3548:(a radioactive iodine isotope also used in medicine) is that iodine-131 emits high-energy beta particles, and astatine does not. Beta particles have much greater penetrating power through tissues than do the much heavier alpha particles. An average alpha particle released by astatine-211 can travel up to 70 ÎŒm through surrounding tissues; an average-energy beta particle emitted by iodine-131 can travel nearly 30 times as far, to about 2 mm. The short half-life and limited penetrating power of alpha radiation through tissues offers advantages in situations where the "tumor burden is low and/or malignant cell populations are located in close proximity to essential normal tissues." Significant morbidity in cell culture models of human cancers has been achieved with from one to ten astatine-211 atoms bound per cell.
3595:). Given the toxicity of astatine accumulated and retained in the body, this emphasized the need to ensure it remained attached to its host molecule. While astatine carriers that are slowly metabolized can be assessed for their efficacy, more rapidly metabolized carriers remain a significant obstacle to the evaluation of astatine in nuclear medicine. Mitigating the effects of astatine-induced radiolysis of labeling chemistry and carrier molecules is another area requiring further development. A practical application for astatine as a cancer treatment would potentially be suitable for a "staggering" number of patients; production of astatine in the quantities that would be required remains an issue.
3045:
2406:
2386:-filled cell containing astatine, supporting the existence of stable neutral molecules in the plasma ion state. No astatine fluorides have been discovered yet. Their absence has been speculatively attributed to the extreme reactivity of such compounds, including the reaction of an initially formed fluoride with the walls of the glass container to form a non-volatile product. Thus, although the synthesis of an astatine fluoride is thought to be possible, it may require a liquid halogen fluoride solvent, as has already been used for the characterization of radon fluoride.
2596:(particle accelerator) to produce, after emission of two neutrons, astatine-211. The discoverers, however, did not immediately suggest a name for the element. The reason for this was that at the time, an element created synthetically in "invisible quantities" that had not yet been discovered in nature was not seen as a completely valid one; in addition, chemists were reluctant to recognize radioactive isotopes as legitimately as stable ones. In 1943, astatine was found as a product of two naturally occurring
1989:
3274:
3073:. The landmass of North and South America combined, to a depth of 16 kilometers (10 miles), contains only about one trillion astatine-215 atoms at any given time (around 3.5 Ă 10 grams). Astatine-217 is produced via the radioactive decay of neptunium-237. Primordial remnants of the latter isotopeâdue to its relatively short half-life of 2.14 million yearsâare no longer present on Earth. However, trace amounts occur naturally as a product of transmutation reactions in
1254:
2266:
3623:
2400:
1525:
1938:(1.9) being less than that of hydrogen (2.2). However, official IUPAC stoichiometric nomenclature is based on an idealized convention of determining the relative electronegativities of the elements by the mere virtue of their position within the periodic table. According to this convention, astatine is handled as though it is more electronegative than hydrogen, irrespective of its true electronegativity. The
3032:" (the state with the lowest possible internal energy), making the former likely to decay into the latter. There may be more than one isomer for each isotope. The most stable of these nuclear isomers is astatine-202m1, which has a half-life of about 3 minutes, longer than those of all the ground states bar those of isotopes 203â211 and 220. The least stable is astatine-213m1; its half-life of 110
3403:). Wet methods involve "multiple radioactivity handling steps" and have not been considered well suited for isolating larger quantities of astatine. However, wet extraction methods are being examined for use in production of larger quantities of astatine-211, as it is thought that wet extraction methods can provide more consistency. They can enable the production of astatine in a specific
3379:) target is first dissolved in, for example, concentrated nitric or perchloric acid. Following this first step, the acid can be distilled away to leave behind a white residue that contains both bismuth and the desired astatine product. This residue is then dissolved in a concentrated acid, such as hydrochloric acid. Astatine is extracted from this acid using an organic solvent such as
2523:
3326:
astatine-209, astatine-210, or astatine-211. In order to eliminate undesired nuclides, the maximum energy of the particle accelerator is set to a value (optimally 29.17 MeV) above that for the reaction producing astatine-211 (to produce the desired isotope) and below the one producing astatine-210 (to avoid producing other astatine isotopes).
3745:"m1" means that this state of the isotope is the next possible one above â with an energy greater than â the ground state. "m2" and similar designations refer to further higher energy states. The number may be dropped if there is only one well-established meta state, such as astatine-216m. Other designation techniques are sometimes used.
3537:, since it decays either via emission of an alpha particle (to bismuth-207), or via electron capture (to an extremely short-lived nuclide, polonium-211, which undergoes further alpha decay), very quickly reaching its stable granddaughter lead-207. Polonium X-rays emitted as a result of the electron capture branch, in the range of 77â92
3391:. Using liquid-liquid extraction, the astatine product can be repeatedly washed with an acid, such as HCl, and extracted into the organic solvent layer. A separation yield of 93% using nitric acid has been reported, falling to 72% by the time purification procedures were completed (distillation of nitric acid, purging residual
3080:
Isotopes of astatine are sometimes not listed as naturally occurring because of misconceptions that there are no such isotopes, or discrepancies in the literature. Astatine-216 has been counted as a naturally occurring isotope but reports of its observation (which were described as doubtful) have not
2961:
corresponding to a filled neutron shell. Despite having a similar half-life to the previous isotope (8.1 hours for astatine-210 and 7.2 hours for astatine-211), the alpha decay probability is much higher for the latter: 41.81% against only 0.18%. The two following isotopes release even more
1734:
The bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty. Research is limited by its short half-life, which prevents the creation of weighable quantities. A visible piece of astatine would immediately vaporize itself because of the heat generated by its intense radioactivity. It remains to be
3052:
Astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element. The total amount of astatine in the Earth's crust (quoted mass 2.36 Ă 10 grams) is estimated by some to be less than one gram at any given time. Other sources estimate the amount of ephemeral astatine, present on earth at any given moment, to be up
2500:
claimed to have discovered element 85 by observing its X-ray emission lines. In 1939, they published another paper which supported and extended previous data. In 1944, Hulubei published a summary of data he had obtained up to that time, claiming it was supported by the work of other researchers. He
3703:
An initial attempt to fluoridate astatine using chlorine trifluoride resulted in formation of a product which became stuck to the glass. Chlorine monofluoride, chlorine, and tetrafluorosilane were formed. The authors called the effect "puzzling", admitting they had expected formation of a volatile
3610:
within the gland. Early research suggested that injection of astatine into female rodents caused morphological changes in breast tissue; this conclusion remained controversial for many years. General agreement was later reached that this was likely caused by the effect of breast tissue irradiation
3335:
extraction." The methods summarized below are modern adaptations of older procedures, as reviewed by Kugler and Keller. Pre-1985 techniques more often addressed the elimination of co-produced toxic polonium; this requirement is now mitigated by capping the energy of the cyclotron irradiation beam.
3334:
Since astatine is the main product of the synthesis, after its formation it must only be separated from the target and any significant contaminants. Several methods are available, "but they generally follow one of two approachesâdry distillation or acid treatment of the target followed by solvent
3281:
Astatine was first produced by bombarding bismuth-209 with energetic alpha particles, and this is still the major route used to create the relatively long-lived isotopes astatine-209 through astatine-211. Astatine is only produced in minuscule quantities, with modern techniques allowing production
2514:
committee responsible for recognition of new elements. Even though
Hulubei's samples did contain astatine-218, his means to detect it were too weak, by current standards, to enable correct identification; moreover, he could not perform chemical tests on the element. He had also been involved in an
1878:
The chemistry of astatine is "clouded by the extremely low concentrations at which astatine experiments have been conducted, and the possibility of reactions with impurities, walls and filters, or radioactivity by-products, and other unwanted nano-scale interactions". Many of its apparent chemical
5855:
Sergentu, Dumitru-Claudiu; Teze, David; Sabatié-Gogova, Andréa; Alliot, Cyrille; Guo, Ning; Bassel, Fadel; Da Silva, Isidro; Deniaud, David; Maurice, Rémi; Champion, Julie; Galland, Nicolas; Montavon, Gilles (2016). "Advances on the
Determination of the Astatine Pourbaix Diagram: Predomination of
3767:
A nuclide is commonly denoted by a symbol of the chemical element this nuclide belongs to, preceded by a non-spaced superscript mass number and a subscript atomic number of the nuclide located directly under the mass number. (Neutrons may be considered as nuclei with the atomic mass of 1 and the
1969:
have been synthesized in nano-scale amounts and studied as intensively as possible before their radioactive disintegration. The reactions involved have been typically tested with dilute solutions of astatine mixed with larger amounts of iodine. Acting as a carrier, the iodine ensures there is
3325:
atmosphere, and is cooled with water to prevent premature astatine vaporization. In a particle accelerator, such as a cyclotron, alpha particles are collided with the bismuth. Even though only one bismuth isotope is used (bismuth-209), the reaction may occur in three possible ways, producing
3735:
This means that, if decay modes other than alpha are omitted, then astatine-210 has an alpha decay half-life of 4,628.6 hours (128.9 days) and astatine-211 has one of only 17.2 hours (0.7 days). Therefore, astatine-211 is very much less stable toward alpha decay than
1835:) is sparse and inconclusive. Some sources state that it does not exist, or at least has never been observed, while other sources assert or imply its existence. Despite this controversy, many properties of diatomic astatine have been predicted; for example, its bond length would be
2489:. The properties he reported for dakin do not correspond to those of astatine, and astatine's radioactivity would have prevented him from handling it in the quantities he claimed. Moreover, astatine is not found in the thorium series, and the true identity of dakin is not known.
3680:
The algorithm used to generate the Allred-Rochow scale fails in the case of hydrogen, providing a value that is close to that of oxygen (3.5). Hydrogen is instead assigned a value of 2.2. Despite this shortcoming, the Allred-Rochow scale has achieved a relatively high degree of
2505:
had started five years earlier. As
Hulubei was writing in French, a language which does not accommodate the "ine" suffix, dor would likely have been rendered in English as "dorine", had it been adopted. In 1947, Hulubei's claim was effectively rejected by the Austrian chemist
1694:
were subsequently found to be naturally occurring, although much less than one gram is present at any given time in the Earth's crust. Neither the most stable isotope, astatine-210, nor the medically useful astatine-211 occur naturally; they are usually produced by bombarding
2616:.) Friedrich Paneth in 1946 called to finally recognize synthetic elements, quoting, among other reasons, recent confirmation of their natural occurrence, and proposed that the discoverers of the newly discovered unnamed elements name these elements. In early 1947,
3351:. Higher temperatures of up to around 850 °C may increase the yield, at the risk of bismuth contamination from concurrent volatilization. Redistilling the condensate may be required to minimize the presence of bismuth (as bismuth can interfere with astatine
1942:
of astatine, at 233 kJ mol, is 21% less than that of iodine. In comparison, the value of Cl (349) is 6.4% higher than F (328); Br (325) is 6.9% less than Cl; and I (295) is 9.2% less than Br. The marked reduction for At was predicted as being due to
2962:
energy, with astatine-213 releasing the most energy. For this reason, it is the shortest-lived astatine isotope. Even though heavier astatine isotopes release less energy, no long-lived astatine isotope exists, because of the increasing role of
1934:(HAt), the negative charge is predicted to be on the hydrogen atom, implying that this compound could be referred to as astatine hydride according to certain nomenclatures. That would be consistent with the electronegativity of astatine on the
2993:. In total, only five isotopes have half-lives exceeding one hour (astatine-207 to -211). The least stable ground state isotope is astatine-213, with a half-life of 125 nanoseconds. It undergoes alpha decay to the extremely long-lived
4553:
Merinis, J.; Legoux, G.; BouissiÚres, G. (1972). "Etude de la formation en phase gazeuse de composés interhalogénés d'astate par thermochromatographie" [Study of the gas-phase formation of interhalogen compounds of astatine by
7278:
Naka, Sadahiro; Ooe, Kazuhiro; Shirakami, Yoshifumi; Kurimoto, Kenta; Sakai, Toshihiro; Takahashi, Kazuhiro; Toyoshima, Atsushi; Wang, Yang; Haba, Hiromitsu; Kato, Hiroki; Tomiyama, Noriyuki; Watabe, Tadashi (15 April 2024).
2220:; this is based on the observation that, in acidic solutions, monovalent or intermediate positive states of astatine coprecipitate with the insoluble salts of metal cations such as silver(I) iodate or thallium(I) dichromate.
2966:(electron emission). This decay mode is especially important for astatine; as early as 1950 it was postulated that all isotopes of the element undergo beta decay, though nuclear mass measurements indicate that At is in fact
2651:, with the ending "-ine", found in the names of the four previously discovered halogens. The name was also chosen to continue the tradition of the four stable halogens, where the name referred to a property of the element.
2341:
via equilibrium reactions with the chlorides. Oxidation of the element with dichromate (in nitric acid solution) showed that adding chloride turned the astatine into a molecule likely to be either AtCl or AtOCl. Similarly,
5647:
Chatterjee, Sayandev; Czerwinski, Kenneth R.; Fitzgerald, Hilary A.; Lakes, Andrew L.; Liao, Zuolei; Ludwig, Russell C.; McBride, Katie M.; Vlasenko, Vladislav P. (2020). "Novel
Platforms for Drug Delivery Applications".
3541:, enable the tracking of astatine in animals and patients. Although astatine-210 has a slightly longer half-life, it is wholly unsuitable because it usually undergoes beta plus decay to the extremely toxic polonium-210.
1915:; in some respects, astatine in the +1 state is akin to silver in the same state. Most of the organic chemistry of astatine is, however, analogous to that of iodine. It has been suggested that astatine can form a stable
3812:"Unfortunately, the conundrum confronting the ... field is that commercial supply of At awaits the demonstration of clinical efficacy; however, the demonstration of clinical efficacy requires a reliable supply of At."
3602:. Unlike iodine, astatine also shows a tendency to be taken up by the lungs and spleen, possibly because of in-body oxidation of At to At. If administered in the form of a radiocolloid it tends to concentrate in the
2013:
gives the At or At forms, and the subsequent addition of silver(I) may only partially, at best, precipitate astatine as silver(I) astatide (AgAt). Iodine, in contrast, is not oxidized, and precipitates readily as
6398:; Bernert, T. (1942). "Ăber Eine Vermutete ÎČ-Strahlung des Radium A und die NatĂŒrliche Existenz des Elementes 85" [About a Suspected ÎČ-radiation of Radium A, and the Natural Existence of the Element 85].
2434:
established the physical basis of the classification of chemical elements, it was suggested that the fifth halogen belonged there. Before its officially recognized discovery, it was called "eka-iodine" (from
1883:
studies on extremely dilute astatine solutions, typically less than 10 mol·L. Some properties, such as anion formation, align with other halogens. Astatine has some metallic characteristics as well, such as
3056:
Any astatine present at the formation of the Earth has long since disappeared; the four naturally occurring isotopes (astatine-215, -217, -218 and -219) are instead continuously produced as a result of the
3611:
combined with hormonal changes due to irradiation of the ovaries. Trace amounts of astatine can be handled safely in fume hoods if they are well-aerated; biological uptake of the element must be avoided.
3606:. Experiments in rats and monkeys suggest that astatine-211 causes much greater damage to the thyroid gland than does iodine-131, with repetitive injection of the nuclide resulting in necrosis and cell
1985:, and lead. Some characteristic properties of silver and sodium astatide, and the other hypothetical alkali and alkaline earth astatides, have been estimated by extrapolation from other metal halides.
2989:
The most stable isotope is astatine-210, which has a half-life of 8.1 hours. The primary decay mode is beta plus, to the relatively long-lived (in comparison to astatine isotopes) alpha emitter
1965:
Less reactive than iodine, astatine is the least reactive of the halogens; the chemical properties of tennessine, the next-heavier group 17 element, have not yet been investigated, however. Astatine
9602:
2957:
of alpha decay, which become lower as the nuclei become heavier. Astatine-211 has a significantly higher energy than the previous isotope, because it has a nucleus with 126 neutrons, and 126 is a
3598:
Animal studies show that astatine, similarly to iodineâalthough to a lesser extent, perhaps because of its slightly more metallic natureâis preferentially (and dangerously) concentrated in the
2662:
behavior. In a 2003 retrospective, Corson wrote that "some of the properties are similar to iodine ... it also exhibits metallic properties, more like its metallic neighbors Po and Bi."
1951:
of astatine is about 899 kJ mol, which continues the trend of decreasing first ionization energies down the halogen group (fluorine, 1681; chlorine, 1251; bromine, 1140; iodine, 1008).
1775:
is dark gray/violet. Astatine is sometimes described as probably being a black solid (assuming it follows this trend), or as having a metallic appearance (if it is a metalloid or a metal).
5490:
3294:
10 atoms). Synthesis of greater quantities of astatine using this method is constrained by the limited availability of suitable cyclotrons and the prospect of melting the target. Solvent
2946:
of 188 and 190â229. Theoretical modeling suggests that about 37 more isotopes could exist. No stable or long-lived astatine isotope has been observed, nor is one expected to exist.
2104:
With oxygen, there is evidence of the species AtO and AtO in aqueous solution, formed by the reaction of astatine with an oxidant such as elemental bromine or (in the last case) by
3654:
This half-vaporization period grows to 16 hours if it is instead put on a gold or platinum surface; this may be caused by poorly understood interactions between astatine and these
3768:
atomic charge of 0, with the symbol being n.) With the atomic number omitted, it is also sometimes used as a designation of an isotope of an element in isotope-related chemistry.
3897:
3579:
delayed research for close to a decade. Results of early experiments indicated that a cancer-selective carrier would need to be developed and it was not until the 1970s that
1337:
3077:. Astatine-218 was the first astatine isotope discovered in nature. Astatine-219, with a half-life of 56 seconds, is the longest lived of the naturally occurring isotopes.
8301:
1652:
species of astatine are known and most of its compounds resemble those of iodine, but it also sometimes displays metallic characteristics and shows some similarities to
7706:
Lindegren, S.; BĂ€ck, T.; Jensen, H. J. (2001). "Dry-distillation of
Astatine-211 from Irradiated Bismuth Targets: A Time-saving Procedure with High Recovery Yields".
7869:
Zalutsky, Michael; Vaidyanathan, Ganesan (1 September 2000). "Astatine-211-Labeled
Radiotherapeutics An Emerging Approach to Targeted Alpha-Particle Radiotherapy".
6347:
2005: â was noted by the pioneers of astatine chemistry. As mentioned, there are grounds for instead referring to this compound as astatine hydride. It is easily
1605:
of 8.1 hours. Consequently, a solid sample of the element has never been seen, because any macroscopic specimen would be immediately vaporized by the heat of its
3758:, "a few atoms of which can be produced in very-highly concentrated uranium-bearing deposits"; however, his assertion is not corroborated by any primary source.
1559:
7401:
Larsen, R. H.; Wieland, B. W.; Zalutsky, M. R. J. (1996). "Evaluation of an
Internal Cyclotron Target for the Production of At via the Bi (α,2n)At reaction".
1731:
is less stable, and all the astatine isotopes more stable than the longest-lived francium isotopes (At) are in any case synthetic and do not occur in nature.
3777:
See however
Nagatsu et al. who encapsulate the bismuth target in a thin aluminium foil and place it in a niobium holder capable of holding molten bismuth.
5814:; Grant, B.; Volpe, A. F. (1992). "-: a convenient reagent for generation and stabilization of cationic, highly electrophilic organometallic complexes".
1637:
1550:
4721:
3367:. Astatine yields of up to around 80% may be achieved. Dry separation is the method most commonly used to produce a chemically useful form of astatine.
2584:
isolated the element at the
University of California, Berkeley. Instead of searching for the element in nature, the scientists created it by bombarding
2557:
and Traude
Bernert were unsuccessful in reproducing his experiments, and subsequently attributed Minder's results to contamination of his radon stream (
2405:
1586:
2029:. Various boron cage compounds have been prepared with AtâB bonds, these being more stable than AtâC bonds. Astatine can replace a hydrogen atom in
1300:
6513:
6091:
Bartlett, N.; Sladky, F. O. (1973). "The Chemistry of Krypton, Xenon and Radon". In Bailar, J. C.; Emeléus, H. J.; Nyholm, R.; et al. (eds.).
1735:
seen if, with sufficient cooling, a macroscopic quantity of astatine could be deposited as a thin film. Astatine is usually classified as either a
4975:
Milanov, M.; Doberenz, V.; Khalkin, V. A.; Marinov, A. (1984). "Chemical Properties of Positive Singly Charged Astatine Ion in Aqueous Solution".
2465:
disproved Allison's method and the validity of his discovery. There was another claim in 1937, by the chemist Rajendralal De. Working in Dacca in
2212:; this is only stable in neutral or alkaline solutions. Astatine is also thought to be capable of forming cations in salts with oxyanions such as
7444:
Nagatsu, K.; Minegishi, K. H.; Fukada, M.; Suzuki, H.; Hasegawa, S.; Zhang, M. (2014). "Production of At by a vertical beam irradiation method".
5494:
4322:
1640:, and some metallic behavior has also been observed and predicted for it. Astatine is likely to have a dark or lustrous appearance and may be a
5571:
Aten, A. H. W. Jr.; Doorgeest, T.; Hollstein, U.; Moeken, H. P. (1952). "Section 5: Radiochemical Methods. Analytical Chemistry of Astatine".
2457:) in 1931. The discoverers named element 85 "alabamine", and assigned it the symbol Ab, designations that were used for a few years. In 1934,
8294:
8246:
8227:
8208:
8178:
8159:
8140:
8069:
7603:
7576:
7496:
7049:
7018:
6890:
6379:
6194:
6125:
6100:
5778:
5734:
5361:
5328:
5268:
4798:
4770:
4704:
4668:
4448:
4358:
4270:
4243:
4216:
4191:
4161:
3877:
3845:
2569:(polonium-216) beta decay. They named this substance "anglo-helvetium", but Karlik and Bernert were again unable to reproduce these results.
7487:
Barbet, J.; Bourgeois, M.; Chatal, J. (2014). "Cyclotron-Based Radiopharmaceuticals for Nuclear Medicine Therapy". In R. P.; Baum (eds.).
4156:. Translation of 101st German edition by M. Eagleson and W. D. Brewer, English language editor B. J. Aylett. Academic Press. p. 423.
6601:
Karlik, B.; Bernert, T. (1943). "Das Element 85 in den NatĂŒrlichen Zerfallsreihen" [The Element 85 in the Natural Decay Chains].
6911:
5769:
Elgqvist, J.; Hultborn, R.; Lindegren, S.; Palm, S. (2011). "Ovarian cancer: background and clinical perspectives". In Speer, S. (ed.).
4932:
6965:
2462:
1672:
1330:
3896:
Rothe, S.; Andreyev, A. N.; Antalic, S.; Borschevsky, A.; Capponi, L.; Cocolios, T. E.; De Witte, H.; Eliav, E.; et al. (2013).
7076:
1727:. Most of its isotopes are very unstable, with half-lives of seconds or less. Of the first 101 elements in the periodic table, only
1132:
92:
7801:
Balkin, Ethan; Hamlin, Donald; Gagnon, Katherine; Chyan, Ming-Kuan; Pal, Sujit; Watanabe, Shigeki; Wilbur, D. (18 September 2013).
4828:"Estimation of thermodynamic and physicochemical properties of the alkali astatides: On the bond strength of molecular astatine (At
3310:
to yield radon-211, in turn decaying to astatine-211. Contamination with astatine-210 is expected to be a drawback of this method.
2443:
8287:
8056:
Odell, T. T. Jr.; Upton, A. C. (2013) . "Late Effects of Internally Deposited Radioisotopes". In Schwiegk, H.; Turba, F. (eds.).
5450:
2622:
published the discoverers' suggestions; a letter from Corson, MacKenzie, and SegrĂš suggested the name "astatine" coming from the
6851:
Dreyer, I.; Dreyer, R.; Chalkin, V. A. (1979). "Cations of Astatine in Aqueous Solutions; Production and some Characteristics".
6033:
Appelman, E. H.; Sloth, E. N.; Studier, M. H. (1966). "Observation of Astatine Compounds by Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry".
4288:
Supplement to Mellor's Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Supplement II, Part 1, (F, Cl, Br, I, At)
3704:
fluoride. Ten years later, the compound was predicted to be non-volatile, out of line with the lighter halogens but similar to
3690:
Iodine can act as a carrier despite it reacting with astatine in water because these reactions require iodide (I), not (only) I
3534:
1759:), using theoretically or empirically derived methods. For example, halogens get darker with increasing atomic weight â
1543:
2289:
with formulas AtI, AtBr, and AtCl. The first two compounds may also be produced in water â astatine reacts with iodine/
2446:). Scientists tried to find it in nature; given its extreme rarity, these attempts resulted in several false discoveries.
1828:, like the similar high-pressure phase of iodine. Metallic astatine is expected to have a density of 8.91â8.95 g/cm.
1782:. Even so, half of a given quantity of astatine will vaporize in approximately an hour if put on a clean glass surface at
6332:
5222:
Saue, T.; Faegri, K.; Gropen, O. (1996). "Relativistic Effects on the Bonding of Heavy and Superheavy Hydrogen Halides".
3400:
8267:
3313:
The most important isotope is astatine-211, the only one in commercial use. To produce the bismuth target, the metal is
2519:
as to the discovery of element 87 (francium) and this is thought to have caused other researchers to downplay his work.
1612:
The bulk properties of astatine are not known with certainty. Many of them have been estimated from its position on the
6156:; Murphy, E. J.; Bishop, E. R.; Sommer, A. L. (1931). "Evidence of the Detection of Element 85 in Certain Substances".
9612:
8274:
1805:
7619:
Gyehong, G.; Chun, K.; Park, S. H.; Kim, B. (2014). "Production of α-particle emitting At using 45 MeV α-beam".
1944:
9597:
4927:"Assessment of an Effective Quasirelativistic Methodology Designed to Study Astatine Chemistry in Aqueous Solution"
1798:
4622:
Proceedings of the International Conference on Evolution in Beam Applications, Takasaki, Japan, 5â8 November 1991
1971:
1536:
5187:
Pseudopotentials for Hg to Rn: II. Molecular Calculations on the Hydrides of Hg to At and the Fluorides of Rn".
4577:
Takahashi, N.; Otozai, K. (1986). "The Mechanism of the Reaction of Elementary Astatine with Organic Solvents".
2982:), astatine-217 and heavier isotopes except astatine-218 exhibit beta minus decay, while astatine-211 undergoes
7124:. Part II: Analytical Chemistry of the Elements. Vol. 4. New York: Interscience Encyclopedia. p. 487.
4687:
Keller, C.; Wolf, W.; Shani, J. (2011). "Radionuclides, 2. Radioactive Elements and Artificial Radionuclides".
1820:). Alternatively, if condensed astatine forms a metallic phase, as has been predicted, it may have a monatomic
3717:
In other words, some other substance was undergoing beta decay (to a different end element), not polonium-218.
2148:
anion can be obtained by, for example, the oxidation of astatine with potassium hypochlorite in a solution of
1974:) to work. Like iodine, astatine has been shown to adopt odd-numbered oxidation states ranging from â1 to +7.
1935:
7969:
7147:
Maiti, M.; Lahiri, S. (2011). "Production cross section of At radionuclides from Li+Pb and Be+Tl reactions".
5081:"Production of [At]-Astatinated Radiopharmaceuticals and Applications in Targeted α-Particle Therapy"
1072:
7281:"Production of [211At]NaAt solution under GMP compliance for investigator-initiated clinical trial"
3044:
8154:. Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic and Organometallic Chemistry. Vol. 8 (8th ed.). Springer-Verlag.
8092:
7814:
3726:
In the table, "alpha decay half-life" refers to the half-life if decay modes other than alpha are omitted.
2958:
2577:
2078:
1795:
1664:
1405:
1309:
1285:
1099:
1092:
1084:
1060:
7752:"Wet Harvesting of No-carrier-added At from an Irradiated Bi Target for Radiopharmaceutical Applications"
3529:. It must be used quickly as it decays with a half-life of 7.2 hours; this is long enough to permit
6555:
Karlik, B.; Bernert, T. (1943). "Eine Neue NatĂŒrliche α-Strahlung" [A New Natural α-radiation].
6530:
6296:
3869:
3800:
3592:
3588:
3580:
3495:
3343:
The astatine-containing cyclotron target is heated to a temperature of around 650 °C. The astatine
2458:
2286:
1988:
8330:
8108:
7917:
7764:
7715:
7628:
7453:
7410:
7241:
7166:
6930:
6807:
6725:
6652:
6610:
6564:
6460:
6407:
6265:
6227:
6165:
5580:
5534:
5459:
5400:
5293:
5231:
5196:
5141:
5042:
4984:
4941:
4586:
4511:
4476:
4399:
4101:
3969:
3909:
3636:
3568:
2671:
2655:
2561:
is the parent isotope of polonium-218). In 1942, Minder, in collaboration with the English scientist
2094:
2090:
1851:
1691:
1323:
1247:
7819:
6909:
Fry, C.; Thoennessen, M. (2013). "Discovery of the astatine, radon, francium, and radium isotopes".
6306:
5284:
Thayer, J. S. (2005). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heaviest Main-group elements".
5128:
Champion, J.; Alliot, C.; Renault, E.; Mokili, B. M.; Chérel, M.; Galland, N.; Montavon, G. (2010).
4926:
4555:
2136:, a hydrolysis product of AtO (another such hydrolysis product being AtOOH). The well characterized
5653:
2149:
1995:
1787:
1266:
7803:"Evaluation of a Wet Chemistry Method for Isolation of Cyclotron Produced [211At]Astatine"
6204:
3273:
7780:
7652:
7182:
7156:
6946:
6920:
6833:
6626:
6580:
6476:
6423:
5991:
5550:
5390:
5165:
5058:
5000:
4741:
4602:
4535:
3960:
Hermann, A.; Hoffmann, R.; Ashcroft, N. W. (2013). "Condensed Astatine: Monatomic and Metallic".
3530:
3352:
2953:
energies follow the same trend as for other heavy elements. Lighter astatine isotopes have quite
2530:
2294:
1960:
1880:
1821:
1791:
1575:
1234:
6371:
6365:
5353:
5033:
Milesz, S.; Jovchev, M.; Schumann, D.; Khalkin, V. A. (1988). "The EDTA Complexes of Astatine".
3355:). The astatine is recovered from the trap using one or more low concentration solvents such as
3298:
due to the cumulative effect of astatine decay is a related problem. With cryogenic technology,
1668:
6256:
MacPherson, H. G. (1934). "An Investigation of the Magneto-optic Method of Chemical Analysis".
3048:
Neptunium series, showing the decay products, including astatine-217, formed from neptunium-237
9607:
9592:
9181:
8242:
8223:
8204:
8174:
8155:
8136:
8065:
8026:
7935:
7886:
7834:
7751:
7731:
7644:
7599:
7572:
7566:
7528:
7492:
7469:
7426:
7380:
7320:
7302:
7072:
7045:
7014:
6886:
6753:
6444:
6375:
6310:
6121:
6096:
5877:
5811:
5774:
5730:
5426:
5357:
5324:
5264:
5157:
5110:
4957:
4861:
4853:
4794:
4766:
4700:
4664:
4527:
4444:
4354:
4266:
4239:
4212:
4187:
4157:
3985:
3935:
3873:
3841:
3388:
3384:
2979:
2648:
2562:
2454:
2379:
2105:
2002:
1992:
1966:
1948:
1939:
1931:
1923:
1897:
1529:
1390:
1370:
1361:
1241:
1207:
1131:
719:
7749:
Yordanov, A. T.; Pozzi, O.; Carlin, S.; Akabani, G. J.; Wieland, B.; Zalutsky, M. R. (2005).
7041:
7035:
4924:
Champion, J.; Seydou, M.; Sabatié-Gogova, A.; Renault, E.; Montavon, G.; Galland, N. (2011).
9245:
8950:
8779:
8608:
8527:
8446:
8419:
8382:
8377:
8372:
8116:
8016:
8008:
7925:
7878:
7824:
7772:
7723:
7636:
7461:
7418:
7370:
7362:
7310:
7292:
7257:
7249:
7174:
6938:
6878:
6823:
6815:
6780:
6743:
6733:
6682:
6618:
6572:
6526:
6468:
6415:
6273:
6235:
6173:
6073:
6042:
5983:
5869:
5825:
5657:
5588:
5542:
5467:
5416:
5408:
5301:
5239:
5204:
5149:
5100:
5092:
5050:
4992:
4949:
4843:
4733:
4692:
4594:
4519:
4484:
4407:
4318:
4260:
4109:
4024:
3977:
3925:
3917:
3898:"Measurement of the First Ionization Potential of Astatine by Laser Ionization Spectroscopy"
3861:
3628:
3526:
3376:
3356:
3321:
can be used instead; this is forcibly fused with a copper plate. The target is kept under a
2983:
2971:
2618:
2613:
2507:
2423:
2413:
2197:
2189:
2054:
2015:
1916:
1783:
1590:
1571:
1490:
1153:
1077:
43:
5525:
Nefedov, V. D.; Norseev, Yu. V.; Toropova, M. A.; Khalkin, Vladimir A. (1968). "Astatine".
4085:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8347:
8342:
8337:
6798:
Johnson, G. L.; Leininger, R. F.; SegrĂš, E. (1949). "Chemical Properties of Astatine. I".
6522:
6199:
5970:
Brinkman, G. A.; Aten, H. W. (1963). "Decomposition of Caesium Diiodo Astatate (I), (CsAtI
5816:
4081:
3516:
3511:
3404:
3396:
3025:
2609:
2565:, announced the discovery of another isotope of element 85, presumed to be the product of
2497:
2109:
1905:
1893:
1416:
1186:
8096:
6300:
3317:
onto a gold, copper, or aluminium surface at 50 to 100 milligrams per square centimeter.
2978: = 215. Astatine-210 and most of the lighter isotopes exhibit beta plus decay (
2581:
2526:
1977:
Only a few compounds with metals have been reported, in the form of astatides of sodium,
1313:
8112:
7921:
7768:
7719:
7632:
7457:
7414:
7315:
7280:
7245:
7170:
6934:
6811:
6729:
6614:
6568:
6464:
6411:
6269:
6231:
6169:
5584:
5538:
5472:
5463:
5445:
5404:
5297:
5235:
5200:
5145:
5046:
4988:
4945:
4722:"Estimation Chemical Form Boiling Point Elementary Astatine by Radio Gas Chromatography"
4590:
4515:
4502:
Batsanov, S. S. (1972). "Quantitative characteristics of bond metallicity in crystals".
4480:
4403:
4105:
3973:
3913:
3803:
to give four new orbitals shaped as intermediates between the original s and p orbitals.
8310:
8088:
8021:
7996:
7640:
7375:
7350:
7225:
6748:
6713:
5661:
5421:
5378:
5346:
5105:
5080:
4009:
3930:
3796:
3705:
3584:
3453:
3445:
3408:
3392:
3344:
3001:
2954:
2605:
2589:
2573:
2478:
2427:
2265:
2070:
1885:
1825:
1779:
1700:
1660:
1613:
1305:
1126:
124:
8239:
Inorganic Reactions and Methods, Volume 4, The Formation of Bonds to Halogens (Part 2)
8220:
Inorganic Reactions and Methods, Volume 3, The Formation of Bonds to Halogens (Part 1)
7727:
6882:
6451:(1942). "Experimental Evidence of the Existence of Element 85 in the Thorium Family".
5243:
2477:), he chose the name "dakin" for element 85, which he claimed to have isolated as the
9586:
9404:
7422:
7186:
6877:. Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry. Vol. 6. pp. 207â223.
6784:
6630:
6448:
5554:
4745:
4620:
Takahashi, N.; Yano, D.; Baba, H. (1992). "Chemical Behavior of Astatine Molecules".
3599:
3380:
3318:
3283:
3070:
3021:
3017:
2623:
2542:
2538:
2493:
2486:
2466:
1927:
1912:
1863:
1859:
1756:
1752:
1676:
1641:
1606:
1582:
1395:
1042:
889:
7784:
7656:
7517:"Overcoming the Obstacles to Clinical Evaluation of At-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals"
6950:
6837:
6771:
Neumann, H. M. (1957). "Solvent Distribution Studies of the Chemistry of Astatine".
6584:
5995:
5546:
5169:
5062:
5004:
4606:
4539:
4113:
2378:, and PbAtI are known or presumed to have been precipitated. In a plasma ion source
9458:
9287:
8992:
8392:
8325:
7465:
7261:
7100:
6828:
6670:
6480:
6427:
6395:
6153:
3981:
3576:
3322:
3277:
The bismuth target after irradiation contains minuscule quantities of astatine-211.
3036:
is shorter than 125 nanoseconds for astatine-213, the shortest-lived ground state.
3029:
2990:
2601:
2554:
2502:
2450:
2270:
1817:
1496:
1459:
1422:
1253:
1168:
931:
798:
572:
2382:, the ions , , and have been formed by introducing lighter halogen vapors into a
2001:
The formation of an astatine compound with hydrogen â usually referred to as
1804:
The structure of solid astatine is unknown. As an analog of iodine it may have an
8198:
8169:
Lavrukhina, Avgusta Konstantinovna; Pozdnyakov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1970).
7593:
7104:
5724:
5258:
4760:
4438:
4348:
4302:
4233:
4151:
9512:
9476:
9467:
9377:
9359:
9350:
8387:
8012:
7516:
7366:
4737:
3655:
3074:
3058:
2994:
2967:
2950:
2943:
2597:
2585:
2074:
2010:
1594:
1508:
1471:
1436:
1430:
973:
945:
938:
868:
854:
847:
114:
8262:
7297:
7178:
6218:
Trimble, R. F. (1975). "What Happened to Alabamine, Virginium, and Illinium?".
5412:
5348:
Inorganic Substances: A Prelude to the Study of Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry
4826:
Burgers, Peter C.; Zeneyedpour, Lona; Luider, Theo M.; Holmes, John L. (2024).
4387:
4028:
3583:
became available for this purpose. Unlike iodine, astatine shows a tendency to
3302:
quantities of astatine might be able to be generated via proton irradiation of
9521:
9449:
9422:
9395:
9055:
9037:
9010:
8841:
8832:
8571:
7776:
6942:
6686:
5208:
3618:
3545:
3490:
3364:
3314:
3295:
3033:
2963:
2659:
2474:
2431:
2248:
2217:
1712:
1011:
980:
924:
903:
882:
621:
607:
586:
458:
451:
252:
7882:
7838:
7306:
5987:
4857:
4696:
4531:
3567:
Several obstacles have been encountered in the development of astatine-based
2654:
Corson and his colleagues classified astatine as a metal on the basis of its
2442: â "one") to imply it was one space under iodine (in the same manner as
9530:
9503:
9494:
9341:
9323:
9314:
9305:
9091:
9001:
8974:
8922:
8868:
8850:
8814:
8794:
8733:
8670:
8614:
8553:
8542:
8461:
8412:
8402:
8397:
7229:
6314:
6177:
6061:
5491:"Superheavy Element 117 Confirmed â On the Way to the "Island of Stability""
3755:
3607:
3348:
3299:
2593:
2558:
2293:
solution to form AtI, whereas AtBr requires (aside from astatine) an iodine/
2256:
2224:
2193:
2153:
1978:
1842:
1740:
1602:
1375:
987:
966:
959:
840:
826:
819:
812:
649:
579:
558:
521:
479:
465:
437:
419:
375:
326:
282:
238:
229:
169:
8120:
8030:
7976:. United States Department of Energy, Office of Human Radiation Experiments
7939:
7890:
7735:
7648:
7532:
7473:
7384:
7324:
6757:
6277:
5881:
5873:
5430:
5161:
5114:
4961:
4865:
4411:
4042:
3989:
3939:
7430:
7253:
6738:
5096:
9485:
9386:
9269:
9251:
9217:
9190:
9163:
9127:
9118:
9100:
9028:
9019:
8913:
8785:
8751:
8661:
8652:
8643:
8634:
8589:
8508:
8490:
8425:
6714:"A Comparison of the Metabolism of Iodine and of Element 85 (Eka-Iodine)"
6077:
5592:
3668:
3458:
3360:
3287:
2548:
2516:
2436:
2282:
2252:
2098:
2026:
2006:
1982:
1909:
1813:
1809:
1764:
1760:
1736:
1728:
1720:
1621:
1617:
1018:
952:
875:
784:
770:
747:
726:
705:
677:
670:
656:
600:
593:
514:
412:
389:
319:
312:
305:
298:
266:
206:
192:
144:
6046:
5829:
5183:
Dolg, M.; Kuchle, W.; Stoll, H.; Preuss, H.; Schwerdtfeger, P. (1991). "
9567:
9562:
9557:
9552:
9440:
9431:
9413:
9368:
9296:
9278:
9208:
9154:
9136:
9109:
9082:
9064:
9046:
8956:
8886:
8859:
8823:
8805:
8769:
8760:
8742:
8724:
8623:
8562:
8452:
8407:
7930:
7905:
7829:
7802:
7548:
7546:
7544:
7542:
6992:
6990:
6988:
6986:
6622:
6576:
6419:
5917:
5915:
5377:
Leimbach, D.; Sundberg, J.; Yangyang, G.; et al. (February 2020).
5305:
5054:
4996:
4953:
4598:
4523:
3921:
3307:
3303:
3066:
3062:
3013:
3005:
2939:
2566:
2298:
2278:
2259:
2082:
2030:
1889:
1768:
1716:
1696:
1633:
1625:
1598:
1147:
1065:
917:
910:
896:
861:
805:
791:
740:
698:
684:
663:
642:
628:
614:
544:
493:
472:
444:
430:
403:
396:
382:
368:
289:
245:
162:
8171:
Analytical Chemistry of Technetium, Promethium, Astatine, and Francium
6819:
6239:
5153:
5016:
5014:
4488:
2501:
chose the name "dor", presumably from the Romanian for "longing" , as
1970:
sufficient material for laboratory techniques (such as filtration and
1930: â lower than that of iodine (2.66) and the same as hydrogen. In
9332:
9260:
9145:
9073:
8983:
8965:
8931:
8895:
8877:
8706:
8697:
8688:
8580:
8533:
8499:
8481:
8436:
7852:
7850:
7848:
6472:
5129:
4848:
4827:
3572:
3096:
Possible reactions after bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles
3009:
2632:
2482:
2383:
2290:
2244:
2213:
1772:
1685:
1653:
1629:
999:
833:
777:
691:
635:
565:
551:
528:
500:
486:
354:
347:
340:
259:
222:
199:
185:
153:
5794:
5792:
5790:
5130:"Astatine Standard Redox Potentials and Speciation in Acidic Medium"
1751:
Most of the physical properties of astatine have been estimated (by
1711:
Astatine is an extremely radioactive element; all its isotopes have
5395:
4008:
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
2612:. (Since then, astatine was also found in a third decay chain, the
9235:
8940:
8598:
8472:
8173:. Translated by R. Kondor. Ann ArborâHumphrey Science Publishers.
7161:
6925:
3603:
3272:
3043:
2521:
2511:
2470:
2264:
2022:
1987:
1724:
1649:
1645:
1105:
1026:
761:
535:
273:
178:
8279:
9199:
9172:
8715:
8679:
8517:
5752:
5750:
5748:
5746:
3525:
Newly formed astatine-211 is the subject of ongoing research in
2545:
of radium A (polonium-218), choosing the name "helvetium" (from
2522:
2416:'s table of 1871, with an empty space at the eka-iodine position
1901:
1831:
Evidence for (or against) the existence of diatomic astatine (At
733:
712:
361:
333:
213:
8283:
6302:
A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry
5630:
5628:
5615:
5613:
5611:
5609:
5607:
5605:
2325:
ions, or in a chloride solution, they may produce species like
1794:
region has lines at 224.401 and 216.225 nm, suggestive of
8904:
3838:
Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements
3538:
2658:. Subsequent investigators reported iodine-like, cationic, or
507:
64:
5773:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 380â396 (383).
5493:. GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research. Archived from
2626:
2453:
and his associates at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (now
2277:
Astatine is known to react with its lighter homologs iodine,
1858:) 54.39 kJ/mol. Many values have been predicted for the
1715:
of 8.1 hours or less, decaying into other astatine isotopes,
1679:
3553:
Astatine ... miserable to make and hell to work with.
3544:
The principal medicinal difference between astatine-211 and
3421:
Several At-containing molecules and their experimental uses
2069:
can be produced. The dipyridine-astatine(I) cation, , forms
1778:
Astatine sublimes less readily than iodine, having a lower
58:
8062:
Radioaktive Isotope in Physiologie Diagnostik Und Therapie
8058:
Radioactive Isotopes in Physiology Diagnostics and Therapy
6370:(Google Play ed.). Oxford University Press. pp.
8319:
4301:
Garrett, A. B.; Richardson, J. B.; Kiefer, A. S. (1961).
4186:(New ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 57â58.
2680:
Alpha decay characteristics for sample astatine isotopes
1601:
are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a
76:
49:
6333:"Finding Eka-Iodine: Discovery Priority in Modern Times"
6066:
Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications
4663:(3rd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 197â222 (202).
3840:. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. p. 604.
2301:
solution. The excess of iodides or bromides may lead to
2097:
separately link the astatine(I) centre with each of the
7997:"Astatine Radiopharmaceuticals: Prospects and Problems"
7595:
Targeted Radionuclide Tumor Therapy: Biological Aspects
4879:
Glushko, V. P.; Medvedev, V. A.; Bergma, G. A. (1966).
4290:. Longmans, Green & Co. (Ltd.). pp. 1064â1079.
3587:
from molecular carriers such as these, particularly at
6966:"Decay properties of the new isotopes 188At and 190At"
6647:
Lederer, C. M.; Hollander, J. M.; Perlman, I. (1967).
4184:
Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements
3708:; by this time, the latter had been shown to be ionic.
2449:
The first claimed discovery of eka-iodine was made by
2269:
Structure of astatine monoiodide, one of the astatine
5079:
Guérard, F.; Gestin, J.-F.; Brechbiel, M. W. (2013).
4467:
Vernon, R. (2013). "Which Elements are Metalloids?".
2285:
in the vapor state; these reactions produce diatomic
93:
79:
67:
52:
9603:
Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure
8043:
7974:
Human Radiation Studies: Remembering the Early Years
7681:
7552:
7087:
6996:
6699:
6496:
6140:
5906:
5020:
4424:
4373:
3560:
Human Radiation Studies: Remembering the Early Years
73:
61:
55:
6326:
6324:
4207:Kotz, J. C.; Treichel, P. M.; Townsend, J. (2011).
3407:and may have greater applicability in experimental
1812:astatine molecules, and be a semiconductor (with a
1322:
1299:
1280:
1275:
1265:
1240:
1230:
1225:
1206:
1185:
1180:
1167:
1146:
1125:
1120:
1112:
1098:
1083:
1071:
1059:
1040:
122:
113:
105:
46:
37:
32:
7970:"Oral History of Dr. Patricia Wallace Durbin, PhD"
7952:
7856:
7750:
7592:Stigbrand, T.; Carlsson, J.; Adams, G. P. (2008).
5345:
4925:
4080:Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean;
2541:announced the discovery of element 85 as the beta
2200:or alkaline solution), yields the perastatate ion
2176:solution, has been reported. Further oxidation of
7199:
4235:MIPS and Their Role in the Exchange of Metalloids
4126:
4010:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
2164:, following the oxidation of astatine by a hot Na
1636:. However, astatine also falls roughly along the
8064:]. Springer-Verlag. pp. 375â392 (385).
7757:Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry
5035:Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry
4977:Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry
4793:(3rd ed.). Pearson Education. p. 533.
4579:Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry
4047:American Elements: The Materials Science Company
8099:(1940). "Artificially Radioactive Element 85".
7796:
7794:
6718:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4661:Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology
3754:Emsley states that this title has been lost to
3551:
3502:At-labeled monoclonal antibodies and fragments
3442:6-astato-2-methyl-1,4-naphtaquinol diphosphate
2053:by chlorine. By treating this compound with an
1659:The first synthesis of astatine was in 1940 by
1597:of various heavier elements. All of astatine's
8192:. Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195391312.
6664:
6662:
6507:
6505:
6118:The Ingredients: A Guided Tour of the Elements
6020:
6008:
5957:
5945:
5798:
5756:
5634:
5619:
4832:) and the hydration enthalpy of astatide (At)"
4765:(8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 56.
4689:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
4634:
4211:(8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 65.
8295:
7120:Kolthoff, I. M.; Elving, P. J., eds. (1964).
7013:(2nd ed.). Pergamon Press. p. 403.
6120:. Oxford University Press. pp. 100â102.
4883:(in Russian). Vol. 1. Nakua. p. 65.
4784:
4782:
4304:Chemistry: A First Course in Modern Chemistry
1544:
1089:
8:
7693:
7669:
7344:
7342:
7340:
7338:
7336:
7334:
7211:
7134:
7063:
7061:
5933:
5921:
5894:
5842:
5710:
5698:
5686:
5674:
4893:
4813:
4646:
4003:
4001:
3999:
2273:and the heaviest known diatomic interhalogen
21:
8197:VĂ©rtes, A.; Nagy, S.; KlencsĂĄr, Z. (2003).
7351:"Astatine-211: Production and Availability"
6095:. Vol. 1. Pergamon. pp. 213â330.
5729:. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 146.
4919:
4917:
4659:Meyers, R. A. (2001). "Halogen Chemistry".
4090:evaluation of nuclear and decay properties"
3831:
3829:
3827:
2604:and Traude Bernert, first in the so-called
2546:
1743:; metal formation has also been predicted.
18:Chemical element with atomic number 85 (At)
8302:
8288:
8280:
7995:Vaidyanathan, G.; Zalutsky, M. R. (2008).
7963:
7961:
7510:
7508:
7396:
7394:
6773:Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry
5650:Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomaterials
5085:Cancer Biotherapy and Radiopharmaceuticals
5074:
5072:
4682:
4680:
4145:
4143:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4067:
4065:
4063:
2676:
2430:, the space under iodine was empty; after
1638:dividing line between metals and nonmetals
1551:
1537:
1338:
1331:
1252:
135:
8020:
7929:
7828:
7818:
7374:
7314:
7296:
7160:
7071:, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 193.
6924:
6853:Radiochemical and Radioanalytical Letters
6827:
6747:
6737:
6331:Burdette, S. C.; Thornton, B. F. (2010).
6291:
6289:
6287:
5520:
5518:
5516:
5514:
5512:
5471:
5420:
5394:
5104:
4847:
4789:Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2008).
4560:Radiochemical and Radioanalytical Letters
4462:
4460:
4392:Journal of the Optical Society of America
4350:Chemistry Expression: An Inquiry Approach
4177:
4175:
4173:
3955:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3929:
3020:. A nuclear isomer may also be called a "
1908:, and is capable of acting as a metal in
7349:Zalutsky, M. R.; Pruszynski, M. (2011).
6868:
6866:
5323:. University Science Books. p. 37.
3419:
3094:
2492:In 1936, the team of Romanian physicist
1354:
131:
9402:
8237:Zuckerman, J. J.; Hagen, A. P. (1990).
8218:Zuckerman, J. J.; Hagen, A. P. (1989).
8135:(2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
8131:Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (2002).
6904:
6902:
4910:. Appleton-Century-Crofts. p. 457.
4759:Zumdahl, S. S.; Zumdahl, S. A. (2008).
4238:. Vol. 679. Springer. p. 41.
3823:
3647:
2112:. The species previously thought to be
9456:
9285:
8990:
7568:Inorganic Chemistry for Undergraduates
6712:Hamilton, J. G.; Soley, M. H. (1940).
5352:. Cambridge University Press. p.
4691:. Vol. 31. pp. 89â117 (96).
2366:may be produced. The polyhalides PdAtI
1824:; in this structure, it may well be a
20:
9510:
9474:
9465:
9375:
9357:
9348:
7904:Wilbur, D. Scott (20 February 2013).
7040:(85th ed.). CRC Press. pp.
7037:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
6340:Bulletin for the History of Chemistry
5656:. Subchapter 16.4.2: Redox behavior.
3891:
3889:
3795:In other words, where carbon's one s
3375:The irradiated bismuth (or sometimes
3024:-state", meaning the system has more
2223:Astatine may form bonds to the other
1483:
1480:
1448:
1445:
1409:
1404:
7:
9519:
9447:
9420:
9393:
9053:
9035:
9008:
8839:
8830:
7230:"Radioactivity of Astatine Isotopes"
6353:from the original on 9 October 2022.
6062:"Fluorides of Radon and Element 118"
4353:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 300.
4259:Siekierski, S.; Burgess, J. (2002).
4153:Holleman-Wiberg: Inorganic Chemistry
3004:, which are nuclei with one or more
1879:properties have been observed using
9528:
9501:
9492:
9339:
9321:
9312:
9303:
9089:
8999:
8972:
8920:
8866:
8848:
8812:
8792:
8731:
8668:
8569:
8551:
8540:
8459:
7571:. Universities Press. p. 547.
6912:Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables
5473:10.1146/annurev.ns.09.120159.001223
5446:"Technetium and astatine chemistry"
5379:"The electron affinity of astatine"
5195:(6): 1265â1285 (1265, 1270, 1282).
5134:The Journal of Physical Chemistry A
4933:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
4286:Maddock, A. G. (1956). "Astatine".
4209:Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity
4043:"Astatine (At) | AMERICAN ELEMENTS"
3786:See also Lavrukhina and Pozdnyakov.
2970:, as it has the lowest mass of all
1215:1st: 899.003 kJ/mol
9546:
9483:
9384:
9267:
9249:
9224:
9215:
9188:
9161:
9116:
9098:
9026:
9017:
8911:
8783:
8749:
8659:
8641:
8632:
8612:
8587:
8150:Kugler, H. K.; Keller, C. (1985).
7491:. Springer. pp. 95â104 (99).
7285:EJNMMI Radiopharmacy and Chemistry
6700:Corson, MacKenzie & SegrĂš 1940
6497:Corson, MacKenzie & SegrĂš 1940
6203:. 15 February 1932. Archived from
5662:10.1016/B978-0-323-91376-8.00012-4
4720:Otozai, K.; Takahashi, N. (1982).
4649:, pp. 110, 116, 210â211, 224.
4443:. Robert E. Krieger. p. 400.
3347:and is condensed in (typically) a
2553:, the Latin name of Switzerland).
2463:University of California, Berkeley
2444:eka-silicon, eka-boron, and others
1806:orthorhombic crystalline structure
1673:University of California, Berkeley
1587:rarest naturally occurring element
14:
9438:
9429:
9411:
9366:
9276:
9206:
9179:
9152:
9134:
9125:
9107:
9080:
9062:
9044:
8954:
8884:
8857:
8821:
8767:
8758:
8740:
8722:
8650:
8621:
8560:
8506:
8488:
8450:
8423:
6093:Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry
5260:Relativistic Methods for Chemists
4881:Termicheskie Konstanty Veshchestv
4388:"Absorption Spectrum of Astatine"
4262:Concise Chemistry of the Elements
3667:It is also possible that this is
3533:. Astatine-211 has potential for
9330:
9294:
9258:
9143:
9071:
8981:
8963:
8893:
8875:
8803:
8704:
8695:
8686:
8531:
8434:
8044:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
7953:VĂ©rtes, Nagy & KlencsĂĄr 2003
7857:VĂ©rtes, Nagy & KlencsĂĄr 2003
7682:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
7553:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
7122:Treatise on Analytical Chemistry
7088:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
6997:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
6141:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
5907:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
5451:Annual Review of Nuclear Science
5021:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
4906:Smith, A.; Ehret, W. F. (1960).
4425:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
4374:Lavrukhina & Pozdnyakov 1970
3621:
2647:, because of its propensity for
2529:, one of the discoverers of the
2404:
2398:
2192:(in a hot alkaline solution) or
2124:has since been determined to be
2101:rings via their nitrogen atoms.
1524:
1523:
42:
9233:
8938:
8929:
8596:
8578:
8497:
8479:
7621:Physics in Medicine and Biology
7521:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine
6675:Chemical & Engineering News
5547:10.1070/RC1968v037n02ABEH001603
4504:Journal of Structural Chemistry
4114:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
3535:targeted alpha-particle therapy
3053:to one ounce (about 28 grams).
9197:
9170:
8713:
8677:
8515:
8470:
7708:Applied Radiation and Isotopes
7466:10.1016/j.apradiso.2014.09.012
7446:Applied Radiation and Isotopes
7403:Applied Radiation and Isotopes
7109:. Abelard-Schuman. p. 24.
5860:over At in Basic Conditions".
4440:The Structures of the Elements
3982:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.116404
3069:ores, and trace quantities of
1:
8902:
8200:Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry
8152:'At, Astatine', System No. 8a
7871:Current Pharmaceutical Design
7728:10.1016/S0969-8043(01)00044-6
7200:Greenwood & Earnshaw 2002
6883:10.1016/S0065-2792(08)60227-7
6220:Journal of Chemical Education
5771:Targeted Radionuclide Therapy
5713:, pp. 109â110, 129, 213.
5286:Journal of Chemical Education
5244:10.1016/S0009-2614(96)01250-X
4469:Journal of Chemical Education
4265:. Horwood. pp. 65, 122.
4127:Greenwood & Earnshaw 2002
3531:multistep labeling strategies
3481:At-labeled biotin conjugates
2041:At; this may be oxidized to C
2021:Astatine is known to bind to
1822:face-centered cubic structure
8268:The Periodic Table of Videos
8001:Current Radiopharmaceuticals
7641:10.1088/0031-9155/59/11/2849
7489:Therapeutic Nuclear Medicine
7423:10.1016/0969-8043(95)00285-5
7355:Current Radiopharmaceuticals
6785:10.1016/0022-1902(57)80018-9
6529:. p. 29. Archived from
5726:Contemporary boron chemistry
4836:Journal of Mass Spectrometry
3465:Meta-astatobenzyl guanidine
3434:astatine-tellurium colloids
2633:
2510:, who would later chair the
2399:
1866:of astatine, but only for At
1686:
8275:Astatine: Halogen or Metal?
8013:10.2174/1874471010801030177
7672:, pp. 95â106, 133â139.
7367:10.2174/1874471011104030177
6873:Aten, A. H. W. Jr. (1964).
6800:Journal of Chemical Physics
6512:Davis, Helen Miles (1959).
6305:. Longmans, Green. p.
6195:"Alabamine & Virginium"
4940:(33): 14984â14992 (14984).
4738:10.1524/ract.1982.31.34.201
3836:Arblaster, JW, ed. (2018).
3323:chemically neutral nitrogen
2537:In 1940, the Swiss chemist
2057:solution of hypochlorite, C
9629:
8801:
8630:
8549:
8468:
8432:
8334:
8271:(University of Nottingham)
7298:10.1186/s41181-024-00257-z
7179:10.1103/PhysRevC.84.067601
7155:(6): 07601â07604 (07601).
6021:Zuckerman & Hagen 1989
6009:Zuckerman & Hagen 1990
5958:Zuckerman & Hagen 1990
5946:Zuckerman & Hagen 1989
5799:Zuckerman & Hagen 1989
5757:Zuckerman & Hagen 1989
5635:Zuckerman & Hagen 1989
5620:Zuckerman & Hagen 1989
5413:10.1038/s41467-020-17599-2
5230:(3â4): 360â366 (361â362).
4635:Zuckerman & Hagen 1989
2669:
2627:
2089:. This cation exists as a
2009:; acidification by dilute
1958:
1900:. It forms complexes with
1846:, dissociation energy <
1680:
427:
295:
235:
175:
150:
109:unknown, probably metallic
9544:
9244:
8949:
8778:
8607:
8526:
8445:
8418:
8411:
8406:
8401:
8396:
8391:
8386:
8381:
8376:
8371:
8366:
8361:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8329:
8324:
8317:
8241:. John Wiley & Sons.
8222:. John Wiley & Sons.
8203:. Vol. 4. Springer.
8133:Chemistry of the Elements
7777:10.1007/s10967-005-0481-7
7598:. Springer. p. 150.
7034:Lide, D. R., ed. (2004).
6971:. University of JyvÀskylÀ
6943:10.1016/j.adt.2012.05.003
6875:The Chemistry of Astatine
6687:10.1021/cen-v081n036.p158
5209:10.1080/00268979100102951
3968:(11): 116404-1â116404-5.
3866:Chemistry of the Elements
3864:; Earnshaw, Alan (1997).
3473:5-astato-2'-deoxyuridine
3104:Energy of alpha particle
2679:
1675:. They named it from the
1522:
1518:
1477:
1442:
1401:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1160:8.91â8.95 g/cm
1017:
130:
8190:A Tale of Seven Elements
7883:10.2174/1381612003399275
7694:Kugler & Keller 1985
7670:Kugler & Keller 1985
7212:Kugler & Keller 1985
7135:Kugler & Keller 1985
5988:10.1524/ract.1963.2.1.48
5934:Kugler & Keller 1985
5924:, pp. 112, 192â193.
5922:Kugler & Keller 1985
5895:Kugler & Keller 1985
5843:Kugler & Keller 1985
5711:Kugler & Keller 1985
5699:Kugler & Keller 1985
5687:Kugler & Keller 1985
5675:Kugler & Keller 1985
5527:Russian Chemical Reviews
5292:(11): 1721â1727 (1725).
5263:. Springer. p. 79.
5224:Chemical Physics Letters
4894:Kugler & Keller 1985
4814:Kugler & Keller 1985
4697:10.1002/14356007.o22_o15
4647:Kugler & Keller 1985
4475:(12): 1703â1707 (1704).
4150:Wiberg, N., ed. (2001).
4082:Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik
4029:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
3401:liquidâliquid extraction
1593:, occurring only as the
1066:group 17 (halogens)
8126:(subscription required)
7267:(subscription required)
7262:2027/mdp.39015086480574
7069:A Guide to the Elements
6829:2027/mdp.39015086446914
6636:(subscription required)
6590:(subscription required)
6486:(subscription required)
6433:(subscription required)
6245:(subscription required)
6183:(subscription required)
6178:10.1103/PhysRev.37.1178
5598:(subscription required)
5560:(subscription required)
5479:(subscription required)
4386:McLaughlin, R. (1964).
4327:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
3962:Physical Review Letters
3282:runs of up to 6.6
2033:to form astatobenzene C
1945:spinâorbit interactions
1896:with metal sulfides in
1616:as a heavier analog of
8121:10.1103/PhysRev.58.672
7515:Wilbur, D. S. (2001).
7228:; Perlman, I. (1951).
6669:Corson, D. R. (2003).
6603:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physik
6278:10.1103/PhysRev.47.310
6060:Pitzer, K. S. (1975).
5874:10.1002/chem.201504403
5319:Wulfsberg, G. (2000).
4412:10.1364/JOSA.54.000965
4323:"Transuranium element"
3555:
3468:Neuroendocrine tumors
3278:
3049:
3000:Astatine has 24 known
2578:Kenneth Ross MacKenzie
2547:
2534:
2485:(polonium-210) in the
2287:interhalogen compounds
2274:
2079:non-coordinating anion
1998:
1926:of 2.2 on the revised
1665:Kenneth Ross MacKenzie
1648:. Chemically, several
1310:Kenneth Ross MacKenzie
1173:23.6 cm/mol
1100:Electron configuration
8188:Scerri, Eric (2013).
7254:10.1103/PhysRev.82.13
6739:10.1073/pnas.26.8.483
6653:John Wiley & Sons
6515:The Chemical Elements
6207:on 30 September 2007.
5723:Davidson, M. (2000).
5383:Nature Communications
5344:Smith, D. W. (1990).
5097:10.1089/cbr.2012.1292
3902:Nature Communications
3870:Butterworth-Heinemann
3862:Greenwood, Norman N.
3799:and three p orbitals
3581:monoclonal antibodies
3496:Somatostatin receptor
3484:Various pretargeting
3437:Compartmental tumors
3276:
3047:
2525:
2496:and French physicist
2268:
2095:dative covalent bonds
1991:
1919:in aqueous solution.
1763:is nearly colorless,
97:-tÉ-teen, -tin
7906:"Enigmatic astatine"
7565:Gopalan, R. (2009).
7009:Rankama, K. (1956).
6702:, pp. 672, 677.
6367:A Tale of 7 Elements
6078:10.1039/C3975000760B
5593:10.1039/AN9527700774
5140:(1): 576â582 (581).
4556:thermochromatography
4437:Donohue, J. (1982).
4307:. Ginn. p. 313.
4232:Jahn, T. P. (2010).
3637:Radiation protection
3569:radiopharmaceuticals
3415:Uses and precautions
2672:Isotopes of astatine
2656:analytical chemistry
2091:coordination complex
1852:heat of vaporization
1692:isotopes of astatine
1324:Isotopes of astatine
8113:1940PhRv...58..672C
8046:, pp. 232â233.
7968:Fisher, D. (1995).
7922:2013NatCh...5..246W
7769:2005JRNC..262..593Y
7720:2001AppRI..55..157L
7684:, pp. 243â253.
7633:2014PMB....59.2849K
7458:2014AppRI..94..363N
7415:1996AppRI..47..135L
7246:1951PhRv...82...13B
7171:2011PhRvC..84f7601M
6935:2013ADNDT..99..497F
6812:1949JChPh..17....1J
6730:1940PNAS...26..483H
6615:1944ZPhy..123...51K
6569:1943NW.....31..298K
6557:Naturwissenschaften
6465:1942Natur.150..767L
6412:1942NW.....30..685K
6400:Naturwissenschaften
6364:Scerri, E. (2013).
6270:1935PhRv...47..310M
6232:1975JChEd..52..585T
6170:1931PhRv...37.1178A
6143:, pp. 227â228.
6047:10.1021/ic50039a016
6035:Inorganic Chemistry
5948:, pp. 192â193.
5830:10.1021/om00059a071
5801:, pp. 190â191.
5689:, pp. 214â218.
5677:, pp. 213â214.
5654:Woodhead Publishing
5585:1952Ana....77..774A
5539:1968RuCRv..37...87N
5464:1959ARNPS...9..203A
5444:Anders, E. (1959).
5405:2020NatCo..11.3824L
5321:Inorganic Chemistry
5298:2005JChEd..82.1721T
5257:Barysz, M. (2010).
5236:1996CPL...263..360S
5201:1991MolPh..74.1265D
5146:2010JPCA..114..576C
5047:1988JRNC..127..193M
4989:1984JRNC...83..291M
4946:2011PCCP...1314984C
4896:, pp. 116â117.
4791:Inorganic chemistry
4624:. pp. 536â539.
4591:1986JRNC..103....1T
4516:1972JStCh..12..809B
4481:2013JChEd..90.1703V
4404:1964JOSA...54..965M
4347:Oon, H. L. (2007).
4182:Emsley, J. (2011).
4106:2003NuPhA.729....3A
3974:2013PhRvL.111k6404H
3914:2013NatCo...4E1835R
3422:
3395:, and redissolving
3097:
2938:There are 41 known
2150:potassium hydroxide
1996:space-filling model
1936:AllredâRochow scale
1790:of astatine in the
1788:absorption spectrum
1690:) 'unstable'. Four
1248:face-centered cubic
1208:Ionization energies
1121:Physical properties
1116:2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7
1113:Electrons per shell
29:
9613:Synthetic elements
7931:10.1038/nchem.1580
7830:10.3390/app3030636
7090:, p. 228â229.
7067:Stwertka, Albert.
6623:10.1007/BF01375144
6577:10.1007/BF01475613
6563:(25â26): 298â299.
6420:10.1007/BF01487965
6406:(44â45): 685â686.
5306:10.1021/ed082p1721
5055:10.1007/BF02164864
4997:10.1007/BF02037143
4954:10.1039/C1CP20512A
4599:10.1007/BF02165358
4524:10.1007/BF00743349
3922:10.1038/ncomms2819
3420:
3353:labeling reactions
3330:Separation methods
3279:
3095:
3050:
3040:Natural occurrence
2942:of astatine, with
2608:, and then in the
2535:
2531:main-group element
2295:iodine monobromide
2275:
2255:, and an astatineâ
2156:triastatate La(AtO
1999:
1961:Astatine compounds
1792:middle ultraviolet
1771:is red-brown, and
1632:, the four stable
1530:Category: Astatine
1231:Natural occurrence
1024:
1007:
9598:Chemical elements
9580:
9579:
9573:
9572:
9539:
9538:
8248:978-0-471-18657-1
8229:978-0-471-18656-4
8210:978-1-4020-1316-4
8180:978-0-250-39923-9
8161:978-3-540-93516-2
8142:978-0-7506-3365-9
8071:978-3-642-49477-2
7877:(14): 1433â1455.
7627:(11): 2849â2860.
7605:978-1-4020-8695-3
7578:978-81-7371-660-7
7527:(10): 1516â1518.
7498:978-3-540-36718-5
7149:Physical Review C
7051:978-0-8493-0485-9
7020:978-0-470-70800-2
6964:Kokkonen, Henna.
6892:978-0-12-023606-0
6820:10.1063/1.1747034
6655:. pp. 1â657.
6649:Table of Isotopes
6536:on 23 August 2017
6459:(3817): 767â768.
6381:978-0-19-539131-2
6240:10.1021/ed052p585
6127:978-0-19-284100-1
6116:Ball, P. (2002).
6102:978-0-08-017275-0
5976:Radiochimica Acta
5824:(11): 3920â3922.
5780:978-0-7817-9693-4
5736:978-0-85404-835-9
5363:978-0-521-33738-0
5330:978-1-891389-01-6
5270:978-1-4020-9974-8
5189:Molecular Physics
5154:10.1021/jp9077008
4908:College chemistry
4800:978-0-13-175553-6
4772:978-0-547-12532-9
4726:Radiochimica Acta
4706:978-3-527-30673-2
4670:978-0-12-227410-7
4489:10.1021/ed3008457
4450:978-0-89874-230-5
4360:978-981-271-162-5
4272:978-1-898563-71-6
4245:978-1-4419-6314-7
4218:978-0-8400-4828-8
4193:978-0-19-960563-7
4163:978-0-12-352651-9
4094:Nuclear Physics A
4089:
4017:Chinese Physics C
3879:978-0-08-037941-8
3847:978-1-62708-154-2
3522:
3521:
3389:thiosemicarbazide
3385:diisopropyl ether
3270:
3269:
2980:positron emission
2935:
2934:
2928:
2649:radioactive decay
2563:Alice Leigh-Smith
2455:Auburn University
2380:mass spectrometer
2247:, a coordination
2227:; these include S
2152:. Preparation of
2108:in a solution of
2106:sodium persulfate
2003:hydrogen astatide
1993:Hydrogen astatide
1949:ionization energy
1940:electron affinity
1932:hydrogen astatide
1924:electronegativity
1898:hydrochloric acid
1767:is yellow-green,
1565:
1564:
1514:
1513:
1242:Crystal structure
1181:Atomic properties
1108:] 4f 5d 6s 6p
1036:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1022:
1005:
995:
994:
721:Mercury (element)
9620:
9549:
9548:
9535:
9533:
9526:
9524:
9517:
9515:
9508:
9506:
9499:
9497:
9490:
9488:
9481:
9479:
9472:
9470:
9463:
9461:
9454:
9452:
9445:
9443:
9436:
9434:
9427:
9425:
9418:
9416:
9409:
9407:
9400:
9398:
9391:
9389:
9382:
9380:
9373:
9371:
9364:
9362:
9355:
9353:
9346:
9344:
9337:
9335:
9328:
9326:
9319:
9317:
9310:
9308:
9301:
9299:
9292:
9290:
9283:
9281:
9274:
9272:
9265:
9263:
9256:
9254:
9240:
9238:
9231:
9229:
9222:
9220:
9213:
9211:
9204:
9202:
9195:
9193:
9186:
9184:
9177:
9175:
9168:
9166:
9159:
9157:
9150:
9148:
9141:
9139:
9132:
9130:
9123:
9121:
9114:
9112:
9105:
9103:
9096:
9094:
9087:
9085:
9078:
9076:
9069:
9067:
9060:
9058:
9051:
9049:
9042:
9040:
9033:
9031:
9024:
9022:
9015:
9013:
9006:
9004:
8997:
8995:
8988:
8986:
8979:
8977:
8970:
8968:
8961:
8959:
8945:
8943:
8936:
8934:
8927:
8925:
8918:
8916:
8909:
8907:
8900:
8898:
8891:
8889:
8882:
8880:
8873:
8871:
8864:
8862:
8855:
8853:
8846:
8844:
8837:
8835:
8828:
8826:
8819:
8817:
8810:
8808:
8799:
8797:
8790:
8788:
8774:
8772:
8765:
8763:
8756:
8754:
8747:
8745:
8738:
8736:
8729:
8727:
8720:
8718:
8711:
8709:
8702:
8700:
8693:
8691:
8684:
8682:
8675:
8673:
8666:
8664:
8657:
8655:
8648:
8646:
8639:
8637:
8628:
8626:
8619:
8617:
8603:
8601:
8594:
8592:
8585:
8583:
8576:
8574:
8567:
8565:
8558:
8556:
8547:
8545:
8538:
8536:
8522:
8520:
8513:
8511:
8504:
8502:
8495:
8493:
8486:
8484:
8477:
8475:
8466:
8464:
8457:
8455:
8441:
8439:
8430:
8428:
8320:
8304:
8297:
8290:
8281:
8252:
8233:
8214:
8193:
8184:
8165:
8146:
8127:
8124:
8093:MacKenzie, K. R.
8076:
8075:
8053:
8047:
8041:
8035:
8034:
8024:
7992:
7986:
7985:
7983:
7981:
7965:
7956:
7950:
7944:
7943:
7933:
7910:Nature Chemistry
7901:
7895:
7894:
7866:
7860:
7854:
7843:
7842:
7832:
7822:
7807:Applied Sciences
7798:
7789:
7788:
7754:
7746:
7740:
7739:
7703:
7697:
7691:
7685:
7679:
7673:
7667:
7661:
7660:
7616:
7610:
7609:
7589:
7583:
7582:
7562:
7556:
7550:
7537:
7536:
7512:
7503:
7502:
7484:
7478:
7477:
7441:
7435:
7434:
7398:
7389:
7388:
7378:
7346:
7329:
7328:
7318:
7300:
7275:
7269:
7268:
7265:
7221:
7215:
7209:
7203:
7197:
7191:
7190:
7164:
7144:
7138:
7132:
7126:
7125:
7117:
7111:
7110:
7097:
7091:
7085:
7079:
7065:
7056:
7055:
7031:
7025:
7024:
7006:
7000:
6994:
6981:
6980:
6978:
6976:
6970:
6961:
6955:
6954:
6928:
6906:
6897:
6896:
6870:
6861:
6860:
6848:
6842:
6841:
6831:
6795:
6789:
6788:
6779:(5â6): 349â353.
6768:
6762:
6761:
6751:
6741:
6709:
6703:
6697:
6691:
6690:
6666:
6657:
6656:
6651:(6th ed.).
6644:
6638:
6637:
6634:
6598:
6592:
6591:
6588:
6552:
6546:
6545:
6543:
6541:
6535:
6527:Ballantine Books
6521:(2nd ed.).
6520:
6509:
6500:
6494:
6488:
6487:
6484:
6473:10.1038/150767a0
6441:
6435:
6434:
6431:
6392:
6386:
6385:
6361:
6355:
6354:
6352:
6337:
6328:
6319:
6318:
6293:
6282:
6281:
6253:
6247:
6246:
6243:
6215:
6209:
6208:
6191:
6185:
6184:
6181:
6164:(9): 1178â1180.
6150:
6144:
6138:
6132:
6131:
6113:
6107:
6106:
6088:
6082:
6081:
6072:(18): 760bâ761.
6057:
6051:
6050:
6030:
6024:
6018:
6012:
6006:
6000:
5999:
5967:
5961:
5955:
5949:
5943:
5937:
5931:
5925:
5919:
5910:
5904:
5898:
5892:
5886:
5885:
5852:
5846:
5840:
5834:
5833:
5808:
5802:
5796:
5785:
5784:
5766:
5760:
5754:
5741:
5740:
5720:
5714:
5708:
5702:
5696:
5690:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5666:
5665:
5644:
5638:
5632:
5623:
5617:
5600:
5599:
5596:
5579:(920): 774â777.
5568:
5562:
5561:
5558:
5522:
5507:
5506:
5504:
5502:
5497:on 3 August 2018
5487:
5481:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5441:
5435:
5434:
5424:
5398:
5374:
5368:
5367:
5351:
5341:
5335:
5334:
5316:
5310:
5309:
5281:
5275:
5274:
5254:
5248:
5247:
5219:
5213:
5212:
5180:
5174:
5173:
5125:
5119:
5118:
5108:
5076:
5067:
5066:
5030:
5024:
5018:
5009:
5008:
4972:
4966:
4965:
4929:
4921:
4912:
4911:
4903:
4897:
4891:
4885:
4884:
4876:
4870:
4869:
4851:
4849:10.1002/jms.5010
4823:
4817:
4811:
4805:
4804:
4786:
4777:
4776:
4756:
4750:
4749:
4732:(3â4): 201â203.
4717:
4711:
4710:
4684:
4675:
4674:
4656:
4650:
4644:
4638:
4632:
4626:
4625:
4617:
4611:
4610:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4464:
4455:
4454:
4434:
4428:
4422:
4416:
4415:
4383:
4377:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4315:
4309:
4308:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4283:
4277:
4276:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4229:
4223:
4222:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4179:
4168:
4167:
4147:
4130:
4124:
4118:
4117:
4087:
4077:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4039:
4033:
4032:
4014:
4005:
3994:
3993:
3957:
3944:
3943:
3933:
3893:
3884:
3883:
3868:(2nd ed.).
3858:
3852:
3851:
3833:
3813:
3810:
3804:
3793:
3787:
3784:
3778:
3775:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3752:
3746:
3743:
3737:
3733:
3727:
3724:
3718:
3715:
3709:
3701:
3695:
3688:
3682:
3678:
3672:
3665:
3659:
3652:
3631:
3629:Chemistry portal
3626:
3625:
3624:
3563:
3527:nuclear medicine
3423:
3377:bismuth trioxide
3357:sodium hydroxide
3293:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3208:
3207:
3206:
3197:
3195:
3194:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3173:
3171:
3170:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3143:
3141:
3140:
3131:
3129:
3128:
3119:
3117:
3116:
3098:
3081:been confirmed.
2984:electron capture
2924:
2921:
2911:
2905:
2900:
2890:
2884:
2879:
2869:
2863:
2858:
2848:
2842:
2837:
2827:
2819:
2809:
2803:
2798:
2788:
2782:
2777:
2767:
2761:
2756:
2746:
2740:
2735:
2725:
2719:
2714:
2677:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2614:neptunium series
2552:
2508:Friedrich Paneth
2459:H. G. MacPherson
2424:Dmitri Mendeleev
2414:Dmitri Mendeleev
2408:
2402:
2401:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2360:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2348:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2331:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2262:with tellurium.
2242:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2206:
2190:xenon difluoride
2187:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2123:
2122:
2121:
2118:
2016:silver(I) iodide
1922:Astatine has an
1917:monatomic cation
1849:
1845:
1840:
1784:room temperature
1689:
1683:
1682:
1572:chemical element
1553:
1546:
1539:
1527:
1526:
1505:
1493:
1486:
1468:
1456:
1451:
1433:
1419:
1412:
1387:
1355:
1345:
1340:
1333:
1318:
1295: 'unstable'
1256:
1226:Other properties
1201:
1195:
1187:Oxidation states
1157:
1136:
1135:
1091:
1052:
1051:
990:
983:
976:
969:
962:
955:
948:
941:
934:
927:
920:
913:
906:
899:
892:
885:
878:
871:
864:
857:
850:
843:
836:
829:
822:
815:
808:
801:
794:
787:
780:
773:
764:
757:
750:
743:
736:
729:
722:
715:
708:
701:
694:
687:
680:
673:
666:
659:
652:
645:
638:
631:
624:
617:
610:
603:
596:
589:
582:
575:
568:
561:
554:
547:
538:
531:
524:
517:
510:
503:
496:
489:
482:
475:
468:
461:
454:
447:
440:
433:
422:
415:
406:
399:
392:
385:
378:
371:
364:
357:
350:
343:
336:
329:
322:
315:
308:
301:
292:
285:
276:
269:
262:
255:
248:
241:
232:
225:
216:
209:
202:
195:
188:
181:
172:
165:
156:
147:
141:
140:
136:
132:
123:Astatine in the
101:
96:
88:
86:
85:
82:
81:
78:
75:
70:
69:
66:
63:
60:
57:
54:
51:
48:
30:
28:
9628:
9627:
9623:
9622:
9621:
9619:
9618:
9617:
9583:
9582:
9581:
9576:
9575:
9574:
9540:
9531:
9529:
9522:
9520:
9513:
9511:
9504:
9502:
9495:
9493:
9486:
9484:
9477:
9475:
9468:
9466:
9459:
9457:
9450:
9448:
9441:
9439:
9432:
9430:
9423:
9421:
9414:
9412:
9405:
9403:
9396:
9394:
9387:
9385:
9378:
9376:
9369:
9367:
9360:
9358:
9351:
9349:
9342:
9340:
9333:
9331:
9324:
9322:
9315:
9313:
9306:
9304:
9297:
9295:
9288:
9286:
9279:
9277:
9270:
9268:
9261:
9259:
9252:
9250:
9236:
9234:
9227:
9225:
9218:
9216:
9209:
9207:
9200:
9198:
9191:
9189:
9182:
9180:
9173:
9171:
9164:
9162:
9155:
9153:
9146:
9144:
9137:
9135:
9128:
9126:
9119:
9117:
9110:
9108:
9101:
9099:
9092:
9090:
9083:
9081:
9074:
9072:
9065:
9063:
9056:
9054:
9047:
9045:
9038:
9036:
9029:
9027:
9020:
9018:
9011:
9009:
9002:
9000:
8993:
8991:
8984:
8982:
8975:
8973:
8966:
8964:
8957:
8955:
8941:
8939:
8932:
8930:
8923:
8921:
8914:
8912:
8905:
8903:
8896:
8894:
8887:
8885:
8878:
8876:
8869:
8867:
8860:
8858:
8851:
8849:
8842:
8840:
8833:
8831:
8824:
8822:
8815:
8813:
8806:
8804:
8795:
8793:
8786:
8784:
8770:
8768:
8761:
8759:
8752:
8750:
8743:
8741:
8734:
8732:
8725:
8723:
8716:
8714:
8707:
8705:
8698:
8696:
8689:
8687:
8680:
8678:
8671:
8669:
8662:
8660:
8653:
8651:
8644:
8642:
8635:
8633:
8624:
8622:
8615:
8613:
8599:
8597:
8590:
8588:
8581:
8579:
8572:
8570:
8563:
8561:
8554:
8552:
8543:
8541:
8534:
8532:
8518:
8516:
8509:
8507:
8500:
8498:
8491:
8489:
8482:
8480:
8473:
8471:
8462:
8460:
8453:
8451:
8437:
8435:
8426:
8424:
8313:
8308:
8259:
8249:
8236:
8230:
8217:
8211:
8196:
8187:
8181:
8168:
8162:
8149:
8143:
8130:
8125:
8101:Physical Review
8087:
8084:
8079:
8072:
8055:
8054:
8050:
8042:
8038:
7994:
7993:
7989:
7979:
7977:
7967:
7966:
7959:
7951:
7947:
7903:
7902:
7898:
7868:
7867:
7863:
7855:
7846:
7820:10.1.1.383.1903
7800:
7799:
7792:
7748:
7747:
7743:
7705:
7704:
7700:
7692:
7688:
7680:
7676:
7668:
7664:
7618:
7617:
7613:
7606:
7591:
7590:
7586:
7579:
7564:
7563:
7559:
7551:
7540:
7514:
7513:
7506:
7499:
7486:
7485:
7481:
7443:
7442:
7438:
7400:
7399:
7392:
7348:
7347:
7332:
7277:
7276:
7272:
7266:
7234:Physical Review
7224:Barton, G. W.;
7223:
7222:
7218:
7210:
7206:
7198:
7194:
7146:
7145:
7141:
7133:
7129:
7119:
7118:
7114:
7106:Only a Trillion
7099:
7098:
7094:
7086:
7082:
7066:
7059:
7052:
7033:
7032:
7028:
7021:
7011:Isotope Geology
7008:
7007:
7003:
6995:
6984:
6974:
6972:
6968:
6963:
6962:
6958:
6908:
6907:
6900:
6893:
6872:
6871:
6864:
6850:
6849:
6845:
6797:
6796:
6792:
6770:
6769:
6765:
6711:
6710:
6706:
6698:
6694:
6668:
6667:
6660:
6646:
6645:
6641:
6635:
6600:
6599:
6595:
6589:
6554:
6553:
6549:
6539:
6537:
6533:
6523:Science Service
6518:
6511:
6510:
6503:
6495:
6491:
6485:
6445:Leigh-Smith, A.
6443:
6442:
6438:
6432:
6394:
6393:
6389:
6382:
6363:
6362:
6358:
6350:
6335:
6330:
6329:
6322:
6295:
6294:
6285:
6258:Physical Review
6255:
6254:
6250:
6244:
6217:
6216:
6212:
6193:
6192:
6188:
6182:
6158:Physical Review
6152:
6151:
6147:
6139:
6135:
6128:
6115:
6114:
6110:
6103:
6090:
6089:
6085:
6059:
6058:
6054:
6032:
6031:
6027:
6019:
6015:
6007:
6003:
5973:
5969:
5968:
5964:
5956:
5952:
5944:
5940:
5932:
5928:
5920:
5913:
5905:
5901:
5893:
5889:
5859:
5854:
5853:
5849:
5841:
5837:
5817:Organometallics
5810:
5809:
5805:
5797:
5788:
5781:
5768:
5767:
5763:
5755:
5744:
5737:
5722:
5721:
5717:
5709:
5705:
5697:
5693:
5685:
5681:
5673:
5669:
5646:
5645:
5641:
5633:
5626:
5618:
5603:
5597:
5570:
5569:
5565:
5559:
5524:
5523:
5510:
5500:
5498:
5489:
5488:
5484:
5478:
5443:
5442:
5438:
5376:
5375:
5371:
5364:
5343:
5342:
5338:
5331:
5318:
5317:
5313:
5283:
5282:
5278:
5271:
5256:
5255:
5251:
5221:
5220:
5216:
5182:
5181:
5177:
5127:
5126:
5122:
5078:
5077:
5070:
5032:
5031:
5027:
5019:
5012:
4974:
4973:
4969:
4923:
4922:
4915:
4905:
4904:
4900:
4892:
4888:
4878:
4877:
4873:
4831:
4825:
4824:
4820:
4812:
4808:
4801:
4788:
4787:
4780:
4773:
4758:
4757:
4753:
4719:
4718:
4714:
4707:
4686:
4685:
4678:
4671:
4658:
4657:
4653:
4645:
4641:
4633:
4629:
4619:
4618:
4614:
4576:
4575:
4571:
4552:
4551:
4547:
4501:
4500:
4496:
4466:
4465:
4458:
4451:
4436:
4435:
4431:
4423:
4419:
4385:
4384:
4380:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4346:
4345:
4341:
4331:
4329:
4317:
4316:
4312:
4300:
4299:
4295:
4285:
4284:
4280:
4273:
4258:
4257:
4253:
4246:
4231:
4230:
4226:
4219:
4206:
4205:
4201:
4194:
4181:
4180:
4171:
4164:
4149:
4148:
4133:
4125:
4121:
4079:
4078:
4061:
4051:
4049:
4041:
4040:
4036:
4012:
4007:
4006:
3997:
3959:
3958:
3947:
3895:
3894:
3887:
3880:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3848:
3835:
3834:
3825:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3807:
3794:
3790:
3785:
3781:
3776:
3772:
3766:
3762:
3753:
3749:
3744:
3740:
3734:
3730:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3702:
3698:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3679:
3675:
3666:
3662:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3627:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3589:sp carbon sites
3565:
3557:
3523:
3517:Bone metastases
3512:bisphosphonates
3446:Adenocarcinomas
3417:
3405:oxidation state
3397:bismuth nitrate
3393:nitrogen oxides
3373:
3341:
3332:
3291:
3286:(about 86
3271:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3235:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3164:
3163:
3151:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3092:
3087:
3061:of radioactive
3042:
3026:internal energy
3002:nuclear isomers
2936:
2926:
2919:
2909:
2903:
2898:
2888:
2882:
2877:
2867:
2861:
2856:
2846:
2840:
2835:
2825:
2817:
2807:
2801:
2796:
2786:
2780:
2775:
2765:
2759:
2754:
2744:
2738:
2733:
2723:
2717:
2712:
2703:
2701:
2696:
2694:
2686:
2674:
2668:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2610:actinium series
2590:alpha particles
2572:Later in 1940,
2498:Yvette Cauchois
2420:
2419:
2418:
2417:
2410:
2409:
2403:
2392:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2338:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2125:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2110:perchloric acid
2088:
2071:ionic compounds
2068:
2064:
2060:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
1963:
1957:
1906:chelating agent
1894:coprecipitating
1876:
1869:
1857:
1847:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1749:
1709:
1707:Characteristics
1701:alpha particles
1669:Emilio G. SegrĂš
1557:
1532:
1503:
1489:
1484:
1466:
1454:
1449:
1429:
1415:
1410:
1385:
1378:
1371:abundance
1344:
1326:
1316:
1271:7440-68-8
1258:
1257:
1221:
1197:
1191:
1151:
1129:
1045:
1041:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1002:
996:
988:
981:
974:
967:
960:
953:
946:
939:
932:
925:
918:
911:
904:
897:
890:
883:
876:
869:
862:
855:
848:
841:
834:
827:
820:
813:
806:
799:
792:
785:
778:
771:
762:
755:
748:
741:
734:
727:
720:
713:
706:
699:
692:
685:
678:
671:
664:
657:
650:
643:
636:
629:
622:
615:
608:
601:
594:
587:
580:
573:
566:
559:
552:
545:
536:
529:
522:
515:
508:
501:
494:
487:
480:
473:
466:
459:
452:
445:
438:
431:
420:
413:
404:
397:
390:
383:
376:
369:
362:
355:
348:
341:
334:
327:
320:
313:
306:
299:
290:
283:
274:
267:
260:
253:
246:
239:
230:
223:
214:
207:
200:
193:
186:
179:
170:
163:
154:
145:
94:
90:
72:
45:
41:
26:
23:Astatine,
22:
19:
12:
11:
5:
9626:
9624:
9616:
9615:
9610:
9605:
9600:
9595:
9585:
9584:
9578:
9577:
9571:
9570:
9565:
9560:
9555:
9547:
9545:
9542:
9541:
9537:
9536:
9527:
9518:
9509:
9500:
9491:
9482:
9473:
9464:
9455:
9446:
9437:
9428:
9419:
9410:
9401:
9392:
9383:
9374:
9365:
9356:
9347:
9338:
9329:
9320:
9311:
9302:
9293:
9284:
9275:
9266:
9257:
9248:
9242:
9241:
9232:
9223:
9214:
9205:
9196:
9187:
9178:
9169:
9160:
9151:
9142:
9133:
9124:
9115:
9106:
9097:
9088:
9079:
9070:
9061:
9052:
9043:
9034:
9025:
9016:
9007:
8998:
8989:
8980:
8971:
8962:
8953:
8947:
8946:
8937:
8928:
8919:
8910:
8901:
8892:
8883:
8874:
8865:
8856:
8847:
8838:
8829:
8820:
8811:
8802:
8800:
8791:
8782:
8776:
8775:
8766:
8757:
8748:
8739:
8730:
8721:
8712:
8703:
8694:
8685:
8676:
8667:
8658:
8649:
8640:
8631:
8629:
8620:
8611:
8605:
8604:
8595:
8586:
8577:
8568:
8559:
8550:
8548:
8539:
8530:
8524:
8523:
8514:
8505:
8496:
8487:
8478:
8469:
8467:
8458:
8449:
8443:
8442:
8433:
8431:
8422:
8416:
8415:
8410:
8405:
8400:
8395:
8390:
8385:
8380:
8375:
8370:
8365:
8360:
8355:
8350:
8345:
8340:
8335:
8333:
8328:
8323:
8318:
8315:
8314:
8311:Periodic table
8309:
8307:
8306:
8299:
8292:
8284:
8278:
8277:
8272:
8258:
8257:External links
8255:
8254:
8253:
8247:
8234:
8228:
8215:
8209:
8194:
8185:
8179:
8166:
8160:
8147:
8141:
8128:
8107:(8): 672â678.
8083:
8080:
8078:
8077:
8070:
8048:
8036:
8007:(3): 177â196.
7987:
7957:
7955:, p. 338.
7945:
7896:
7861:
7859:, p. 337.
7844:
7813:(3): 636â655.
7790:
7763:(3): 593â599.
7741:
7714:(2): 157â160.
7698:
7686:
7674:
7662:
7611:
7604:
7584:
7577:
7557:
7555:, p. 233.
7538:
7504:
7497:
7479:
7436:
7409:(2): 135â143.
7390:
7361:(3): 177â185.
7330:
7270:
7216:
7204:
7202:, p. 796.
7192:
7139:
7127:
7112:
7092:
7080:
7057:
7050:
7026:
7019:
7001:
6999:, p. 229.
6982:
6956:
6919:(5): 497â519.
6898:
6891:
6862:
6843:
6790:
6763:
6724:(8): 483â489.
6704:
6692:
6658:
6639:
6609:(1â2): 51â72.
6593:
6547:
6501:
6489:
6436:
6387:
6380:
6356:
6320:
6283:
6264:(4): 310â315.
6248:
6210:
6186:
6145:
6133:
6126:
6108:
6101:
6083:
6052:
6041:(5): 766â769.
6025:
6023:, p. 426.
6013:
6001:
5971:
5962:
5960:, p. 212.
5950:
5938:
5936:, p. 219.
5926:
5911:
5909:, p. 238.
5899:
5897:, p. 222.
5887:
5868:(9): 2964â71.
5857:
5847:
5845:, p. 111.
5835:
5803:
5786:
5779:
5761:
5759:, p. 276.
5742:
5735:
5715:
5703:
5701:, p. 211.
5691:
5679:
5667:
5639:
5624:
5601:
5563:
5508:
5482:
5436:
5369:
5362:
5336:
5329:
5311:
5276:
5269:
5249:
5214:
5175:
5120:
5068:
5041:(3): 193â198.
5025:
5023:, p. 234.
5010:
4983:(2): 291â299.
4967:
4913:
4898:
4886:
4871:
4829:
4818:
4816:, p. 116.
4806:
4799:
4778:
4771:
4751:
4712:
4705:
4676:
4669:
4651:
4639:
4627:
4612:
4569:
4545:
4510:(5): 809â813.
4494:
4456:
4449:
4429:
4427:, p. 235.
4417:
4398:(8): 965â967.
4378:
4376:, p. 251.
4366:
4359:
4339:
4319:Seaborg, G. T.
4310:
4293:
4278:
4271:
4251:
4244:
4224:
4217:
4199:
4192:
4169:
4162:
4131:
4129:, p. 795.
4119:
4059:
4034:
3995:
3945:
3885:
3878:
3872:. p. 28.
3853:
3846:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3814:
3805:
3797:atomic orbital
3788:
3779:
3770:
3760:
3747:
3738:
3728:
3719:
3710:
3706:radon fluoride
3696:
3691:
3683:
3673:
3660:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3616:
3613:
3591:(less so from
3550:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3507:
3506:
3503:
3499:
3498:
3493:
3486:
3485:
3482:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3470:
3469:
3466:
3462:
3461:
3456:
3454:methylene blue
3449:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3438:
3435:
3431:
3430:
3427:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3409:radiochemistry
3372:
3369:
3340:
3337:
3331:
3328:
3284:gigabecquerels
3268:
3267:
3264:
3257:
3245:
3233:
3221:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3203:
3191:
3179:
3167:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3149:
3137:
3125:
3113:
3106:
3105:
3102:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3041:
3038:
2933:
2932:
2929:
2925:experimentally
2922:
2917:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2886:
2880:
2875:
2871:
2870:
2865:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2828:
2823:
2820:
2815:
2811:
2810:
2805:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2778:
2773:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2742:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2715:
2710:
2706:
2705:
2698:
2691:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2675:
2670:Main article:
2667:
2664:
2606:uranium series
2574:Dale R. Corson
2481:equivalent of
2479:thorium series
2428:periodic table
2426:published his
2422:In 1869, when
2412:
2411:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2251:compound with
2228:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2086:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2025:, carbon, and
1959:Main article:
1956:
1953:
1875:
1872:
1867:
1864:boiling points
1855:
1848:50 kJ/mol
1832:
1826:superconductor
1780:vapor pressure
1748:
1745:
1708:
1705:
1661:Dale R. Corson
1644:or possibly a
1614:periodic table
1585:85. It is the
1563:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1548:
1541:
1533:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1487:
1482:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1373:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1358:Main isotopes
1351:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1335:
1327:
1320:
1319:
1306:Dale R. Corson
1303:
1297:
1296:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1251:
1246:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1158:
1144:
1143:
1137:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1109:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1057:
1056:
1053:
1038:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1015:
1014:
997:
993:
992:
985:
978:
971:
964:
957:
950:
943:
936:
929:
922:
915:
908:
901:
894:
887:
880:
873:
866:
859:
852:
845:
838:
831:
824:
817:
810:
803:
796:
789:
782:
775:
767:
766:
759:
752:
745:
738:
731:
724:
717:
710:
703:
696:
689:
682:
675:
668:
661:
654:
647:
640:
633:
626:
619:
612:
605:
598:
591:
584:
577:
570:
563:
556:
549:
541:
540:
533:
526:
519:
512:
505:
498:
491:
484:
477:
470:
463:
456:
449:
442:
435:
428:
426:
424:
417:
409:
408:
401:
394:
387:
380:
373:
366:
359:
352:
345:
338:
331:
324:
317:
310:
303:
296:
294:
287:
279:
278:
271:
264:
257:
250:
243:
236:
234:
227:
219:
218:
211:
204:
197:
190:
183:
176:
174:
167:
159:
158:
151:
149:
139:
128:
127:
125:periodic table
120:
119:
117:
111:
110:
107:
103:
102:
39:
35:
34:
24:
17:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9625:
9614:
9611:
9609:
9606:
9604:
9601:
9599:
9596:
9594:
9591:
9590:
9588:
9569:
9566:
9564:
9561:
9559:
9556:
9554:
9551:
9550:
9543:
9534:
9525:
9516:
9507:
9498:
9489:
9480:
9471:
9462:
9453:
9444:
9435:
9426:
9417:
9408:
9399:
9390:
9381:
9372:
9363:
9354:
9345:
9336:
9327:
9318:
9309:
9300:
9291:
9282:
9273:
9264:
9255:
9247:
9243:
9239:
9230:
9221:
9212:
9203:
9194:
9185:
9176:
9167:
9158:
9149:
9140:
9131:
9122:
9113:
9104:
9095:
9086:
9077:
9068:
9059:
9050:
9041:
9032:
9023:
9014:
9005:
8996:
8987:
8978:
8969:
8960:
8952:
8948:
8944:
8935:
8926:
8917:
8908:
8899:
8890:
8881:
8872:
8863:
8854:
8845:
8836:
8827:
8818:
8809:
8798:
8789:
8781:
8777:
8773:
8764:
8755:
8746:
8737:
8728:
8719:
8710:
8701:
8692:
8683:
8674:
8665:
8656:
8647:
8638:
8627:
8618:
8610:
8606:
8602:
8593:
8584:
8575:
8566:
8557:
8546:
8537:
8529:
8525:
8521:
8512:
8503:
8494:
8485:
8476:
8465:
8456:
8448:
8444:
8440:
8429:
8421:
8417:
8414:
8409:
8404:
8399:
8394:
8389:
8384:
8379:
8374:
8369:
8364:
8359:
8354:
8349:
8344:
8339:
8332:
8327:
8322:
8321:
8316:
8312:
8305:
8300:
8298:
8293:
8291:
8286:
8285:
8282:
8276:
8273:
8270:
8269:
8264:
8261:
8260:
8256:
8250:
8244:
8240:
8235:
8231:
8225:
8221:
8216:
8212:
8206:
8202:
8201:
8195:
8191:
8186:
8182:
8176:
8172:
8167:
8163:
8157:
8153:
8148:
8144:
8138:
8134:
8129:
8122:
8118:
8114:
8110:
8106:
8102:
8098:
8094:
8090:
8089:Corson, D. R.
8086:
8085:
8081:
8073:
8067:
8063:
8059:
8052:
8049:
8045:
8040:
8037:
8032:
8028:
8023:
8018:
8014:
8010:
8006:
8002:
7998:
7991:
7988:
7975:
7971:
7964:
7962:
7958:
7954:
7949:
7946:
7941:
7937:
7932:
7927:
7923:
7919:
7915:
7911:
7907:
7900:
7897:
7892:
7888:
7884:
7880:
7876:
7872:
7865:
7862:
7858:
7853:
7851:
7849:
7845:
7840:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7816:
7812:
7808:
7804:
7797:
7795:
7791:
7786:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7770:
7766:
7762:
7758:
7753:
7745:
7742:
7737:
7733:
7729:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7713:
7709:
7702:
7699:
7696:, p. 97.
7695:
7690:
7687:
7683:
7678:
7675:
7671:
7666:
7663:
7658:
7654:
7650:
7646:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7626:
7622:
7615:
7612:
7607:
7601:
7597:
7596:
7588:
7585:
7580:
7574:
7570:
7569:
7561:
7558:
7554:
7549:
7547:
7545:
7543:
7539:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7522:
7518:
7511:
7509:
7505:
7500:
7494:
7490:
7483:
7480:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7440:
7437:
7432:
7428:
7424:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7408:
7404:
7397:
7395:
7391:
7386:
7382:
7377:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7352:
7345:
7343:
7341:
7339:
7337:
7335:
7331:
7326:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7308:
7304:
7299:
7294:
7290:
7286:
7282:
7274:
7271:
7263:
7259:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7227:
7220:
7217:
7213:
7208:
7205:
7201:
7196:
7193:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7154:
7150:
7143:
7140:
7136:
7131:
7128:
7123:
7116:
7113:
7108:
7107:
7102:
7096:
7093:
7089:
7084:
7081:
7078:
7077:0-19-508083-1
7074:
7070:
7064:
7062:
7058:
7053:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7038:
7030:
7027:
7022:
7016:
7012:
7005:
7002:
6998:
6993:
6991:
6989:
6987:
6983:
6967:
6960:
6957:
6952:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6927:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6913:
6905:
6903:
6899:
6894:
6888:
6884:
6880:
6876:
6869:
6867:
6863:
6859:(6): 389â398.
6858:
6855:(in German).
6854:
6847:
6844:
6839:
6835:
6830:
6825:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6794:
6791:
6786:
6782:
6778:
6774:
6767:
6764:
6759:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6731:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6715:
6708:
6705:
6701:
6696:
6693:
6688:
6684:
6680:
6676:
6672:
6665:
6663:
6659:
6654:
6650:
6643:
6640:
6632:
6628:
6624:
6620:
6616:
6612:
6608:
6605:(in German).
6604:
6597:
6594:
6586:
6582:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6562:
6559:(in German).
6558:
6551:
6548:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6517:
6516:
6508:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6493:
6490:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6440:
6437:
6429:
6425:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6402:(in German).
6401:
6397:
6391:
6388:
6383:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6368:
6360:
6357:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6334:
6327:
6325:
6321:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6303:
6298:
6297:Mellor, J. W.
6292:
6290:
6288:
6284:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6252:
6249:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6214:
6211:
6206:
6202:
6201:
6196:
6190:
6187:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6149:
6146:
6142:
6137:
6134:
6129:
6123:
6119:
6112:
6109:
6104:
6098:
6094:
6087:
6084:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6056:
6053:
6048:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6029:
6026:
6022:
6017:
6014:
6011:, p. 60.
6010:
6005:
6002:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5966:
5963:
5959:
5954:
5951:
5947:
5942:
5939:
5935:
5930:
5927:
5923:
5918:
5916:
5912:
5908:
5903:
5900:
5896:
5891:
5888:
5883:
5879:
5875:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5851:
5848:
5844:
5839:
5836:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5818:
5813:
5812:Brookhart, M.
5807:
5804:
5800:
5795:
5793:
5791:
5787:
5782:
5776:
5772:
5765:
5762:
5758:
5753:
5751:
5749:
5747:
5743:
5738:
5732:
5728:
5727:
5719:
5716:
5712:
5707:
5704:
5700:
5695:
5692:
5688:
5683:
5680:
5676:
5671:
5668:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5651:
5643:
5640:
5637:, p. 38.
5636:
5631:
5629:
5625:
5622:, p. 31.
5621:
5616:
5614:
5612:
5610:
5608:
5606:
5602:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5567:
5564:
5556:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5540:
5536:
5532:
5528:
5521:
5519:
5517:
5515:
5513:
5509:
5496:
5492:
5486:
5483:
5474:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5452:
5447:
5440:
5437:
5432:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5380:
5373:
5370:
5365:
5359:
5355:
5350:
5349:
5340:
5337:
5332:
5326:
5322:
5315:
5312:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5280:
5277:
5272:
5266:
5262:
5261:
5253:
5250:
5245:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5218:
5215:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5179:
5176:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5124:
5121:
5116:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5075:
5073:
5069:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5029:
5026:
5022:
5017:
5015:
5011:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4971:
4968:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4934:
4928:
4920:
4918:
4914:
4909:
4902:
4899:
4895:
4890:
4887:
4882:
4875:
4872:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4822:
4819:
4815:
4810:
4807:
4802:
4796:
4792:
4785:
4783:
4779:
4774:
4768:
4764:
4763:
4755:
4752:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4716:
4713:
4708:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4683:
4681:
4677:
4672:
4666:
4662:
4655:
4652:
4648:
4643:
4640:
4637:, p. 21.
4636:
4631:
4628:
4623:
4616:
4613:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4573:
4570:
4565:
4562:(in French).
4561:
4557:
4549:
4546:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4498:
4495:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4463:
4461:
4457:
4452:
4446:
4442:
4441:
4433:
4430:
4426:
4421:
4418:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4382:
4379:
4375:
4370:
4367:
4362:
4356:
4352:
4351:
4343:
4340:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4311:
4306:
4305:
4297:
4294:
4289:
4282:
4279:
4274:
4268:
4264:
4263:
4255:
4252:
4247:
4241:
4237:
4236:
4228:
4225:
4220:
4214:
4210:
4203:
4200:
4195:
4189:
4185:
4178:
4176:
4174:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4155:
4154:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4138:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4123:
4120:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4083:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4070:
4068:
4066:
4064:
4060:
4048:
4044:
4038:
4035:
4030:
4026:
4023:(3): 030001.
4022:
4018:
4011:
4004:
4002:
4000:
3996:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3956:
3954:
3952:
3950:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3881:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3857:
3854:
3849:
3843:
3839:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3824:
3818:
3809:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3792:
3789:
3783:
3780:
3774:
3771:
3764:
3761:
3757:
3751:
3748:
3742:
3739:
3736:astatine-210.
3732:
3729:
3723:
3720:
3714:
3711:
3707:
3700:
3697:
3687:
3684:
3677:
3674:
3671:on a cathode.
3670:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3651:
3648:
3642:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3630:
3619:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3600:thyroid gland
3596:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3554:
3549:
3547:
3542:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3488:
3487:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3467:
3464:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3429:Applications
3428:
3425:
3424:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3381:dibutyl ether
3378:
3370:
3368:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3338:
3336:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3320:
3319:Bismuth oxide
3316:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3289:
3285:
3275:
3265:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3162:
3161:
3157:
3108:
3107:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3089:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3071:neptunium-237
3068:
3064:
3060:
3054:
3046:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3018:excited state
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2955:high energies
2952:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2930:
2923:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2910:46.4 min
2908:
2902:
2899:3.71 min
2897:
2894:
2893:
2887:
2881:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2866:
2860:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2845:
2839:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2824:
2821:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2764:
2758:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2699:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2650:
2635:
2625:
2624:Ancient Greek
2621:
2620:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2550:
2544:
2543:decay product
2540:
2539:Walter Minder
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2494:Horia Hulubei
2490:
2488:
2487:radium series
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2467:British India
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2415:
2407:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2271:interhalogens
2267:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2226:
2221:
2219:
2215:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2188:, such as by
2155:
2151:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2093:in which two
2092:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2056:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1973:
1972:precipitation
1968:
1962:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1928:Pauling scale
1925:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1913:radiolabeling
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1873:
1871:
1865:
1861:
1853:
1844:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1757:extrapolation
1754:
1753:interpolation
1746:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1678:
1677:Ancient Greek
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1642:semiconductor
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1608:
1607:radioactivity
1604:
1600:
1596:
1595:decay product
1592:
1591:Earth's crust
1588:
1584:
1583:atomic number
1580:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1561:
1558: |
1554:
1549:
1547:
1542:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1488:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1453:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1400:
1397:
1396:product
1394:
1392:
1389:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1321:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1286:Ancient Greek
1283:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1194:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1079:
1078:period 6
1076:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1043:Atomic number
1039:
1028:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1001:
1000: I
998:
991:
986:
984:
979:
977:
972:
970:
965:
963:
958:
956:
951:
949:
944:
942:
937:
935:
930:
928:
923:
921:
916:
914:
909:
907:
902:
900:
895:
893:
891:Rutherfordium
888:
886:
881:
879:
874:
872:
867:
865:
860:
858:
853:
851:
846:
844:
839:
837:
832:
830:
825:
823:
818:
816:
811:
809:
804:
802:
797:
795:
790:
788:
783:
781:
776:
774:
769:
768:
765:
760:
758:
753:
751:
746:
744:
739:
737:
732:
730:
725:
723:
718:
716:
711:
709:
704:
702:
697:
695:
690:
688:
683:
681:
676:
674:
669:
667:
662:
660:
655:
653:
648:
646:
641:
639:
634:
632:
627:
625:
620:
618:
613:
611:
606:
604:
599:
597:
592:
590:
585:
583:
578:
576:
571:
569:
564:
562:
557:
555:
550:
548:
543:
542:
539:
534:
532:
527:
525:
520:
518:
513:
511:
506:
504:
499:
497:
492:
490:
485:
483:
478:
476:
471:
469:
464:
462:
457:
455:
450:
448:
443:
441:
436:
434:
429:
425:
423:
418:
416:
411:
410:
407:
402:
400:
395:
393:
388:
386:
381:
379:
374:
372:
367:
365:
360:
358:
353:
351:
346:
344:
339:
337:
332:
330:
325:
323:
318:
316:
311:
309:
304:
302:
297:
293:
288:
286:
281:
280:
277:
272:
270:
265:
263:
258:
256:
251:
249:
244:
242:
237:
233:
228:
226:
221:
220:
217:
212:
210:
205:
203:
198:
196:
191:
189:
184:
182:
177:
173:
168:
166:
161:
160:
157:
152:
148:
143:
142:
138:
137:
134:
133:
129:
126:
121:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
99:
98:
84:
40:
38:Pronunciation
36:
31:
16:
9226:
8266:
8238:
8219:
8199:
8189:
8170:
8151:
8132:
8104:
8100:
8082:Bibliography
8061:
8057:
8051:
8039:
8004:
8000:
7990:
7978:. Retrieved
7973:
7948:
7913:
7909:
7899:
7874:
7870:
7864:
7810:
7806:
7760:
7756:
7744:
7711:
7707:
7701:
7689:
7677:
7665:
7624:
7620:
7614:
7594:
7587:
7567:
7560:
7524:
7520:
7488:
7482:
7449:
7445:
7439:
7406:
7402:
7358:
7354:
7288:
7284:
7273:
7240:(1): 13â19.
7237:
7233:
7219:
7214:, p. 5.
7207:
7195:
7152:
7148:
7142:
7137:, p. 4.
7130:
7121:
7115:
7105:
7095:
7083:
7068:
7036:
7029:
7010:
7004:
6973:. Retrieved
6959:
6916:
6910:
6874:
6856:
6852:
6846:
6803:
6799:
6793:
6776:
6772:
6766:
6721:
6717:
6707:
6695:
6678:
6674:
6648:
6642:
6606:
6602:
6596:
6560:
6556:
6550:
6538:. Retrieved
6531:the original
6514:
6492:
6456:
6452:
6439:
6403:
6399:
6390:
6372:188â190, 206
6366:
6359:
6343:
6339:
6301:
6261:
6257:
6251:
6223:
6219:
6213:
6205:the original
6198:
6189:
6161:
6157:
6148:
6136:
6117:
6111:
6092:
6086:
6069:
6065:
6055:
6038:
6034:
6028:
6016:
6004:
5979:
5975:
5965:
5953:
5941:
5929:
5902:
5890:
5865:
5862:Chem. Eur. J
5861:
5850:
5838:
5821:
5815:
5806:
5770:
5764:
5725:
5718:
5706:
5694:
5682:
5670:
5649:
5642:
5576:
5572:
5566:
5533:(2): 87â98.
5530:
5526:
5499:. Retrieved
5495:the original
5485:
5455:
5449:
5439:
5386:
5382:
5372:
5347:
5339:
5320:
5314:
5289:
5285:
5279:
5259:
5252:
5227:
5223:
5217:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5178:
5137:
5133:
5123:
5088:
5084:
5038:
5034:
5028:
4980:
4976:
4970:
4937:
4931:
4907:
4901:
4889:
4880:
4874:
4842:(4): e5010.
4839:
4835:
4821:
4809:
4790:
4761:
4754:
4729:
4725:
4715:
4688:
4660:
4654:
4642:
4630:
4621:
4615:
4582:
4578:
4572:
4563:
4559:
4548:
4507:
4503:
4497:
4472:
4468:
4439:
4432:
4420:
4395:
4391:
4381:
4369:
4349:
4342:
4330:. Retrieved
4326:
4313:
4303:
4296:
4287:
4281:
4261:
4254:
4234:
4227:
4208:
4202:
4183:
4152:
4122:
4097:
4093:
4050:. Retrieved
4046:
4037:
4020:
4016:
3965:
3961:
3905:
3901:
3865:
3856:
3837:
3808:
3791:
3782:
3773:
3763:
3750:
3741:
3731:
3722:
3713:
3699:
3686:
3676:
3663:
3656:noble metals
3650:
3597:
3585:dehalogenate
3577:World War II
3566:
3559:
3556:
3552:
3543:
3524:
3374:
3342:
3333:
3312:
3280:
3266:60 MeV
3212:40 MeV
3158:26 MeV
3079:
3075:uranium ores
3055:
3051:
3030:ground state
2999:
2991:polonium-210
2988:
2975:
2959:magic number
2948:
2944:mass numbers
2937:
2927:alpha stable
2920:2.3 min
2653:
2617:
2602:Berta Karlik
2598:decay chains
2582:Emilio SegrĂš
2571:
2555:Berta Karlik
2536:
2527:Emilio SegrĂš
2503:World War II
2491:
2451:Fred Allison
2448:
2439:
2421:
2276:
2222:
2103:
2020:
2000:
1976:
1964:
1947:. The first
1921:
1877:
1830:
1816:of 0.7
1808:composed of
1803:
1777:
1750:
1733:
1710:
1658:
1611:
1578:
1567:
1566:
1380:
1317: (1940)
1314:Emilio SegrĂš
1292:
1289:
1259:
1202:, +3, +5, +7
1198:
1192:
1174:
1169:Molar volume
1161:
1140:
1047:
933:Darmstadtium
800:Protactinium
754:
574:Praseodymium
15:
7452:: 363â371.
7226:Ghiorso, A.
6806:(1): 1â10.
6681:(36): 158.
6154:Allison, F.
5458:: 203â220.
5389:(1): 3824.
5091:(1): 1â20.
4566:(1): 59â64.
4332:24 February
3681:acceptance.
3575:treatment.
3510:At-labeled
3489:At-labeled
3452:At-labeled
3387:(DIPE), or
3345:volatilizes
3034:nanoseconds
2995:bismuth-209
2968:beta-stable
2951:alpha decay
2949:Astatine's
2868:558 ns
2857:558 ns
2847:125 ns
2836:125 ns
2826:0.31 s
2818:0.31 s
2808:17.2 h
2797:7.21 h
2755:5.41 h
2745:12.3 d
2734:1.63 h
2724:20.9 h
2713:1.80 h
2693:Probability
2586:bismuth-209
2517:false claim
2081:) and with
2075:perchlorate
2011:nitric acid
1799:transitions
1485:7.21 h
1411:5.41 h
1260:(predicted)
1175:(estimated)
1162:(estimated)
1152:(near
1141:(predicted)
975:Livermorium
947:Copernicium
940:Roentgenium
870:Mendelevium
856:Einsteinium
849:Californium
115:Mass number
9587:Categories
7916:(3): 246.
7101:Asimov, I.
6671:"Astatine"
6449:Minder, W.
6396:Karlik, B.
6226:(9): 585.
5396:2002.11418
4585:(1): 1â9.
3819:References
3558:P Durbin,
3546:iodine-131
3491:octreotide
3399:to enable
3365:chloroform
3296:radiolysis
3028:than the "
2964:beta decay
2787:193 d
2776:8.1 h
2766:5.5 d
2704:half-life
2690:Half-life
2660:amphoteric
2637:) meaning
2475:Bangladesh
2432:Niels Bohr
2249:selenourea
2225:chalcogens
2218:dichromate
1981:, silver,
1904:, a metal
1713:half-lives
1699:-209 with
1560:references
1450:8.1 h
1267:CAS Number
1235:from decay
982:Tennessine
926:Meitnerium
905:Seaborgium
884:Lawrencium
623:Dysprosium
609:Gadolinium
588:Promethium
460:Technetium
453:Molybdenum
254:Phosphorus
106:Appearance
8097:SegrĂš, E.
7839:2076-3417
7815:CiteSeerX
7307:2365-421X
7187:115321713
7162:1109.6413
6926:1205.5841
6631:123906708
6540:14 August
6346:: 86â96.
5982:(1): 48.
5555:250775410
5185:Ab Initio
4858:1076-5174
4762:Chemistry
4746:100363889
4532:0022-4766
4100:: 3â128.
3801:hybridize
3756:berkelium
3608:dysplasia
3459:Melanomas
3349:cold trap
3315:sputtered
3300:microgram
3288:nanograms
3101:Reaction
3090:Formation
3085:Synthesis
2889:58 s
2878:56 s
2594:cyclotron
2567:thorium A
2559:radon-222
2257:tellurium
2194:periodate
2154:lanthanum
1979:palladium
1967:compounds
1955:Compounds
1741:metalloid
1603:half-life
1574:; it has
1376:half-life
1301:Discovery
1293:(ĂĄstatos)
1284:from
989:Oganesson
968:Moscovium
961:Flerovium
842:Berkelium
828:Americium
821:Plutonium
814:Neptunium
651:Ytterbium
581:Neodymium
560:Lanthanum
523:Tellurium
481:Palladium
467:Ruthenium
439:Zirconium
421:Strontium
377:Germanium
328:Manganese
284:Potassium
240:Aluminium
231:Magnesium
171:Beryllium
9608:Halogens
9593:Astatine
8263:Astatine
8031:20150978
7980:25 March
7940:23422568
7891:10903402
7785:93179195
7736:11393754
7657:21973246
7649:24819557
7533:11585866
7474:25439168
7385:22201707
7325:38619655
7316:11018728
7103:(1957).
6951:12590893
6838:95324453
6758:16588388
6585:38193384
6348:Archived
6315:13842122
6299:(1965).
5996:99398848
5882:26773333
5431:32733029
5170:15738065
5162:20014840
5115:23075373
5063:93032218
5005:97361684
4962:21769335
4866:38488842
4607:93572282
4540:96816296
4321:(2015).
4084:(2003).
3990:24074111
3940:23673620
3669:sorption
3615:See also
3593:sp sites
3505:Various
3476:Various
3361:methanol
3016:) in an
3014:neutrons
3006:nucleons
2940:isotopes
2695:of alpha
2666:Isotopes
2642:unstable
2549:Helvetia
2533:astatine
2515:earlier
2483:radium F
2437:Sanskrit
2283:chlorine
2253:selenium
2099:pyridine
2055:alkaline
2027:nitrogen
2007:oxidized
1983:thallium
1910:antibody
1874:Chemical
1841:10
1814:band gap
1810:diatomic
1796:6p to 7s
1765:chlorine
1761:fluorine
1747:Physical
1737:nonmetal
1729:francium
1721:polonium
1634:halogens
1622:chlorine
1618:fluorine
1599:isotopes
1568:Astatine
1130:at
1023:astatine
1019:polonium
954:Nihonium
877:Nobelium
786:Actinium
772:Francium
756:Astatine
749:Polonium
728:Thallium
707:Platinum
679:Tungsten
672:Tantalum
658:Lutetium
602:Europium
595:Samarium
516:Antimony
414:Rubidium
391:Selenium
321:Chromium
314:Vanadium
307:Titanium
300:Scandium
268:Chlorine
208:Fluorine
194:Nitrogen
146:Hydrogen
33:Astatine
9568:p-block
9563:d-block
9558:f-block
9553:s-block
8109:Bibcode
8022:2818997
7918:Bibcode
7765:Bibcode
7716:Bibcode
7629:Bibcode
7454:Bibcode
7431:8852627
7411:Bibcode
7376:3503149
7242:Bibcode
7167:Bibcode
6931:Bibcode
6808:Bibcode
6749:1078214
6726:Bibcode
6611:Bibcode
6565:Bibcode
6481:4121704
6461:Bibcode
6428:6667655
6408:Bibcode
6266:Bibcode
6228:Bibcode
6166:Bibcode
5856:AtO(OH)
5581:Bibcode
5573:Analyst
5535:Bibcode
5501:26 July
5460:Bibcode
5422:7393155
5401:Bibcode
5294:Bibcode
5232:Bibcode
5197:Bibcode
5142:Bibcode
5106:3545490
5043:Bibcode
4985:Bibcode
4942:Bibcode
4587:Bibcode
4558:].
4512:Bibcode
4477:Bibcode
4400:Bibcode
4102:Bibcode
4052:4 April
3970:Bibcode
3931:3674244
3910:Bibcode
3908:: 1â6.
3308:uranium
3304:thorium
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