079:Canadian Mineralogist
761:San Gabriel Mountains
659:magnesium anorthosite
418:
293:Appalachian Mountains
684:Archean anorthosites
627:ultramafic cumulates
381:mafic rocks such as
1637:1994GeCoA..58.4317X
1608:1993GeCoA..57.3925X
1563:1970Sci...167..602W
1474:1994JG....102..539E
1386:2001CoMP..141..747B
1348:1988SSASJ..52..738G
1225:1979AmJS..279..394W
1035:1917JG.....25..209B
655:ferroan anorthosite
472:, are also common.
456:, or, more rarely,
282:Nain Plutonic Suite
151:component (0–10%).
28:
2517:Specific varieties
1674:2011-05-14 at the
1509:(9–10): 1016–1030.
1462:Journal of Geology
815:List of rock types
429:
307:. Mapped onto the
199:Layered Intrusions
2702:
2701:
1947:Nepheline syenite
1631:(20): 4317–4331.
1602:(16): 3925–3948.
1557:(3918): 602–604.
667:lunar magma ocean
641:Lunar anorthosite
354:rocks, including
86:
85:
47:Anorthosite from
2732:
2644:Rapakivi granite
2356:Metamorphic rock
2143:Sedimentary rock
2012:Quartz monzonite
1720:
1713:
1706:
1697:
1648:
1619:
1590:
1545:
1543:
1510:
1493:
1455:
1430:
1405:
1360:
1359:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1313:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1274:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1250:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1208:
1202:
1199:
1193:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1139:
1128:
1127:
1098:
1087:
1086:
1074:
1068:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1018:
1009:
1008:
993:
987:
986:
984:
983:
968:
962:
957:
951:
950:
916:
907:
906:
886:
869:
868:
842:
796:
784:
772:
708:. However, some
592:is generally of
496:igneous layering
360:rapakivi granite
286:Mistastin crater
243:The presence of
128:
127:
124:
123:
120:
117:
114:
111:
108:
105:
102:
99:
45:
29:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2512:
2456:Pseudotachylite
2350:
2137:
2069:Tephriphonolite
1727:
1724:
1676:Wayback Machine
1655:
1622:
1593:
1548:
1513:
1496:
1458:
1433:
1408:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1244:
1240:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1187:
1183:
1141:
1140:
1131:
1100:
1099:
1090:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1062:
1058:
1020:
1019:
1012:
995:
994:
990:
981:
979:
970:
969:
965:
958:
954:
939:
918:
917:
910:
888:
887:
872:
865:
844:
843:
828:
824:
811:
804:
797:
788:
785:
776:
773:
753:
704:-bearing oxide
698:
686:
651:lunar highlands
643:
580:
564:
529:
521:
517:
512:
441:labradorescence
425:labradorescence
421:Mesoproterozoic
413:
383:leucotroctolite
321:
313:intracratonally
270:
258:
253:
232:Earth's history
217:transform fault
213:Mid-ocean ridge
96:
92:
56:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2738:
2736:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2715:Plutonic rocks
2707:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2649:Rhomb porphyry
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2499:
2498:
2491:Talc carbonate
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2147:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2084:Trachyandesite
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2007:Quartz diorite
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1778:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1737:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1726:Types of rocks
1725:
1723:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1666:
1661:
1654:
1653:External links
1651:
1650:
1649:
1620:
1591:
1546:
1526:(4): 645–661.
1511:
1494:
1482:10.1086/629697
1468:(5): 539–558.
1456:
1446:(4): 821–847.
1431:
1421:(2): 138–145.
1406:
1380:(6): 747–771.
1367:
1364:
1362:
1361:
1326:
1314:
1305:
1293:
1281:
1269:
1260:
1258:Bédard (2001).
1251:
1238:
1219:(4): 394–410.
1203:
1194:
1181:
1129:
1088:
1069:
1056:
1043:10.1086/622473
1029:(3): 209–243.
1010:
988:
963:
952:
937:
908:
897:(4): 711–728.
870:
863:
825:
823:
820:
819:
818:
810:
807:
806:
805:
798:
791:
789:
786:
779:
777:
774:
767:
752:
749:
732:of aluminium.
697:
696:Economic value
694:
685:
682:
642:
639:
579:
576:
563:
560:
527:
519:
515:
511:
508:
489:recrystallized
477:coarse grained
412:
409:
390:
389:
376:
362:
348:
342:
320:
317:
269:
266:
257:
254:
252:
249:
228:
227:
220:
210:
197:Layers within
195:
189:
167:are the mafic
84:
83:
77:
73:
72:
67:
63:
62:
58:
57:
49:Salem district
46:
38:
37:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2737:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2609:Litchfieldite
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2574:Hyaloclastite
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2421:Litchfieldite
2419:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1982:Phonotephrite
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1887:Hyaloclastite
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1721:
1716:
1714:
1709:
1707:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1273:
1270:
1264:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1242:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1204:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1002:
998:
992:
989:
978:
974:
967:
964:
961:
956:
953:
948:
944:
940:
938:9783642774409
934:
930:
926:
922:
915:
913:
909:
904:
900:
896:
892:
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
875:
871:
866:
864:9783642387999
860:
856:
852:
848:
841:
839:
837:
835:
833:
831:
827:
821:
816:
813:
812:
808:
802:
795:
790:
783:
778:
771:
766:
764:
762:
758:
750:
748:
746:
742:
738:
733:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
695:
693:
689:
683:
681:
679:
675:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
640:
638:
634:
630:
628:
623:
617:
614:
611:
606:
603:
598:
595:
591:
586:
583:
577:
575:
571:
567:
561:
559:
556:
552:
548:
543:
539:
536:
531:
525:
509:
507:
505:
502:liquid-state
501:
500:rheologically
497:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
450:orthopyroxene
447:
446:clinopyroxene
442:
438:
434:
426:
422:
417:
410:
408:
406:
401:
399:
395:
388:
384:
380:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
346:
343:
340:
337:
336:
335:
332:
330:
326:
319:Related rocks
318:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
289:
287:
283:
279:
275:
267:
265:
263:
255:
250:
248:
246:
241:
239:
235:
233:
225:
221:
218:
214:
211:
208:
204:
200:
196:
193:
190:
187:
184:
183:
182:
179:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
143:
139:
136:
132:
126:
90:
81:
78:
74:
71:
68:
64:
59:
54:
50:
44:
39:
36:
35:
30:
22:
2619:Luxullianite
2599:Lapis lazuli
2544:Blue Granite
2471:Serpentinite
2446:Metapsammite
2196:Conglomerate
2118:Trondhjemite
2096:Trachybasalt
2037:Pantellerite
1937:Monzogranite
1882:Hornblendite
1867:Granodiorite
1755:
1733:Igneous rock
1628:
1624:
1599:
1595:
1554:
1550:
1523:
1519:
1506:
1502:
1465:
1461:
1443:
1439:
1418:
1414:
1377:
1373:
1366:Bibliography
1339:
1335:
1329:
1317:
1308:
1296:
1284:
1272:
1263:
1254:
1246:
1241:
1216:
1212:
1206:
1197:
1189:
1184:
1151:
1147:
1107:
1103:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1064:
1059:
1026:
1022:
1000:
991:
980:. Retrieved
976:
966:
955:
921:Anorthosites
920:
894:
890:
846:
801:Genesis Rock
754:
734:
699:
690:
687:
671:
644:
635:
631:
622:fractionates
618:
615:
607:
599:
587:
584:
581:
572:
568:
565:
544:
540:
532:
513:
493:
474:
430:
402:
398:country rock
391:
333:
322:
303:and eastern
290:
271:
259:
242:
236:
229:
222:Anorthosite
219:anorthosites
188:anorthosites
180:
173:
88:
87:
34:Igneous rock
32:
2725:Proterozoic
2508:Whiteschist
2399:Greenschist
2379:Cataclasite
2369:Amphibolite
2296:Phosphorite
2246:Itacolumite
2171:Calcarenite
2017:Quartzolite
1952:Nephelinite
1922:Lamprophyre
1877:Harzburgite
1835:Napoleonite
1808:Charnockite
1803:Carbonatite
1793:Blairmorite
1756:Anorthosite
1176:2268/170510
1154:: 378–380.
714:labradorite
710:Proterozoic
437:iridescence
387:leuconorite
379:Leucocratic
345:Charnockite
329:charnockite
301:Scandinavia
209:intrusions)
192:Proterozoic
142:plagioclase
89:Anorthosite
70:Plagioclase
61:Composition
27:Anorthosite
2709:Categories
2674:Teschenite
2659:Shonkinite
2634:Pietersite
2629:Novaculite
2539:Borolanite
2524:Adamellite
2441:Metapelite
2409:Calcflinta
2374:Blueschist
2364:Anthracite
2346:Wackestone
2326:Travertine
2271:Lumachelle
2251:Jaspillite
2206:Diamictite
2128:Websterite
2113:Troctolite
2089:Benmoreite
2049:Shonkinite
2022:Rhyodacite
2002:Pyroxenite
1972:Peridotite
1932:Lherzolite
1907:Kimberlite
1897:Ignimbrite
1892:Icelandite
1872:Granophyre
1781:Shoshonite
1342:(3): 738.
982:2024-06-16
925:Heidelberg
923:. Berlin,
822:References
745:meteorites
678:troctolite
657:(FAN), or
464:, such as
405:ultramafic
364:Iron-rich
350:Iron-rich
278:batholiths
268:Occurrence
207:Stillwater
131:phaneritic
53:Tamil Nadu
2689:Variolite
2679:Theralite
2669:Tachylite
2654:Rodingite
2624:Mangerite
2604:Larvikite
2589:Jasperoid
2584:Jadeitite
2549:Epidosite
2503:Tectonite
2496:Soapstone
2461:Quartzite
2431:Migmatite
2416:Itabirite
2394:Granulite
2336:Turbidite
2316:Sylvinite
2311:Siltstone
2301:Sandstone
2286:Oil shale
2266:Limestone
2241:Gritstone
2236:Greywacke
2231:Geyserite
2221:Evaporite
2211:Diatomite
2186:Claystone
2151:Argillite
2064:Tachylyte
2032:Comendite
1977:Phonolite
1967:Pegmatite
1942:Monzonite
1917:Lamproite
1912:Komatiite
1852:Foidolite
1813:Enderbite
1776:Mugearite
1490:128409707
1452:0008-4476
1427:0008-4476
1402:129715859
1110:: 74–85.
1051:128607774
947:851768311
847:Petrology
722:aluminium
551:strontium
549:(Nd) and
547:neodymium
524:anorthite
466:magnetite
458:amphibole
439:known as
356:monzonite
339:Mangerite
325:mangerite
224:xenoliths
161:magnetite
135:intrusive
76:Secondary
21:Anorthite
2664:Taconite
2639:Pyrolite
2564:Ganister
2534:Aphanite
2529:Appinite
2451:Phyllite
2436:Mylonite
2404:Hornfels
2384:Eclogite
2281:Mudstone
2256:Laterite
2216:Dolomite
2133:Wehrlite
2108:Trachyte
2101:Hawaiite
2079:Tonalite
2074:Tephrite
2027:Rhyolite
1992:Porphyry
1962:Obsidian
1847:Essexite
1798:Boninite
1788:Basanite
1746:Andesite
1672:Archived
1587:20153077
1579:17781512
1005:Archived
809:See also
718:gemstone
706:ilmenite
702:titanium
663:cumulate
594:basaltic
555:isotopic
522:(40–60%
485:deformed
481:crystals
470:ilmenite
309:Pangaean
203:Bushveld
169:minerals
157:ilmenite
153:Pyroxene
145:feldspar
82:minerals
2720:Archean
2684:Unakite
2614:Llanite
2579:Ijolite
2554:Felsite
2486:Suevite
2321:Tillite
2261:Lignite
2201:Coquina
2166:Breccia
2059:Syenite
1987:Picrite
1902:Ijolite
1862:Granite
1830:Diorite
1825:Diabase
1741:Adakite
1633:Bibcode
1604:Bibcode
1559:Bibcode
1551:Science
1528:Bibcode
1470:Bibcode
1382:Bibcode
1344:Bibcode
1249:(1994).
1245:Emslie
1221:Bibcode
1188:Longhi
1156:Bibcode
1112:Bibcode
1031:Bibcode
1023:J. Geol
726:silicon
665:of the
645:On the
602:solidus
454:olivine
433:outcrop
394:co-eval
392:Though
366:diorite
245:Martian
201:(e.g.,
186:Archean
165:olivine
138:igneous
129:) is a
66:Primary
55:, India
2594:Kenyte
2569:Gossan
2466:Schist
2426:Marble
2389:Gneiss
2291:Oolite
2156:Arkose
2054:Sovite
2044:Scoria
1997:Pumice
1957:Norite
1927:Latite
1857:Gabbro
1842:Dunite
1820:Dacite
1766:Basalt
1761:Aplite
1585:
1577:
1488:
1450:
1425:
1400:
1247:et al.
1190:et al.
1085:: 138.
1065:et al.
1049:
945:
935:
861:
757:podzol
743:, and
674:norite
590:mantle
518:and An
462:Oxides
374:norite
372:, and
370:gabbro
352:felsic
305:Europe
297:Canada
274:stocks
163:, and
2559:Flint
2481:Slate
2476:Skarn
2341:Varve
2306:Shale
2226:Flint
2181:Chert
2176:Chalk
1583:S2CID
1486:S2CID
1398:S2CID
1047:S2CID
741:Venus
610:dykes
553:(Sr)
535:mafic
504:magma
238:Lunar
149:mafic
80:Mafic
2331:Tufa
2276:Marl
2191:Coal
2123:Tuff
1575:PMID
1448:ISSN
1423:ISSN
943:OCLC
933:ISBN
859:ISBN
737:Mars
730:ores
676:and
647:Moon
385:and
358:and
215:and
205:and
2694:Wad
1641:doi
1612:doi
1567:doi
1555:167
1536:doi
1478:doi
1466:102
1390:doi
1378:141
1352:doi
1229:doi
1217:279
1172:hdl
1164:doi
1152:401
1120:doi
1108:389
1039:doi
1001:CBC
899:doi
851:doi
530:).
468:or
284:or
276:or
256:Age
107:ɔːr
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1639:.
1629:58
1627:.
1610:.
1600:57
1598:.
1581:.
1573:.
1565:.
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1524:38
1522:.
1518:.
1507:78
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1484:.
1476:.
1464:.
1444:31
1442:.
1438:.
1419:13
1417:.
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1350:.
1340:52
1338:.
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1170:.
1162:.
1150:.
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1091:^
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1081:.
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1027:25
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1003:.
999:.
975:.
941:.
931:.
927::
911:^
895:48
893:.
873:^
857:.
829:^
747:.
739:,
528:80
520:60
516:40
506:.
460:.
452:,
448:,
368:,
262:Ma
159:,
155:,
133:,
119:aɪ
51:,
1719:e
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1614::
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113:ə
110:θ
104:n
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