823:
which requested that the new French constitution recognise the right of its colonies to declare independence. De Gaulle assured him that
Oubangui-Chari's membership in the community would not preclude it from securing independence at a later time. A referendum was to be held in each colony in order to determine its support for the new constitution and joining the community; de Gaulle warned that while a negative vote would grant a territory immediate independence, it would also lead to the termination of all French aid. On 30 August Boganda told MESAN leaders he supported an affirmative vote in favour of the constitution, and he subsequently traveled around Oubangui-Chari to tell the people that the French would remain slightly longer "to set right the ravages of colonisation". The referendum was held on 28 September and 98% of voters chose to support the new constitution.
342:, a conglomeration including other countries in central Africa. This never came to fruition, and on 1 December, Boganda declared the establishment of the Central African Republic for only Oubangui-Chari. He became the autonomous territory's first premier as the President of the Council of Government, and began drawing up administrative reforms and preparing for the next election. He was killed in a plane crash on 29 March 1959, while en route to Bangui. Experts found a trace of explosives in the plane's wreckage, but a full report on the incident was never published, and the possibility of an assassination remains unresolved. The Central African Republic attained formal independence from France in 1960. His death is annually commemorated in the country, and his presence in the national
841:
770:
December, Boganda praised the committee as "the union of capital and
Oubanguian labour" and convinced the Territorial Assembly to allow Guérillot to proceed. French colonists found the project risky and did not invest in it, and were followed in their abstention by banks and French economic aid organizations. Goumba also thought the proposal demanded too much of peasants and began formulating his own economic platform. Meanwhile, Guérillot recruited unemployed whites in Bangui as "inspectors" with African auxiliaries to directly manage cultivation. Peasants regarded the scheme as a return to the concessionary system and began publicly protesting it. Facing skepticism in the press and a measure of isolation for earlier excluding
893:, the leader of the government in the Congo, was enthusiastic about the proposal, but his majority in the Congolese legislature was slim and his position weak. Gabon was the richest of the states, and its refusal to engage with the proposal made the French hesitant to sanction the federation. In late November the French High Commissioner convened a meeting of the equatorial leaders in Brazzaville and told them that each territorial assembly was to independently ratify its referendums and finalise its decision to adhere to the new constitution. By 28 November, all the other territories had decided to join the French Community as separate entities. Disheartened, Boganda resigned himself to proclaiming only Oubangui-Chari as the
702:
colonists are our friends We are not as ungrateful as we are black. We know how much has been done for our country". Addressing the Grand
Council of French Equatorial Africa, he complimented Sanmarco and declared, "Oubangui-Chari has embarked on a positive undertaking at last, after years of negative grievances and sterile struggles, and a better future is ahead". With the assistance of the colonial administration, Boganda established his own coffee plantation and encouraged rural residents to follow suit if possible. Meanwhile, district councils were established, and he attended their meetings in Boda and Mbaïki, urging the MESAN members to collaborate with the European district heads.
944:. Democratic in nature, the document provided for a unicameral parliament with a five-year term and a prime minister for the same period. The text was largely borrowed from the French constitution, though Boganda had some influence over the wording of the preamble and pushed for the inclusion of a provision that allowed the country to cede its sovereignty to a wider union. The draft was approved by the assembly on 16 February 1959. Boganda then set about creating extensive administrative reforms, including the establishment of rural and urban municipalities, the creation of district councils with broad authority, and the institution of
740:, the French government formally decreed the semi-autonomous status of each of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa, including Oubangui-Chari. Collectively, the four territories constituted a federation led by a General High Commissioner with the assistance of a Grand Council. Within Oubangui-Chari, the former French governor became the High Commissioner, who was to preside over a Council of Government, with its members to be chosen by the newly created Territorial Assembly. On 31 March, MESAN won all seats in the Assembly and, at Boganda's request, Hector Rivierez was elected its presiding officer. He also arranged for
617:, which translated to "every human being is a person". He praised "peasant virtues" and the rustic life before colonialism, and these messages resonated with rural farmers. Furthermore, Oubanguians appreciated his willingness to angrily confront colonial officials. Boganda deliberately strived to instill his rhetoric with a sense of religiosity and mysticism, and he frequently used Latin in his speeches. Rumours began to circulate of his supposed invulnerability and supernatural powers, and at one point later in his career a large crowd waited on the shore of the Ubangi River to see him
762:. This was both to secure Oubangui-Chari's commercial relations with southern Chad—which was facing strain due to competition from Cameroon—and to satisfy private firms that sought a large state contract to make up for the decline in foreign investment driven by uncertainties in the territory's political future. Boganda believed that it would only be reasonable to embark on the railway project if Oubanguian economic output was greatly increased, so he requested that Guérillot draw up a programme for improving production and raising the standard of living.
3600:
1116:, was incorporated into the state's coat of arms. The preamble of the republic's 2004 constitution read, in part: "Animated by the wish of assuring to man his dignity with respect to the principle of 'ZO KWE ZO' enunciated by the Founder of the Central African Republic Barthélemy BOGANDA". Despite this, his political ideas have generally not been studied by successive Central African leaders. Historian Klaas van Walraven wrote, "his contemporary significance may lie precisely in the memory of his comportment and the widespread ignorance of his ideas".
755:". In a speech before the Territorial Assembly, Boganda suggested that the French administrators should leave and Oubanguians could "curse their shameful memory for ever", but also noted that it would take several years to train African personnel to replace them. He softened his stance a few days later while addressing the Grand Council, suggesting the colonies needed "a new form of administration" and proposing the transformation of districts into "rural communities" with trusted officials from the existing bureaucracy serving as directors of each.
3558:
778:—from MESAN, Boganda traveled throughout the territory to try to allay peasants' fears and exhort them to work. He stressed that increased agricultural production was the only way for Oubangui-Chari to become economically viable without French aid. Angered by public criticism, he proposed banning all political activity. The economic scheme ultimately failed to achieve its goals and damaged Boganda's reputation, as well as tarnishing the view of the Council of Government both domestically and in the French and Belgian governments.
473:
906:
565:
Equatorial Africa. After 1956, he largely stopped attending the Paris parliament, though he remained a deputy until 1958. Frustrated by the faults of colonial rule in
Oubangui-Chari and an unwillingness on the part of local officials to accept reforms, he quickly resorted to vocal criticism of French administration in the colony. He paid particular attention to racism and highlighted incidents of settler violence against black Africans to boost his own political following. Among his complaints were instances of
1052:(MEDAC), and claimed it carried the ideals of Boganda and MESAN. Frightened by its rapid growth, Dacko declared his intent to revive MESAN. Under his government, political focus moved away from the peasantry and was drawn to the creation of a new moneyed elite, mostly favouring officials who received large salaries. The Central African Republic received its full independence from France on 13 August 1960. Dacko pushed several measures through the Assembly which invested him as President of the Republic and
751:, who had previously secured the confidence of Boganda and worked as MESAN's treasurer. He was given charge of the portfolio for economic and administrative affairs. Guérillot sought to increase Africanisation of the administration, since there was a lack of trained Oubanguians and such a change would weaken the government and strengthen the position of the French colonists. He encouraged Boganda to go on a rhetorical offensive against French officials, whom he dubbed "the saboteurs of the
953:
prior to the polling date. Furthermore, the law required all parties to nominate their candidates in lists instead of individually, and if one candidate was disqualified, the whole list would be dismissed. As a result, all opposition lists were thrown out by the courts, leaving MESAN unopposed. Opposition politicians were infuriated, and when asked about the impending lack of a parliamentary opposition, Boganda told the press, "We will create our own opposition within our party".
44:
860:, Gabon, and Chad—he proposed that the state would be known as the "Central African Republic". He stressed the urgency of accomplishing this as quickly as possible, saying, "The Central African Republic must be built today, for tomorrow it will be too late Chad and Oubangui-Chari will surely be solicited by other voices and other means". In a speech, Boganda revealed he envisioned the Central African Republic as a step in creating a larger
569:, low wages, compulsory cotton cultivation, and the barring of blacks from restaurants and cinemas. In April 1947, Grandin complained to the governor of Oubangui-Chari that Boganda had "escaped from his cage" and was "flying like an idiot". While his rhetoric was anti-colonial, Boganda nominally supported French political ideals and did not oppose continuing connections between France and Oubangui-Chari. He also identified as a staunch
744:, the territory's only African doctor and a former catechism student of his, to become Vice President of the Council of Government. The council was installed on 17 May without Boganda as a member, since he did not want to participate in a government presided over by a French commissioner, and was also increasingly concerned with political organising at a federal level. Instead, he became President of the Grand Council.
787:
338:. After being assured that Oubangui-Chari's membership in the community would not preclude it from securing independence at a later time, Boganda supported joining it. He sought to do so as part of a federation with other territories in French Equatorial Africa as a "Central African Republic", which he believed would bolster the financial situation of the member states. He hoped this would serve as a basis for a
605:. He wrote its founding code, which stipulated that the organisation sought "to develop and liberate the black race by progressive and pacific evolution, achieved by the combined efforts of all negroes throughout the world". Politically, the party supported liberty and equality for Africans, while economically it endorsed the use of co-operative ventures. Framing his political programme as a matter of
433:. Most accounts concur that he was an excellent student. In December 1921 he was taken to the main Spiritan mission of Saint Paul des Rapides in Bangui, the capital of Oubangui-Chari. He was baptised there under the name Barthélemy in late 1922. He later wrote, "To be a Christian meant for me to free myself from ancestral customs, to become a brother of humanity". At Saint Paul he learned French, the
1074:
514:, a traditional symbol of power and violence. Boganda believed that the church was providing him with insufficient support and, by the mid-1940s, was in conflict with the local government administrator and felt he was facing racial discrimination from colonial officials, settlers, and some missionaries. Further strain on his position was incurred when he fathered a child in the
385:—and one of the most notorious was the Compagnie Forestière de la Haute Sangha-Oubangui (CFSO), involved in rubber gathering in the Lobaye district. Coercive labour practices, violence, and disease had severely disrupted traditional society by the time Boganda was born. Bobangui was particularly affected by these elements. His uncle, whose son,
657:, the head of the district of Mbaïki arrested Boganda (along with his accompanying wife) and held him in detention for two days. He was charged with "endangering the peace" and on 29 March the local court sentenced him to two months in prison (his wife was condemned to two weeks incarceration for aiding him). Since he was arrested
837:
government and united parliament would reduce our expenses considerably. We could restrict the administrative budget and devote more of our resources to developing the welfare of our countries, so that all citizens would benefit, not just one privileged category. It is obvious that such an arrangement would encourage investment".
1101:, named for the former premier and hosted in his former Bangui residence, was opened in 1966. A secondary school and an avenue were also named in his honour, while a statue of him was erected at an independence memorial in the capital. Jean-Bédel Bokassa, leader of the Central African Republic between 1966 and 1979, promoted a
577:", making it difficult for them to criticise him. He proposed several measures aimed at reforming communal land ownership and ensuring the prohibition of forced labour, but his serious attacks on French colonial policy upset the other deputies and as a result his ideas were never incorporated into the parliamentary agenda.
561:
welcome him, provide lodging, and introduce him to
Catholic politicians and keep him away from left-leaning groups. They did not do this, and Boganda expressed disappointment at the lack of a reception upon his arrival and the weak support from French deputies for his proposals to help his constituents in Oubangui-Chari.
810:, stressing the importance of re-examining a federal relationship between France and its colonies. Boganda was not included in the new constitutional commission, to his dismay. De Gaulle hosted him in Paris in July, and upon his return to Oubangui-Chari he expressed to the Territorial Assembly that the
868:
Next we have to examine the question of the right bank of the Congo . Since the official historical frontier is the Congo and not the
Oubangui , we must regard that area from now on as belonging to the Central African Republic. Thirdly, we must work towards re-uniting the two Congos. The fourth stage
822:
that would encompass the
African colonies. Boganda opposed Oubangui-Chari joining the community, fearing it would forestall independence. In August a meeting was held in Brazzaville between de Gaulle and political leaders in French Equatorial Africa. Boganda presented a petition signed by the leaders
692:
when news emerged that two
Africans who worked for a European—who was known for his abusive treatment of the locals—had died. The families of the deceased demanded the European's arrest, and a crowd gathered in the town and began rioting and assaulting public officials. Once word reached Brazzaville,
1124:
Historian
Georges Chaffard described Boganda as "the most prestigious and the most capable of Equatorial political men", while Prunier called him "probably the most gifted and most inventive of French Africa's decolonization generation of politicians". Historian Brian Titley suggested that Boganda's
1047:
Dacko, with the backing of the French High
Commissioner, the Bangui Chamber of Commerce, and Jourdain, offered himself as a candidate to lead the Council of Government. Goumba was hesitant to divide the populace, and after a month in power conceded the presidency to Dacko. Dacko became consumed with
1004:
wrote that "the probability of foul play was very high", noting, "The whites who worked for what was left of the Grandes Compagnies Concessionaires hated Boganda, who had been instrumental in finally getting compulsory labor outlawed in 1946. They also hated his intelligence, which was unsettling to
952:
on 5 April. Boganda personally oversaw the selection of MESAN's candidates and agreed to include five Frenchmen on its lists. The government also created a new electoral law which stipulated that civil servants could not run for office unless they had been on leave of absence for at least six months
991:
revealed that investigators had identified traces of explosive in the wreckage. The French High Commissioner ordered all copies of the reporting edition suppressed in the Central African Republic. No cause for the crash has ever been definitively determined. Many Central Africans believed that the
701:
No substantial violence succeeded the Berbérati riot, and in the following months the RPF increasingly struggled as MESAN continued to grow. Boganda praised the educational and health work done by the colonial administration before the French National Assembly, saying "doctors, administrators, and
652:
On 10 January 1951, SOCOULOLE agents in the village of Bokanga became involved in a heated dispute with local Portuguese merchants, with the former objecting to the latter's practice of forming a coalition amongst themselves. The co-operative agents insisted that the village market be closed until
1043:
took over the office of Mayor of Bangui and the MESAN party presidency. Boganda's parliamentary constituency was declared vacant in the elections held on 5 April, which were handily won by MESAN, though with a sharp drop in voter turnout. With its founder gone, MESAN substantively ceased to exist
769:
in expenditures to greatly increase the cultivation of coffee trees, cotton, and ground-nuts. As a part of this, he conceived a Committee of Economic Safety, which would consist of more regional bodies of European merchants and MESAN officials who would oversee peasants' production efforts. On 30
643:
Boganda was not particularly concerned with his religious mission once he entered politics, but he used the enormous popular respect for the Catholic Church to his advantage, manipulating religious symbols for political purposes. Boganda's attachment to the clergy weakened when he met and fell in
396:
Both of Boganda's parents died when he was young; his father was reportedly killed in a punitive campaign conducted by colonial forces shortly after his birth. His mother died before 1915, probably having been murdered by a CFSO militiaman for not having met a rubber collection quota. Boganda was
814:
was insufficient for the territory and the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa. He told the body he wanted assurance of "the people's right to self-determination and a voluntary freely-consented independence. The ways of introducing it are to be examined". The Assembly passed a motion repeating Boganda's
648:
was a rule created by the Catholic Church and had no biblical basis. On 25 November he was expelled from the priesthood. Despite this, Boganda remained a devout Catholic and sympathetic to missionary interests. The couple was married on 13 June 1950, and would later have two daughters and a son.
624:
MESAN's activities angered the French administration and the companies trading in cotton, coffee, diamonds, and other commodities. The Bangui Chamber of Commerce was controlled by these companies, and its members resented the end of forced labour and the resultant rise of black nationalism. They
590:
project, the Société Coopérative Oubangui, Lobaye, Lesse (SOCOULOLE), which aimed to provide food, clothing, lodging, medical care, and education. Boganda hastily established the organization without regard for the competence of its staff or the standards of trading goods, though he made sure to
560:
attired in his clerical garb and introduced himself to his fellow legislators as the son of a polygamous cannibal, probably in a deliberate attempt to project a personal aura of omnipotence. Grandin sought to maintain influence over his former pupil and had requested that the Spiritans in France
585:
Feeling as though his actions in the National Assembly were engendering little substantive change in Oubangui-Chari, Boganda grew disenchanted with parliamentary politics and decided to seek direct political action within the territory. In an attempt to improve Oubanguian farmers' incomes, spur
505:
and work to enroll girls in school. His response to such hesitation sometimes included violence, and he was accused of beating people and once suggesting a recalcitrant chief be shot with a cartridge of salt. Despite this, he showed a measure of appreciation for some indigenous culture, and was
564:
Boganda left the MRP in 1950 and served as an independent thereafter. He was reelected to the National Assembly in 1951 and 1956. He made only two parliamentary interventions during his tenure, in August 1947 on the abuses of colonialism and in June 1950 on the lack of social justice in French
1132:
Boganda's life has some presence in French language histography, but much of what has been written about his biographical details, especially by Central African authors, is hagiographic in nature. His ideas and speeches have been more thoroughly incorporated into general analyses of political
836:
in Africa for some time, and believed that independence of Oubangui-Chari as a single state would be disastrous. He used his position as President of the Grand Council to encourage the formation of a united state in Central Africa. He wrote a tract which stated, "A united state with a united
591:
include communal healers in its management. Initially operating with a French subsidy, over time the co-operative became embroiled with allegations of financial improprieties and ran low on money. Boganda attempted to fund it with his parliamentary salary, but its deficits rapidly increased.
851:
Boganda articulated a new framework for the states of French Equatorial Africa whereby there would be a central government and legislature. There would be an annually rotating presidency in which each former territory would take turns supplying the officeholder. The territories would become
720:
to French colonies. The Europeans in Oubangui-Chari politically organised themselves to seize control of the new local institutions, particularly the office of Mayor of Bangui. René Naud—the European president of the Bangui Chamber of Commerce—and other white merchants offered themselves as
1014:
697:
pleaded with Boganda to accompany him to the locale and intervene. The following day Boganda appeared before the crowd and told them that "the same justice would be administered to white as to black". Thus assured, the crowd dispersed and order was restored. The riot deeply worried the
547:
deputy for Oubangui-Chari, becoming the first native Oubanguian to join the assembly after winning 10,846 votes—almost half of the total votes cast—and defeating three other candidates, including the incumbent, François Joseph Reste, who had formerly served as the Governor-General of
1181:
The reasons for Boganda dropping out of the school are not entirely clear. Biographer Pierre Kalck wrote that Boganda was uncomfortable with the strict method of instruction. Historian Klaas van Walraven wrote, "More probably, dissatisfaction stemmed from the predominant place of
322:
for blacks in the territory well into the 1950s. As France conceded measures of representation to its colonies, MESAN won local elections and he gained influence in Oubangui-Chari's government, though his reputation suffered when he backed an unsuccessful economic scheme.
929:". On 6 December, the CAR's first government was established with Boganda as President of the Council of Government (premier), though a French High Commissioner was retained. Frustrated with Guérillot's economic failures and political maneuverings to be elected to the
374:
and the wealthy owner of several palm plantations who had taken numerous wives. Boganda's mother, Siribé, was Swalakpé's third wife. French commercial exploitation of Central Africa had reached an apogee around the time of Boganda's birth, and although interrupted by
445:. The school's curriculum included Latin, French, mathematics, history, and philosophy and was scheduled to take six years to complete, though Boganda had left by 1928/1929. After failing to enroll in a school in France due to lack of money, he entered the Spiritian
409:
phrase meaning "I am elsewhere", and he was probably hoping to explain that he was lost. The soldiers believed this was his name, rendering it "Boganda", and the name was used for the rest of his life. Mayer took him to the orphanage in the nearby town of
684:
visited Bangui. Boganda refused to see him due to his leadership of the party, but de Gaulle refrained from taking a public stance on the politics in Oubangui-Chari, a move which was interpreted as an expression of disapproval of the local RPF's tactics.
500:
population. Boganda was enthusiastic about his work and was angered by local resistance to some of his teachings and practices. This especially included his efforts which contravened local cultural norms, such as his encouragement to abandon polygamy and
280:
58:
1038:
representing the French Community. Charles Féraille, a priest who had been personally acquainted with Boganda, declared that he had been "chosen by God" to lead the country. Goumba replaced him as interim President of the Council of Government, while
3964:
831:
While the French constitution had placed political responsibility upon each territorial assembly in Africa and expected them to ratify the results of their referendums, it left open the possibility of federations. Boganda had been worried about
725:
1025:
Aside from some minor disorder in Mbaïki, the country received Boganda's death in relative calm. Some of his followers suggested that he had not died and would return to the public in the future. His funeral was held on 3 April outside of the
933:, he sent Guérillot to France as a diplomat and replaced him at the Ministry of Interior and Economic Affairs with Dacko. He made several other changes to the composition of the original council, but retained Goumba as Minister of State and
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
405:. In June his brother was instructed to take him to an uncle, and along the way they encountered a French patrol led by a Lieutenant Mayer. His brother fled out of fear. Left alone, Boganda said, "Gboganda". This was probably a
3546:
539:. Some Oubanguians had already indicated that they would support Boganda if he contested a seat in the assembly, and Grandin hoped that Boganda could preserve the interests of the Catholic Church from the local growth of
3884:
996:, played a role. Michelle Jourdain was also suspected of being involved; by 1959, relations between Boganda and his wife had deteriorated, and he thought of leaving her and returning to the priesthood. She had a large
1153:
and historian Pierre Kalck, Boganda was born on 4 April 1910. Scholar Côme Kinata wrote that he was born on 9 April 1910. Historian Klaas van Walraven posited that his birth may have occurred "two or three years
653:
Boganda could arrive to represent their case. By the time he arrived, SOCOULOLE members had blocked the roads leading out of the locale with trees to prevent the merchants' trucks from leaving. Fearing a loss of
679:
In 1952, the French government appointed more reform-oriented officials in French Equatorial Africa, allowing for a relaxation in tensions between Boganda and the local administration. In March 1953 RPF leader
3949:
625:
despised Boganda, viewing him as a dangerous revolutionary demagogue and a threat to their "free enterprise", and they resolved to get rid of him. French colonists and administrators established local
3524:
644:
love with a young Frenchwoman, Michelle Jourdain, who was employed as a parliamentary secretary. By 1949 they were cohabitating and Boganda wrote a letter to his Catholic superiors, pointing out that
3539:
1133:
philosophies. Boganda is rarely mentioned in English historiography, and where he is included it is generally within the context of his Pan-African project of the United States of Latin Africa.
3959:
3914:
3562:
667:
offered him no protection. Boganda terminated SOCOULOLE later that year due to financial difficulties. Boganda's arrest occurred five months before the next round of French National Assembly
318:
from the priesthood after developing a relationship with and eventually marrying Michelle Jourdain, a parliamentary secretary. Nonetheless, he continued to advocate for equal treatment and
310:, where he spoke out against racism and the abuses of the colonial regime. He then returned to Oubangui-Chari to form a political organisation, culminating in the 1949 foundation of the
3939:
3889:
3532:
889:
to Gabon, Chad, and the Congo to explore their interest in a united state. The two were unable to secure a meeting with authorities in Gabon, while Chadian leaders rejected the idea.
978:. All four crew and five passengers, including the government's information chief and a member of the Assembly, were found dead. Boganda's body was recovered from the pilot's cabin.
721:
candidates in the November election, but Boganda entered the race and quickly became the favourite to win. On 18 November he won the election and became the first Mayor of Bangui.
671:, and he framed it as a campaign issue. He ultimately won re-election, defeating challengers from the RPF and RDA, and the colonial administration acceded to his return to office.
3919:
1261:
1077:
The Central African Republic released this postage stamp featuring Boganda flanked by the national flag on 1 December 1959. Intended to commemorate Boganda, it was designed by
271:– 29 March 1959) was a Central African politician and independence activist. Boganda was active prior to his country's independence, during the period when the area, part of
1048:
administrative work and, though he had initially retained Goumba as Minister of State, dismissed him after several months. In 1960 Goumba founded a new political party, the
437:, and agricultural labour. By mid-1924 Boganda had completed his primary education and had indicated his desire to become a priest. In November he was sent to the Jesuit
3934:
3879:
595:
311:
163:
556:(MRP). His election was confirmed on 20 December and he was made a member of the Assembly's Overseas Territories Commission and the Supply Commission. He arrived in
492:, deeming it necessary for him to remain, as many persons involved with the church had been recalled to the metropole to fight in World War II. He was posted in the
1125:
death "robbed the country of a charismatic leader" able to maintain legitimacy and in the long term facilitated General Bokassa's overthrow of Dacko and subsequent
1049:
982:
3462:
Decolonization in West African States, with French Colonial Legacy: Comparison and Contrast : Development in Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and Senegal, 1945–1980
3869:
949:
941:
3859:
840:
3599:
3506:
van Walraven, Klaas (2020). "Barthélémy Boganda between Charisma and Cosmology: Interpretive Perspectives on Biography in Equatorial African History".
1934:
993:
544:
3944:
3874:
974:, which transported the mail between the two cities. The plane went missing, and its wreckage was discovered the following day in the district of
2627:
Brady, Thomas F. (30 March 1959). "Africans Weigh Political Future : Parliamentary Democracy a Basic Issue in Nations Beginning Self-Rule".
992:
crash was an assassination; in particular, many suspected that expatriate businessmen from the Bangui Chamber of Commerce, possibly aided by the
2881:
640:(RDA) in the other three territories of French Equatorial Africa posed some threat to MESAN, but they were eventually reduced to minor groups.
637:
543:
and increasing leftist and anti-colonial thought in both France and its colonies. Boganda decided to compete, and on 10 November 1946, he was
518:
region, an action his missionary colleagues saw as scandalous. As a result of these tensions, in 1946 Boganda was transferred to a mission at
636:
veterans of World War II, the party sought to take credit for colonial reforms, but failed to generate popular traction. The presence of the
535:
After World War II, Boganda was urged by Grandin to involve himself in politics. In particular, Grandin hoped he would seek election to the
918:
910:
856:
and be divided into urban sections and rural communes. Due to the geographic span of such a federation—which would include Oubangui-Chari,
3423:"The historical long-term in the politics of the Central African Republic: Insights from the biography of Barthélémy Boganda (1910–1959)"
985:
ordered an inquiry and sent a team to investigate the crash site. A report was never published, but shortly afterwards the Paris weekly
3515:
3496:
3470:
3449:
3366:
3351:
3321:
3181:
3159:
3111:
3088:
1269:
1056:, and gave the government wide authority to suppress political opposition. By 1962 he had arrested Goumba and declared MESAN the sole
971:
1126:
1027:
1018:
668:
515:
3384:
van Walraven, Klaas (2017). "The Diaries of Barthélémy Boganda, Priest and Politician in French Equatorial Africa (1910–1959)".
3929:
1112:
remains politically potent, serving as a unifying element among both the country's elite and the general populace. His phrase,
415:
940:
The new government's first action was to adopt a law banning nudity and vagrancy. Its main objective, however, was to draw up
698:
administration, which acknowledged in its own reports that Europeans' racism towards Africans was pervasive in the territory.
3374:
3300:
3242:
3223:
3204:
3138:
1105:
for Boganda as the founder of MESAN and the republic. Boganda Day is observed annually on 29 March to commemorate his death.
1090:
1085:
The Legislative Assembly declared Boganda the "Father of the Nation" in June 1959. He was posthumously awarded Knight of the
3743:
453:, the head of the Catholic Church in Oubangui-Chari. Once this was completed, Grandin enrolled Boganda in the Saint Laurent
3430:
861:
845:
339:
775:
469:, in 1931. The first African student at the school, he learned history, Latin, philosophy, theology, and other subjects.
3768:
3854:
1265:
1150:
1094:
553:
536:
307:
295:
157:
3130:
1462:
1163:
According to the French National Assembly, "Boganda"—with the same meaning—was the name given to him by his mother.
629:
3422:
1108:
Mythical perceptions of Boganda's invulnerability persisted after his death, and his presence in Central African
766:
3954:
3674:
3611:
3557:
894:
803:
654:
549:
284:
272:
144:
3659:
3640:
472:
3924:
3343:
1098:
869:
will be to create the United States of Latin Africa, including the Central African Republic, the so-called
3733:
3718:
3698:
3650:
905:
807:
664:
618:
390:
397:
then given to the care of a guardian who joined the French Army during World War I and was killed at the
3864:
3126:
225:
3778:
3758:
3713:
2667:"African Premier Missing On Plane: Wreckage of the Aircraft Carrying Boganda and 8 Others Is Sighted".
987:
476:
A 1994 Central African stamp depicting the ordination of Father Barthélemy Boganda alongside Monsignor
386:
354:
Little is known about Boganda's early life. He was born around the year 1910 to a family of farmers in
379:, activity resumed in the 1920s. The French consortia used what was essentially a form of slavery—the
3849:
3844:
3748:
3693:
2907:
717:
659:
288:
693:
the colonial authorities began mobilising troops to march on Berbérati, and Oubangui-Chari Governor
3738:
3728:
1102:
945:
43:
970:
plane at Berbérati, where he had been campaigning, for a flight to Bangui. The plane was owned by
758:
In the mid-1950s a Bangui study group had proposed the construction of a rail line from Bangui to
393:, was beaten to death at a colonial police station as a result of his alleged resistance to work.
3798:
3630:
3409:
3275:
2684:
712:
633:
606:
418:
missionary touring the area decided to take him to the mission station of Saint Jean Baptiste in
319:
3793:
1040:
748:
729:
449:
in Brazzaville. He spent his final year of studies in Bangui, where he was tutored by Monsignor
366:
basin located at the edge of the equatorial forest some 80 kilometres (50 mi) southwest of
1013:
3788:
3511:
3492:
3466:
3445:
3401:
3370:
3347:
3331:
3317:
3296:
3292:
3238:
3219:
3200:
3177:
3155:
3134:
3107:
3084:
1109:
1001:
890:
853:
791:
681:
645:
343:
327:
298:
after the deaths of his parents. In 1938, he was ordained as a Roman Catholic priest. During
3773:
3723:
3708:
3508:
The Individual in African History: The Importance of Biography in African Historical Studies
3393:
3338:
Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe
3265:
3103:
1086:
819:
566:
406:
398:
331:
948:. The government also drafted new electoral constituencies and scheduled elections for the
632:(RPF) branches to counter MESAN. Drawing on the support of government workers, clerks, and
401:. He was subsequently placed in the tutelage of other relatives, and in 1920 he contracted
3688:
3253:
2953:
2948:
1935:"Barthélémy Boganda, premier prêtre d'Oubangui-Chari et père fondateur de la Centrafrique"
1457:
1057:
602:
484:
On 17 March 1938 Boganda was ordained. He was subsequently posted to the new Saint Marcel
466:
3803:
3763:
3683:
3664:
1186:
as language of instruction, as well as the cultural differences between seminarists from
925:, and colors of other African flags. He also penned the lyrics for the national anthem, "
2297:
Doty, Robert C. (3 June 1958). "Balky Assembly Yields, 350–161 : Decree Rule Set".
3783:
3336:
1031:
997:
926:
922:
799:
771:
694:
610:
570:
477:
450:
302:, Boganda served in a number of missions and afterwards was persuaded by the Bishop of
276:
107:
786:
586:
colonial reform, and form a political organisation for himself, in 1948 he launched a
3838:
3413:
1078:
1053:
1035:
967:
930:
874:
870:
833:
599:
574:
540:
442:
3570:
3270:
975:
857:
497:
423:
371:
363:
299:
123:
1073:
689:
3460:
3439:
3311:
3237:. translated by Xavier-Samuel Kalck (3rd ed.). Lanham: The Scarecrow Press.
3149:
3078:
2882:"A broken museum, in a broken country: Meet the man trying to save CAR's history"
2850:
3753:
3620:
3589:
3584:
3169:
1187:
886:
759:
741:
587:
489:
376:
82:
794:
in Brazzaville in August 1958 to discuss the political future of Oubangui-Chari
573:
and accused colonial administrators of being "anti-French" and "worthy sons of
462:
315:
3405:
314:(MESAN), which became popular among villagers and the peasantry. Boganda was
3196:
724:
519:
502:
434:
335:
458:
411:
381:
359:
294:
Boganda was born into a family of farmers, and was adopted and educated by
3965:
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the Central African Republic
488:
in Bangui as a teacher. In 1939 his bishop denied his request to join the
306:
to enter politics. In 1946, he became the first Oubanguian elected to the
626:
419:
402:
355:
103:
3397:
3289:
Politics in Francophone Africa: The States of West and Equatorial Africa
3279:
3256:[Barthélémy Boganda and the Catholic Church in Oubangui-Chari].
1183:
1172:
Some sources style it as "Barthélemy" while others prefer "Barthélémy".
511:
493:
430:
17:
917:
The Central African Republic adopted a design drawn up by Boganda for
2354:
Brady, Thomas F. (31 August 1958). "African Leaders Back De Gaulle".
878:
367:
303:
3441:
The Fate of Africa's Democratic Experiments: Elites and Institutions
3910:
Deputies of the 3rd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
3905:
Deputies of the 2nd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
3900:
Deputies of the 1st National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
3895:
Deputies of the 1st National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
1072:
1012:
904:
839:
785:
723:
557:
471:
1262:"Biographies des députés de la IV République: Barthélémy Boganda"
3489:
Barthélemy Boganda, 1910-1959: élu de Dieu et des Centrafricains
1000:
on his life, taken out just days before the accident. Historian
3528:
3045:
3043:
2851:"Central African Republic Marks First Year, Hails Late Premier"
728:
Boganda backed the widely-criticised economic plan proposed by
1817:
1815:
1813:
1657:
1655:
1642:
1640:
1603:
1601:
1547:
1545:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
3885:
Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa politicians
3254:"Barthélémy Boganda et l'Église catholique en Oubangui-Chari"
1576:
1574:
1572:
1346:
1344:
3598:
747:
The only European minister in the Council of Government was
3123:
Modern Tyrants: The Power and Prevalence of Evil in Our Age
1316:
1314:
429:
At Bétou, Boganda was instructed in reading and writing in
3313:
The Central African Republic: The Continent's Hidden Heart
3218:. translated by Barbara Thomson. London: Pall Mall Press.
1190:(and elsewhere) and the rural world of Lemfu seminarists".
2736:
2734:
1484:
1482:
1480:
594:
On 28 September 1949, at Bangui, Boganda established the
506:
particularly proud that some locals fearfully dubbed him
334:
through which France's colonies could associate with the
27:
Premier of the Central African Republic from 1958 to 1959
2650:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2480:
2478:
2367:
2365:
765:
Guérillot proposed a large scheme totaling four billion
3950:
State leaders killed in aviation accidents or incidents
2697:
2695:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2465:
2463:
2438:
2436:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2334:
2332:
2108:
2106:
1892:
1890:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
3216:
Central African Republic: A Failure in De-Colonisation
2244:
2242:
2240:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2174:
2172:
2123:
2121:
2093:
2091:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2057:
2055:
2030:
2028:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1783:
1781:
1744:
1742:
1729:
1727:
1725:
3235:
Historical Dictionary of the Central African Republic
3100:
Historical Dictionary of the Central African Republic
1331:
1329:
1289:
1287:
710:
In June 1956 the French National Assembly passed the
827:
Regional unity and the United States of Latin Africa
802:
in May 1958, de Gaulle reassumed power in France as
496:
region from 1941 to 1946 to evangelize the resident
3673:
3649:
3610:
3569:
2867:
2508:
1362:
239:
231:
221:
216:
200:
173:
150:
140:
130:
113:
97:
92:
76:
57:
34:
3960:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1959
3915:Members of Parliament for French Equatorial Africa
3363:Dark Age: The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa
3335:
3148:Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel, eds. (2015).
2974:
389:, would later crown himself as the Emperor of the
818:De Gaulle proposed the creation of a new federal
596:Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa
312:Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa
2986:
2947:Gwin, Peter; Bleasdale, Marcus (19 April 2017).
790:Boganda (right) receiving French Prime Minister
3940:Central African Republic independence activists
3890:Prime ministers of the Central African Republic
3563:Prime ministers of the Central African Republic
3438:Villalón, Leonardo A.; VonDoepp, Peter (2005).
1050:Democratic Evolution Movement of Central Africa
275:, was administered by France under the name of
3151:Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society
2682:"African Leader Found Dead in Crashed Plane".
2388:. Associated Press. 24 August 1958. p. 2.
3540:
3098:Bradshaw, Richard; Fandos-Rius, Juan (2016).
1452:
1450:
8:
3920:French colonial governors and administrators
3061:
3049:
3010:
1920:
1857:
1833:
1821:
1760:
1716:
1704:
1673:
1661:
1646:
1619:
1607:
1592:
1580:
1563:
1551:
1536:
1524:
1512:
1441:
1422:
1410:
1386:
1350:
1320:
1221:
1209:
2602:
736:On 4 February 1957, in accordance with the
3547:
3533:
3525:
3176:(in French). Paris: Ccinia Communication.
1030:in Bangui and attended by thousands, with
42:
31:
3444:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
3269:
3935:Central African Republic pan-Africanists
3880:Central African Republic Roman Catholics
2942:
2940:
2349:
2347:
774:—Oubangui-Chari's representative to the
732:(pictured), damaging his own reputation.
552:. Formally, Boganda identified with the
72:6 December 1958 – 29 March 1959
3022:
2725:
2713:
2371:
1908:
1869:
1488:
1202:
1142:
1034:representing the French government and
1017:Boganda's funeral was held outside the
3034:
2836:
2740:
2605:, Boganda and a United Central Africa.
2561:
2520:
2151:
1845:
1692:
1631:
1398:
1374:
1335:
1305:
706:Internal autonomy and MESAN government
688:On 30 April 1954, disorder erupted in
581:Political organising in Oubangui-Chari
59:President of the Council of Government
3080:Pouvoir et obéissance en Centrafrique
2998:
2824:
2812:
2800:
2788:
2776:
2764:
2752:
2701:
2654:
2614:
2590:
2573:
2544:
2532:
2496:
2484:
2469:
2454:
2442:
2427:
2415:
2398:
2338:
2323:
2311:
2284:
2272:
2260:
2248:
2231:
2214:
2202:
2190:
2178:
2163:
2139:
2127:
2112:
2097:
2082:
2061:
2046:
2034:
2019:
2007:
1995:
1983:
1971:
1959:
1896:
1881:
1804:
1787:
1772:
1748:
1733:
1500:
1293:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1021:in Bangui (pictured on a 1964 stamp).
983:General Secretariat of Civil Aviation
852:departments under the supervision of
716:, an act which conceded a measure of
7:
3603:Flag of the Central African Republic
2931:
2671:. Reuters. 31 March 1959. p. 5.
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1230:
911:flag of the Central African Republic
190:
3870:20th-century Roman Catholic priests
2906:Allison, Simon (21 December 2017).
2880:Allison, Simon (24 November 2017).
966:On 29 March 1959 Boganda boarded a
3860:People of French Equatorial Africa
1069:Commemoration and political legacy
1005:their view of black inferiority".
782:De Gaulle and the French Community
25:
3556:
3465:. Schenkman Publishing Company.
3083:(in French). Karthala Editions.
885:Boganda dispatched Rivierez and
134:
3945:Knights of the Legion of Honour
3875:Laicized Roman Catholic priests
3367:McGill-Queen's University Press
3199:: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
2868:Bradshaw & Fandos-Rius 2016
2509:Bradshaw & Fandos-Rius 2016
1363:Bradshaw & Fandos-Rius 2016
972:Union Aéromaritime de Transport
937:vice president of the council.
186:
61:of the Central African Republic
3271:10.4000/etudesafricaines.12292
3191:Heyns, Christoph, ed. (1999).
3174:Les Mémoires et les Réflexions
2975:Falola & Jean-Jacques 2015
1091:Order of Central African Merit
422:, a town further south on the
370:. His father, Swalakpé, was a
326:In 1958 French Prime Minister
1:
3491:(in French). Editions Sépia.
3431:African Studies Centre Leiden
2949:"The Burning Heart of Africa"
2908:"A tourist's guide to Bangui"
1933:Sarr, Lucie (23 April 2021).
862:United States of Latin Africa
846:United States of Latin Africa
798:Following the failure of the
340:United States of Latin Africa
265:
3459:Yansané, Aguibou Y. (1984).
3421:van Walraven, Klaas (2019).
3295:: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
3106:: Rowman & Littlefield.
2987:Villalón & VonDoepp 2005
1923:, p. 260, footnote #99.
1707:, p. 248, footnote #51.
1566:, p. 245, footnote #33.
1515:, p. 243, footnote #27.
946:mutual development societies
675:Co-operation with the French
426:which was home to a school.
346:remains politically potent.
3310:O'Toole, Thomas E. (2019).
3287:Le Vine, Victor T. (2004).
3258:Cahiers d'Études Africaines
2688:. 1 April 1959. p. 10.
1266:National Assembly of France
1095:Order of Agricultural Merit
554:Popular Republican Movement
537:National Assembly of France
531:National Assembly of France
330:proposed the creation of a
308:National Assembly of France
296:Roman Catholic missionaries
3981:
3193:Human Rights Law in Africa
3131:Princeton University Press
767:Central African CFA francs
630:Rally of the French People
126:, Central African Republic
3812:
3596:
3102:(4th, reprint ed.).
2384:"Independence Is Asked".
279:. He served as the first
255:
251:
247:
212:
208:
88:
65:
53:
41:
3675:Central African Republic
3612:Central African Republic
2857:. pp. 208–209, 224.
1151:French National Assembly
921:, including a star, the
901:Central African Republic
895:Central African Republic
806:and prepared to draft a
638:African Democratic Rally
550:French Equatorial Africa
285:Central African Republic
273:French Equatorial Africa
131:Cause of death
3704:post abolished, 1981–91
3626:post abolished, 1960–75
3344:Oxford University Press
3121:Chirot, Daniel (1996).
2855:Scott's Monthly Journal
1463:Encyclopædia Britannica
1099:Boganda National Museum
1093:, and Commander of the
808:new French constitution
3930:Civil rights activists
3651:Central African Empire
3604:
3487:Kalck, Pierre (1995).
3361:Titley, Brian (1997).
3233:Kalck, Pierre (2005).
3214:Kalck, Pierre (1971).
2849:Hamilton, Ben (1959).
1082:
1022:
1009:Political consequences
914:
883:
848:
795:
733:
665:parliamentary immunity
481:
391:Central African Empire
3602:
3316:. London: Routledge.
3252:Kinata, Côme (2008).
3077:Bigo, Didier (1988).
1998:, pp. 83–84, 88.
1089:, Grand Cross of the
1076:
1016:
994:French secret service
909:Boganda designed the
908:
866:
843:
789:
727:
621:(he did not appear).
609:, Boganda coined the
475:
226:Roman Catholic Church
217:Ecclesiastical career
2716:, pp. 103, 393.
1872:, pp. 106, 182.
1458:"Barthélemy Boganda"
1028:Notre-Dame Cathedral
1019:Notre-Dame Cathedral
950:Legislative Assembly
844:Map of the proposed
660:in flagrante delicto
289:autonomous territory
3398:10.1017/hia.2016.14
3064:, pp. 238–239.
2912:Mail & Guardian
2886:Mail & Guardian
2827:, pp. 120–122.
2803:, pp. 116–117.
2791:, pp. 108–109.
2755:, pp. 106–107.
2547:, pp. 104–105.
2499:, pp. 103–104.
2457:, pp. 102–103.
2430:, pp. 101–102.
2401:, pp. 100–101.
2275:, pp. 97, 104.
2022:, pp. 83, 167.
1719:, pp. 249–250.
1676:, pp. 247–249.
1622:, pp. 246–247.
1595:, pp. 245–246.
1527:, pp. 243–244.
1425:, pp. 242–243.
1389:, pp. 240–241.
1103:cult of personality
619:walk over the water
3855:People from Lobaye
3605:
2685:The New York Times
2669:The New York Times
2629:The New York Times
2386:The New York Times
2356:The New York Times
2314:, pp. 99–100.
2299:The New York Times
1083:
1058:party of the state
1044:aside as a label.
1023:
915:
854:ministers of state
849:
796:
734:
713:Loi-cadre Defferre
607:fundamental rights
482:
387:Jean-Bédel Bokassa
320:fundamental rights
262:Barthélemy Boganda
36:Barthélemy Boganda
3832:
3831:
3427:ASC Working Paper
3386:History in Africa
3062:van Walraven 2017
3050:van Walraven 2017
3011:van Walraven 2019
2358:. pp. 1, 22.
2263:, pp. 97–99.
2217:, pp. 96–97.
2193:, pp. 95–96.
2166:, pp. 94–95.
2142:, pp. 93–94.
2049:, pp. 89–90.
2010:, pp. 88–89.
1986:, pp. 82–83.
1962:, pp. 81–82.
1921:van Walraven 2017
1884:, pp. 79–80.
1860:, pp. 11–12.
1858:van Walraven 2019
1834:van Walraven 2019
1822:van Walraven 2017
1775:, pp. 77–78.
1761:van Walraven 2017
1717:van Walraven 2017
1705:van Walraven 2017
1674:van Walraven 2017
1662:van Walraven 2017
1647:van Walraven 2017
1620:van Walraven 2017
1608:van Walraven 2017
1593:van Walraven 2017
1581:van Walraven 2019
1564:van Walraven 2017
1552:van Walraven 2017
1537:van Walraven 2017
1525:van Walraven 2017
1513:van Walraven 2017
1442:van Walraven 2017
1423:van Walraven 2017
1411:van Walraven 2017
1387:van Walraven 2017
1351:van Walraven 2017
1321:van Walraven 2019
1222:van Walraven 2017
1210:van Walraven 2017
1149:According to the
1127:military takeover
1110:collective memory
891:Jacques Opangault
792:Charles de Gaulle
718:internal autonomy
682:Charles de Gaulle
646:clerical celibacy
344:collective memory
328:Charles de Gaulle
259:
258:
179:Michelle Jourdain
121:(aged 48–49)
16:(Redirected from
3972:
3824:
3818:
3561:
3560:
3549:
3542:
3535:
3526:
3521:
3502:
3476:
3455:
3434:
3417:
3380:
3357:
3341:
3327:
3306:
3283:
3273:
3264:(191): 549–565.
3248:
3229:
3210:
3187:
3165:
3144:
3117:
3094:
3065:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3038:
3032:
3026:
3020:
3014:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2984:
2978:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2944:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2877:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2858:
2846:
2840:
2834:
2828:
2822:
2816:
2810:
2804:
2798:
2792:
2786:
2780:
2774:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2750:
2744:
2738:
2729:
2723:
2717:
2711:
2705:
2699:
2690:
2689:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2633:
2632:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2600:
2594:
2588:
2577:
2571:
2565:
2559:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2530:
2524:
2518:
2512:
2506:
2500:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2473:
2467:
2458:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2402:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2381:
2375:
2369:
2360:
2359:
2351:
2342:
2336:
2327:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2301:. pp. 1, 5.
2294:
2288:
2282:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2258:
2252:
2246:
2235:
2229:
2218:
2212:
2206:
2200:
2194:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2116:
2110:
2101:
2095:
2086:
2080:
2065:
2059:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2023:
2017:
2011:
2005:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1930:
1924:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1808:
1802:
1791:
1785:
1776:
1770:
1764:
1758:
1752:
1746:
1737:
1731:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1677:
1671:
1665:
1659:
1650:
1644:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1596:
1590:
1584:
1578:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1549:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1454:
1445:
1439:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1339:
1333:
1324:
1318:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1282:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1268:. Archived from
1258:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1191:
1179:
1173:
1170:
1164:
1161:
1155:
1147:
1087:Legion of Honour
998:insurance policy
923:French tricolour
820:French Community
567:arbitrary arrest
526:Political career
414:. Once there, a
399:Battle of Verdun
332:French Community
270:
267:
243:25 November 1949
194:
192:
188:
120:
93:Personal details
79:
70:
46:
32:
21:
3980:
3979:
3975:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3955:Unsolved deaths
3835:
3834:
3833:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3808:
3669:
3645:
3606:
3594:
3565:
3555:
3553:
3518:
3505:
3499:
3486:
3483:
3481:Further reading
3473:
3458:
3452:
3437:
3420:
3383:
3377:
3360:
3354:
3332:Prunier, Gérard
3330:
3324:
3309:
3303:
3286:
3251:
3245:
3232:
3226:
3213:
3207:
3190:
3184:
3168:
3162:
3147:
3141:
3120:
3114:
3097:
3091:
3076:
3073:
3068:
3060:
3056:
3048:
3041:
3033:
3029:
3021:
3017:
3009:
3005:
2997:
2993:
2985:
2981:
2973:
2969:
2959:
2957:
2954:Pulitzer Center
2946:
2945:
2938:
2930:
2926:
2916:
2914:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2890:
2888:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2866:
2862:
2848:
2847:
2843:
2835:
2831:
2823:
2819:
2811:
2807:
2799:
2795:
2787:
2783:
2775:
2771:
2763:
2759:
2751:
2747:
2739:
2732:
2724:
2720:
2712:
2708:
2700:
2693:
2681:
2680:
2676:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2653:
2636:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2613:
2609:
2601:
2597:
2589:
2580:
2572:
2568:
2560:
2551:
2543:
2539:
2531:
2527:
2519:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2495:
2491:
2487:, p. xxxi.
2483:
2476:
2468:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2441:
2434:
2426:
2422:
2414:
2405:
2397:
2393:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2370:
2363:
2353:
2352:
2345:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2283:
2279:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2247:
2238:
2230:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2189:
2185:
2177:
2170:
2162:
2158:
2150:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2119:
2111:
2104:
2096:
2089:
2081:
2068:
2060:
2053:
2045:
2041:
2033:
2026:
2018:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1994:
1990:
1982:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1944:
1942:
1939:La Croix Africa
1932:
1931:
1927:
1919:
1915:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1820:
1811:
1803:
1794:
1786:
1779:
1771:
1767:
1759:
1755:
1747:
1740:
1732:
1723:
1715:
1711:
1703:
1699:
1691:
1680:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1653:
1645:
1638:
1630:
1626:
1618:
1614:
1606:
1599:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1570:
1562:
1558:
1550:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1487:
1478:
1468:
1466:
1456:
1455:
1448:
1440:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1409:
1405:
1397:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1349:
1342:
1334:
1327:
1319:
1312:
1304:
1300:
1292:
1285:
1275:
1273:
1272:on 24 June 2008
1260:
1259:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1194:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1122:
1071:
1066:
1041:Étienne Ngounio
1011:
964:
959:
903:
897:on 1 December.
881:, and Cameroon.
829:
784:
749:Roger Guérillot
730:Roger Guérillot
708:
677:
603:political party
583:
533:
528:
486:petit séminaire
467:French Cameroon
455:grand séminaire
447:petit séminaire
439:petit séminaire
362:village in the
352:
268:
196:
184:
180:
169:
151:Political party
145:Central African
122:
118:
102:
77:
71:
66:
49:
48:Boganda in 1958
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3978:
3976:
3968:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3925:Flag designers
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3837:
3836:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3820:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3680:
3678:
3677:(1979–present)
3671:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3656:
3654:
3647:
3646:
3644:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3617:
3615:
3608:
3607:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3576:
3574:
3567:
3566:
3554:
3552:
3551:
3544:
3537:
3529:
3523:
3522:
3517:978-9004407824
3516:
3503:
3498:978-2907888585
3497:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3472:978-0870733291
3471:
3456:
3451:978-0253003119
3450:
3435:
3418:
3381:
3375:
3358:
3353:978-0195374209
3352:
3328:
3323:978-1000315134
3322:
3307:
3301:
3284:
3249:
3243:
3230:
3224:
3211:
3205:
3188:
3183:978-2915568073
3182:
3166:
3161:978-1598846669
3160:
3145:
3139:
3118:
3113:978-0810879928
3112:
3095:
3090:978-2865372133
3089:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3066:
3054:
3052:, p. 238.
3039:
3027:
3025:, p. 102.
3015:
3003:
2991:
2989:, p. 128.
2979:
2977:, p. 216.
2967:
2936:
2934:, p. 147.
2924:
2898:
2872:
2870:, p. 126.
2860:
2841:
2829:
2817:
2815:, p. 119.
2805:
2793:
2781:
2779:, p. 107.
2769:
2767:, p. 109.
2757:
2745:
2743:, p. 550.
2730:
2728:, p. 238.
2718:
2706:
2691:
2674:
2659:
2657:, p. 106.
2634:
2619:
2607:
2595:
2593:, p. 105.
2578:
2576:, p. 125.
2566:
2549:
2537:
2535:, p. 104.
2525:
2513:
2511:, p. 469.
2501:
2489:
2474:
2472:, p. 103.
2459:
2447:
2445:, p. 102.
2432:
2420:
2418:, p. 101.
2403:
2391:
2376:
2361:
2343:
2341:, p. 100.
2328:
2316:
2304:
2289:
2277:
2265:
2253:
2236:
2219:
2207:
2195:
2183:
2168:
2156:
2144:
2132:
2117:
2115:, p. 182.
2102:
2087:
2066:
2051:
2039:
2024:
2012:
2000:
1988:
1976:
1964:
1952:
1925:
1913:
1911:, p. 182.
1901:
1899:, p. 136.
1886:
1874:
1862:
1850:
1848:, p. 562.
1838:
1826:
1824:, p. 250.
1809:
1792:
1777:
1765:
1763:, p. 249.
1753:
1738:
1721:
1709:
1697:
1678:
1666:
1664:, p. 248.
1651:
1649:, p. 247.
1636:
1624:
1612:
1610:, p. 246.
1597:
1585:
1568:
1556:
1554:, p. 245.
1541:
1539:, p. 244.
1529:
1517:
1505:
1493:
1491:, p. 106.
1476:
1446:
1444:, p. 243.
1427:
1415:
1413:, p. 242.
1403:
1401:, p. 379.
1391:
1379:
1367:
1365:, p. 123.
1355:
1353:, p. 241.
1340:
1325:
1310:
1308:, p. 549.
1298:
1283:
1226:
1224:, p. 240.
1214:
1212:, p. 239.
1201:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1174:
1165:
1156:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1121:
1120:Historiography
1118:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1032:Robert Lecourt
1010:
1007:
1002:Gérard Prunier
963:
960:
958:
955:
942:a constitution
927:La Renaissance
902:
899:
828:
825:
804:Prime Minister
800:Algiers putsch
783:
780:
772:Antoine Darlan
707:
704:
695:Louis Sanmarco
676:
673:
582:
579:
571:anti-communist
532:
529:
527:
524:
478:Marcel Grandin
451:Marcel Grandin
351:
348:
277:Oubangui-Chari
257:
256:
253:
252:
249:
248:
245:
244:
241:
237:
236:
233:
229:
228:
223:
219:
218:
214:
213:
210:
209:
206:
205:
202:
198:
197:
182:
178:
177:
175:
171:
170:
168:
167:
161:
154:
152:
148:
147:
142:
138:
137:
132:
128:
127:
115:
111:
110:
108:Oubangui-Chari
99:
95:
94:
90:
89:
86:
85:
80:
74:
73:
63:
62:
55:
54:
51:
50:
47:
39:
38:
35:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3977:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3840:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3811:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3672:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3648:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3609:
3601:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3559:
3550:
3545:
3543:
3538:
3536:
3531:
3530:
3527:
3519:
3513:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3494:
3490:
3485:
3484:
3480:
3474:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3457:
3453:
3447:
3443:
3442:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3339:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3319:
3315:
3314:
3308:
3304:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3260:(in French).
3259:
3255:
3250:
3246:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3221:
3217:
3212:
3208:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3189:
3185:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3146:
3142:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3119:
3115:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3058:
3055:
3051:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3037:, p. 31.
3036:
3031:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3007:
3004:
3001:, p. 77.
3000:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2968:
2956:
2955:
2950:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2928:
2925:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2899:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2842:
2839:, p. 20.
2838:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2818:
2814:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2737:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2722:
2719:
2715:
2710:
2707:
2704:, p. 27.
2703:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2686:
2678:
2675:
2670:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2623:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2567:
2564:, p. 16.
2563:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2529:
2526:
2523:, p. 15.
2522:
2517:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2380:
2377:
2374:, p. 62.
2373:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2326:, p. 83.
2325:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2308:
2305:
2300:
2293:
2290:
2287:, p. 99.
2286:
2281:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2254:
2251:, p. 97.
2250:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2234:, p. 44.
2233:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2208:
2205:, p. 96.
2204:
2199:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2184:
2181:, p. 95.
2180:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2157:
2154:, p. 19.
2153:
2148:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2133:
2130:, p. 93.
2129:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2100:, p. 92.
2099:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2085:, p. 91.
2084:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2064:, p. 90.
2063:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2040:
2037:, p. 89.
2036:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1977:
1974:, p. 82.
1973:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1940:
1936:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1836:, p. 13.
1835:
1830:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1810:
1807:, p. 79.
1806:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1793:
1790:, p. 78.
1789:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1754:
1751:, p. 76.
1750:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1736:, p. 81.
1735:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1698:
1695:, p. 13.
1694:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1634:, p. 12.
1633:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1586:
1583:, p. 11.
1582:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1506:
1503:, p. 69.
1502:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1299:
1296:, p. 75.
1295:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1271:
1267:
1264:(in French).
1263:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1203:
1197:
1189:
1185:
1178:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1160:
1157:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1128:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1079:Pierre Gandon
1075:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1054:head of state
1051:
1045:
1042:
1037:
1036:Raymond Janot
1033:
1029:
1020:
1015:
1008:
1006:
1003:
999:
995:
990:
989:
984:
979:
977:
973:
969:
968:Nord Noratlas
961:
956:
954:
951:
947:
943:
938:
936:
932:
931:French Senate
928:
924:
920:
912:
907:
900:
898:
896:
892:
888:
882:
880:
876:
875:Ruanda-Urundi
872:
871:Belgian Congo
865:
863:
859:
855:
847:
842:
838:
835:
834:balkanisation
826:
824:
821:
816:
813:
809:
805:
801:
793:
788:
781:
779:
777:
773:
768:
763:
761:
756:
754:
750:
745:
743:
739:
731:
726:
722:
719:
715:
714:
705:
703:
699:
696:
691:
686:
683:
674:
672:
670:
666:
662:
661:
656:
655:law and order
650:
647:
641:
639:
635:
631:
628:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
601:
597:
592:
589:
580:
578:
576:
572:
568:
562:
559:
555:
551:
546:
542:
541:Protestantism
538:
530:
525:
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
504:
499:
495:
491:
487:
479:
474:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
443:Belgian Congo
440:
436:
432:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
408:
404:
400:
394:
392:
388:
384:
383:
378:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
349:
347:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
324:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
263:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
235:17 March 1938
234:
230:
227:
224:
220:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
176:
172:
165:
162:
159:
156:
155:
153:
149:
146:
143:
139:
136:
133:
129:
125:
124:Boda District
117:29 March 1959
116:
112:
109:
105:
100:
96:
91:
87:
84:
81:
75:
69:
64:
60:
56:
52:
45:
40:
33:
30:
19:
3865:Mbaka people
3739:Gbezera-Bria
3703:
3636:vacant, 1976
3635:
3625:
3579:
3571:Ubangi-Shari
3507:
3488:
3461:
3440:
3426:
3389:
3385:
3365:. Montreal:
3362:
3337:
3312:
3288:
3261:
3257:
3234:
3215:
3192:
3173:
3170:Goumba, Abel
3154:. ABC-CLIO.
3150:
3122:
3099:
3079:
3057:
3030:
3023:Prunier 2009
3018:
3013:, p. 5.
3006:
2994:
2982:
2970:
2958:. Retrieved
2952:
2927:
2915:. Retrieved
2911:
2901:
2889:. Retrieved
2885:
2875:
2863:
2854:
2844:
2832:
2820:
2808:
2796:
2784:
2772:
2760:
2748:
2726:Le Vine 2004
2721:
2714:Prunier 2009
2709:
2683:
2677:
2668:
2662:
2631:. p. 6.
2628:
2622:
2617:, p. 9.
2610:
2603:O'Toole 2019
2598:
2569:
2540:
2528:
2516:
2504:
2492:
2450:
2423:
2394:
2385:
2379:
2372:Yansané 1984
2355:
2319:
2307:
2298:
2292:
2280:
2268:
2256:
2210:
2198:
2186:
2159:
2147:
2135:
2042:
2015:
2003:
1991:
1979:
1967:
1955:
1943:. Retrieved
1938:
1928:
1916:
1909:Le Vine 2004
1904:
1877:
1870:Le Vine 2004
1865:
1853:
1841:
1829:
1768:
1756:
1712:
1700:
1669:
1627:
1615:
1588:
1559:
1532:
1520:
1508:
1496:
1489:Le Vine 2004
1467:. Retrieved
1461:
1418:
1406:
1394:
1382:
1377:, p. 6.
1370:
1358:
1338:, p. 7.
1323:, p. 8.
1301:
1274:. Retrieved
1270:the original
1217:
1205:
1177:
1168:
1159:
1145:
1131:
1123:
1113:
1107:
1084:
1046:
1024:
986:
980:
965:
939:
934:
916:
884:
867:
850:
830:
817:
811:
797:
776:French Union
764:
757:
752:
746:
737:
735:
711:
709:
700:
687:
678:
658:
651:
642:
623:
614:
593:
588:co-operative
584:
563:
534:
507:
485:
483:
454:
446:
438:
428:
424:Ubangi River
395:
380:
372:village head
353:
325:
300:World War II
293:
261:
260:
119:(1959-03-29)
78:Succeeded by
67:
29:
3850:1959 deaths
3845:1910 births
3729:Koyambounou
3653:(1976–1979)
3614:(1960–1976)
3573:(1903–1960)
3392:: 237–264.
3071:Works cited
3035:Titley 1997
2960:19 December
2917:19 December
2891:19 December
2837:Titley 1997
2741:Kinata 2008
2562:Titley 1997
2521:Titley 1997
2152:Goumba 2007
1945:19 December
1941:(in French)
1846:Kinata 2008
1693:Titley 1997
1632:Titley 1997
1469:18 December
1399:Chirot 1996
1375:Titley 1997
1336:Titley 1997
1306:Kinata 2008
1276:29 February
1188:Brazzaville
981:The French
962:Plane crash
887:David Dacko
742:Abel Goumba
634:Free French
598:(MESAN), a
490:French Army
377:World War I
269: 1910
166:(1949–1959)
160:(1946–1950)
141:Nationality
135:Plane crash
83:Abel Goumba
3839:Categories
3376:0773516026
3342:. Oxford:
3302:1588262499
3244:0810849135
3225:0269028013
3206:9041102876
3140:0691027773
2999:Heyns 1999
2825:Kalck 1971
2813:Kalck 1971
2801:Kalck 1971
2789:Kalck 1971
2777:Kalck 1971
2765:Kalck 1971
2753:Kalck 1971
2702:Kalck 2005
2655:Kalck 1971
2615:Kalck 2005
2591:Kalck 1971
2574:Kalck 2005
2545:Kalck 1971
2533:Kalck 1971
2497:Kalck 1971
2485:Kalck 2005
2470:Kalck 1971
2455:Kalck 1971
2443:Kalck 1971
2428:Kalck 1971
2416:Kalck 1971
2399:Kalck 1971
2339:Kalck 1971
2324:Kalck 2005
2312:Kalck 1971
2285:Kalck 1971
2273:Kalck 1971
2261:Kalck 1971
2249:Kalck 1971
2232:Kalck 2005
2215:Kalck 1971
2203:Kalck 1971
2191:Kalck 1971
2179:Kalck 1971
2164:Kalck 1971
2140:Kalck 1971
2128:Kalck 1971
2113:Kalck 2005
2098:Kalck 1971
2083:Kalck 1971
2062:Kalck 1971
2047:Kalck 1971
2035:Kalck 1971
2020:Kalck 2005
2008:Kalck 1971
1996:Kalck 1971
1984:Kalck 1971
1972:Kalck 1971
1960:Kalck 1971
1897:Kalck 2005
1882:Kalck 1971
1805:Kalck 1971
1788:Kalck 1971
1773:Kalck 1971
1749:Kalck 1971
1734:Kalck 1971
1501:Kalck 1971
1294:Kalck 1971
1198:References
441:in Lemfu,
358:, a large
350:Early life
3779:Nzapayeké
3759:Gaombalet
3744:Dologuélé
3734:Ngoupandé
3714:Malendoma
3510:. Brill.
3414:201721582
3406:1558-2744
3197:The Hague
3127:Princeton
2932:Bigo 1988
1129:in 1966.
1114:zo kwe zo
988:L'Express
815:demands.
812:loi-cadre
753:loi-cadre
738:loi-cadre
690:Berbérati
669:elections
615:zo kwe zo
520:Bangassou
503:fetishism
435:catechism
336:metropole
68:In office
3794:Ngrébada
3789:Sarandji
3774:Tiangaye
3769:Touadéra
3694:Lebouder
3631:Domitien
3334:(2009).
3280:40379941
3172:(2007).
935:de facto
919:its flag
627:Gaullist
416:Spiritan
403:smallpox
356:Bobangui
316:laicized
240:Laicized
232:Ordained
201:Children
104:Bobangui
3825:Interim
3749:Ziguélé
3724:Mandaba
3699:Bozanga
3689:Ayandho
3660:Patassé
3641:Patassé
3580:Boganda
3429:(146).
3293:Boulder
1184:Kikongo
1154:later".
613:phrase
545:elected
512:leopard
494:Grimari
463:Yaoundé
431:Lingala
283:of the
281:Premier
195:
183:
18:Boganda
3819:Acting
3804:Moloua
3799:Dondra
3784:Kamoun
3754:Goumba
3719:Lakoué
3684:Maïdou
3665:Maïdou
3585:Goumba
3514:
3495:
3469:
3448:
3412:
3404:
3373:
3350:
3320:
3299:
3278:
3241:
3222:
3203:
3180:
3158:
3137:
3110:
3104:Lanham
3087:
1097:. The
1064:Legacy
879:Angola
663:, his
575:Stalin
516:Bakala
508:mourou
459:Mvolyé
412:Mbaïki
407:Ngbaka
382:corvée
368:Bangui
364:Lobaye
360:M'Baka
304:Bangui
287:as an
222:Church
189:
174:Spouse
3709:Frank
3621:Dacko
3590:Dacko
3410:S2CID
3276:JSTOR
1137:Notes
957:Death
858:Congo
611:Sango
558:Paris
510:, or
498:Banda
420:Bétou
193:)
185:(
181:
164:MESAN
3764:Doté
3512:ISBN
3493:ISBN
3467:ISBN
3446:ISBN
3402:ISSN
3371:ISBN
3348:ISBN
3318:ISBN
3297:ISBN
3239:ISBN
3220:ISBN
3201:ISBN
3178:ISBN
3156:ISBN
3135:ISBN
3108:ISBN
3085:ISBN
2962:2021
2919:2021
2893:2021
1947:2021
1471:2021
1278:2008
976:Boda
760:Chad
600:mass
191:1950
114:Died
101:1910
98:Born
3394:doi
3266:doi
457:in
158:MRP
3841::
3425:.
3408:.
3400:.
3390:44
3388:.
3369:.
3346:.
3291:.
3274:.
3262:48
3195:.
3133:.
3129::
3125:.
3042:^
2951:.
2939:^
2910:.
2884:.
2853:.
2733:^
2694:^
2637:^
2581:^
2552:^
2477:^
2462:^
2435:^
2406:^
2364:^
2346:^
2331:^
2239:^
2222:^
2171:^
2120:^
2105:^
2090:^
2069:^
2054:^
2027:^
1937:.
1889:^
1812:^
1795:^
1780:^
1741:^
1724:^
1681:^
1654:^
1639:^
1600:^
1571:^
1544:^
1479:^
1460:.
1449:^
1430:^
1343:^
1328:^
1313:^
1286:^
1229:^
1060:.
877:,
873:,
864::
522:.
465:,
461:,
291:.
266:c.
187:m.
106:,
3823:‡
3817:*
3548:e
3541:t
3534:v
3520:.
3501:.
3475:.
3454:.
3433:.
3416:.
3396::
3379:.
3356:.
3326:.
3305:.
3282:.
3268::
3247:.
3228:.
3209:.
3186:.
3164:.
3143:.
3116:.
3093:.
2964:.
2921:.
2895:.
1949:.
1473:.
1280:.
1081:.
913:.
480:.
264:(
204:3
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.