Bona Dea - Knowledge (XXG)

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conspicuously promoted. His wife Livia was a distant relative of the long-dead but still notorious Clodius; but also related to the unfortunate Vestal Licinia, whose attempted dedication of Bona Dea's Aventine Temple had been thwarted by the Senate. Livia restored the temple and revived its May 1 festival, perhaps drawing attention away from her disreputable kinsman and the scandalous events of 62 BC. Thereafter, Bona Dea's December festival may have continued quietly, or could simply have lapsed, its reputation irreparably damaged. There is no evidence of its abolition. Livia's name did not and could not appear in the official religious calendars, but Ovid's Fasti associates her with May 1, and presents her as the ideal wife and "paragon of female Roman virtue". Most of Bona Dea's provincial and municipal sanctuaries were founded around this time, to propagate the new Imperial ideology. An

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are sexually abstinent, virtuous females who will desert an adulterous household. Myrtle, as the sign of Venus, Faunus' lust and Fauna's unjust punishment, is simply banned; or as Versnel puts it, "Wine in, Myrtle out". The vine-leaf bowers and the profusion of plants – any and all but the forbidden myrtle – transform the sophisticated, urban banqueting hall into a "primitive" dwelling, evoking the innocence of an ancestral golden age in which women rule themselves, without reference to men or Venus, drinking "milk and honey", which are "markers par excellence of utopian golden times" – under the divine authority of Bona Dea.

745:, he was responsible for the ritual purity and piety of public and private religion. He had the responsibility to ensure that the Vestals had acted correctly, then chair the inquiry into what were essentially his own household affairs. Worse, the place of the alleged offense was the state property lent to every pontifex maximus for his tenure of office. It was a high-profile, much-commented case. The rites remained officially secret, but many details emerged during and after the trial, and remained permanently in the public domain. They fueled theological speculation, as in 1071:... It is said too that she was the daughter of Faunus, and that she resisted the amorous advances of her father who had fallen in love with her, so that he even beat her with myrtle twigs because she did not yield to his desires though she had been made drunk by him on wine. It is believed that the father changed himself into a serpent, however, and under this guise had intercourse with his daughter." This myth bears a marked similarity to the rape of Persephone, by her father Zeus in the form of a chthonic snake, in 962: 838: 638:. It was hosted by the magistrate's wife and attended by respectable matrons of the Roman elite. This festival is not marked on any known religious calendar, but was dedicated to the public interest and supervised by the Vestals, and therefore must be considered official. Shortly after 62 BC, Cicero describes it as one of very few lawful nocturnal festivals allowed to women, privileged to those of aristocratic class, and coeval with Rome's earliest history. 1111:, and women could not lawfully perform rites at night, unless "offered for the people in proper form". Women were allowed wine at these and other religious occasions. At other times, they might drink weak, sweetened, or diluted wine in moderation but Roman traditionalists believed that in the more distant and virtuous past, this was forbidden, "for fear that they might lapse into some disgraceful act. For it is only a step from the intemperance of 681:, and underlined the pure and lawful sexual potency of virgins and matrons in a context that focused on female lust, instead of the lust of men. According to Cicero, any unauthorized man who caught even a glimpse of the rites could be punished by blinding, but he offers no example of this. Later Roman writers assume that apart from their different dates and locations, Bona Dea's December and May 1 festivals were essentially the same. 2991: 1008:, a sign of her abundant generosity and fruitfulness. In her right hand, she holds a bowl, which feeds a serpent coiled around her right arm: a sign of her healing and regenerative powers. This combination of snake and cornucopia are unique to Bona Dea. The literary record offers at least one variation on this type; Macrobius describes her cult statue as overhung by a "spreading vine", and bearing a sceptre in her left hand. 2197:

challenges these traditional assumptions. While female drunkenness was disapproved of, so was male drunkenness, and the moderate consumption of wine by women was probably a commonplace of domestic and religious life. Lawful blood-and-wine sacrifice is indicated many female-led cults, particularly in Graeca Magna and Etruria. See Emily A. Hemelrijk, in Hekster, Schmidt-Hofner and Witschel (Eds.),

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specific religious sphere. Fauna's myths illustrate the potential of wine as an agent of sexual transgression; wine was thought to be an invention of Liber-Dionysus, who was present as the male principle in certain "soft fruits", including semen and grapes; and ordinary wine was produced under the divine patronage of

1831:, 53.136. Licinia may have been attempting to assert the independence of her order against the dominant traditionalists in of the Senate. Scaevola removed her donations as not made "by the will of the people". Thereafter, the Temple's official status is unknown until Livia's restoration in the Augustan era. 922:(priests and ministers) of the goddess. While almost all Roman literary sources present the exclusion of men as an official and absolute rule of her cult, this is more likely a ritualised element of her annual festival, at least in Cicero's account of the same, than an everyday prohibition or an aspect of 1089:

for Bona Dea's mysterious cult, the myth developed circumstantially, to fit what little was known of the practice. In turn, the cult practice may have changed to support the virtuous ideological message required of the myths, particularly during the Augustan religious reforms that identified Bona Dea

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Most provincial sanctuaries and temples to Bona Dea are too decayed, despoiled or fragmentary to offer firm evidence of structure and layout, but the remains of four are consistent with the sparse descriptions of her Aventine temple. In each, a perimeter wall surrounds a dense compound of annexes, in

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Clodius, Cicero's social superior by birth, is presented as an innately impious, low-class oaf, and his popularist policies as threats to Rome's moral and religious security. After two years of legal wrangling, Clodius was acquitted – which Cicero put down to jury-fixing and other backroom dealings –

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The euphemistic naming of strong wine at this festival has been variously described as an actual substitution for milk and honey, relatively late in the cult's development; as a theological absurdity; and as an ingenious justification for behaviours that would be considered unacceptable outside this

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pater to the forbidden things of Venus". Some ancient sources infer that women were banned from offering blood-and-wine sacrifice in their own right; even banned from handling such materials; both claims are questionable. Nevertheless, the strong, sacrificial grade wine used in the rites to Bona Dea

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Prohibitions against the handling of wine and the preparation of meat by Roman women occur in Roman literature as retrospective examples of time-hallowed tradition, in which the Vestals, whose duties include the supervision of Bona Dea's rites, are the significant exception. Some modern scholarship

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Livia's best efforts to restore Bona Dea's reputation had only moderate success in some circles, where scurrilous and titillating stories of the goddess' rites continued to circulate. Well over a century after the Clodius scandal, Juvenal describes Bona Dea's festival as an opportunity for women of

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and Macrobius: and they fed the prurient male imagination – given their innate moral weakness, what might women do when given wine and left to their own devices? Such anxieties were nothing new, and underpinned Rome's traditional strictures against female autonomy. In the political and social

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For Staples, the euphemisms are agents of transformation. The designation of wine as "milk" conceives it as an entirely female product, dissociated from the sexually and morally complex realms of Venus and Liber. Likewise, the wine jar described as a "honey jar" refers to bees, which in Roman lore

1793:

appears to be a proper name; Fatua is translatable as "female seer" (one who foretells fate), or a divinely inspired "holy fool", either of which might carry Varro's intended meaning: but also as merely "foolish" (in Arnobius, for getting drunk in the first place, or because stupefied by drinking

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The unusual permissions implicit at these rites probably derived from the presence and religious authority of the Vestals. They were exceptional and revered persons; virgins, but not subject to their fathers' authority; and matrons, but independent of any husband. They held forms of privilege and

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but his reputation was damaged. The scandalous revelations at the trial also undermined the sacred dignity and authority of the Vestals, the festival, the goddess, office of the pontifex maximus and, by association, Caesar and Rome itself. Some fifty years later, Caesar's heir Octavian, later the

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identify as prototype for the Virgin Mary in Christian theology. Christian writers present Bona Dea – or rather, Fauna, whom they clearly take her to be – as an example of the immorality and absurdity at the heart of traditional Roman religion; according to them, she is no prophetess, merely

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Livia's association with the Vestal Licinia is itself not unproblematic. Licinia was tried on an almost certainly trumped-up charge of broken chastity, acquitted, then re-tried, found guilty, and executed on the strength of two prophecies in the Sibylline books. She was a contemporary of the

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Octavian presented himself as restorer of Rome's traditional religion and social values, and as peacemaker between its hitherto warring factions. In 12 BC he became pontifex maximus, which gave him authority over Rome's religious affairs, and over the Vestals, whose presence and authority he

1648:, and was probably a victim of the turbulent factional politics of the time. Livia's actions may also have helped to repair and elevate Licinia's posthumous reputation. Augustus is known to have called in, examined and censored many oracles, including the Sybilline books. According to 905:

Despite the exclusively female, aristocratic connections claimed by Cicero for her winter festival at Rome and her high status as a protecting deity of the Roman state, elite dedications to Bona Dea are far outnumbered by the personal dedications of the Roman plebs, particularly the

2303:, p. 45, citing Graf F., "Milch, Honig und Wein. Zum Verstindnis der Libation im Griechischen Ritual', In G. Piccaluga (ed.), Perennitas. Studi in onore di A. Brelich, Rome, 1980, pp. 209–21. Some myths credit Liber-Dionysus with the discovery of honey; but not its invention. 1605:, but he took pains to distance himself from Caesar's mortal aspirations, and cultivated an aura of personal modesty. His religious reforms reflect an ideology of social and political reconciliation, with a single individual (himself) as focus of empire and its final arbiter. 1475: 1102:

Bona Dea's is the only known festival in which women could gather at night, drink strong, sacrificial-grade wine and perform a blood sacrifice. Although women were present at most public ceremonies and festivals, the religious authorities in Roman society were the male

607:(c. late 3rd century BC). The rites are inferred as some form of mystery, concealed from the public gaze and, according to most later Roman literary sources, entirely forbidden to men. In the Republican era, Bona Dea's Aventine festivals were probably distinctly 1047:. As his female counterpart, Fauna had similar gifts, domains and powers in relation to women. In Plutarch's version of the myth, the mortal Fauna secretly gets drunk on wine, which is forbidden her. When Faunus finds out, he thrashes her with myrtle rods; in 865:, during Clodius' trial, claimed the goddess' cult as native to Rome, coeval with its foundation. In the middle Republican era, the temple may have fallen into disrepair, or its cult into official disfavour. In 123 BC the Vestal Licinia gave the temple an 897:

which some rooms show possible use as dispensaries. The layout would have allowed the concealment of inner cults or mysteries from non-initiates. There is evidence that at least some remained in use to the 4th century AD as cultic healing centres.

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that could be dispensed at need by its priestesses. Harmless snakes roamed its precincts. Men were supposedly forbidden entry but could dedicate offerings to the goddess, or, according to Ovid, could enter the precincts "if bidden by the goddess".

1894:. (...Bona Dea bars the eyes of men from her temple, except such as she bids come there herself). Cited in Brouwer, p. 183. See also p. 210, citing Festus, epitome of Flaccus, De Verborum Significatu, 56: the entry of men to Bona Dea's temple is 753:

Clodius' prosecution was at least partly driven by politics. In an otherwise seemingly thorough account, Cicero makes no mention of Bona Dea's May festival, and claims the goddess' cult as an aristocratic privilege from the first; the impeccably

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The house was ritually cleansed of all unauthorized male persons. Then the magistrate's wife and her assistants made bowers of vine-leaves, and decorated the house's banqueting hall with "all manner of growing and blooming plants" except for

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affairs, open to all classes of women and in some limited fashion, to men. Control of her Aventine cult seems to have been contested at various times during the Mid Republican era; a dedication or rededication of the temple in 123 BC by the

857:. Its foundation year is unknown but the Aventine was host to several foreign or imported cults. Dumezil claims that Festus' identification of Bona Dea with Damia infers a foundation date in or shortly after 272 BC, after Rome's capture of 910:. The greatest number of all are from freedmen and slaves, male and female. An estimated one-third of all dedications are from men, one of whom, a provincial Greek, claims to be a priest of her cult. Others describe themselves as 1473: 370:

and only initiates were given the possession of her true name. Given that male authors had limited knowledge of her rites and attributes, ancient speculations about her identity abound, among them that she was an aspect of

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Caesar publicly distanced himself from the affair as much as possible – and certainly from Pompeia, whom he divorced because "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion". He had been correctly absent from the rites but as a

1494:., pp. 129–130, 296–7. Clodius' mere presence would have been sacrilegious: the possibility of his intrusion for sexual conquest would be an even more serious offense against Bona Dea. See also Brouwer, p. xxiii, and 888:. It survived to at least the 4th century AD. Nothing is known of its architecture or appearance, save that unlike most Roman temples it was walled. It was an important centre of healing; it held a store of various 2217:, p. 32: "...the most surprising aspect is the nature of the drinks: during this secret, exclusively female, nocturnal festival the women were allowed to drink – at the very least to handle – wine". See also 1039:, and was the first king of the Latins, empowered with the gift of prophecy. In Roman religion he was a pastoral god and protector of flocks, with a shrine and oracle on the Aventine, sometimes identified with 677:), and wine; the last was euphemistically referred to as "milk", and its container as a "honey jar". The rites sanctified the temporary removal of customary constraints imposed on Roman women of all classes by 809:

all classes, most shamefully those of the upper class – and men in drag ("which altars do not have their Clodius these days?") – to get drunk and cavort indiscriminately in a sexual free-for-all.

1356:, p. 398: "And considering the fact that the aristocracy were only a small percentage of the population, it is not surprising that most expressions of Bona Dea worship originate from the lower classes." 620:; Licinia herself was later charged with inchastity, and executed. By the Late Republic era, Bona Dea's May festival and Aventine temple could have fallen into official disuse, or official disrepute. 655:) for the goddess and the image of a snake. The Vestals brought Bona Dea's cult image from her temple and laid it upon her couch, as an honoured guest. The goddess' meal was prepared: the entrails ( 1432:, p. 31. For Roman sources, cf. Plutarch, Lives: Life of Caesar, ix (711E), Life of Cicero, xix (870B); Juvenal, vi.339 (a satirical treatment); and Plutarch, Roman Questions, (Loeb), 20–35, 564:

festival to Demeter. They included nocturnal rites conducted by predominantly or exclusively female initiates and female priestesses, music, dance and wine, and sacrifice of a sow. During the

430:". For his support of the prosecution, Cicero earned Clodius' undying hatred. The festival fertility rites remained a subject of male curiosity and speculation, both religious and prurient. 750:

turmoil of the Late Republic, Rome's misfortunes were taken as signs of divine anger against the personal ambition, religious negligence and outright impiety of her leading politicians.

302: 3391: 2144:: supposedly an infertile tree, and a strong anaphrodisiac. Though wine is not attested at Thesmophoria, it may have been used. Like the Vestals, Demeter's priestesses were virgin. 965:

Bona Dea marble statue with epigraph; "Ex visu iussu Bonae Deae sacr(um) Callistus Rufinae N(ostrae) Act(or)" (Dedicated to Bona Dea by Callistus, slave of Rufina) CIL. XIV 2251.

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Most inscriptions to Bona Dea are simple and unadorned but some show serpents, often paired. Cumont (1932) remarks their similarity to the serpents featured in domestic shrines (

1567:., pp. 129–130, 296–7. In 59 BC, to further his political career, which otherwise might have stalled, Clodius renounced his patrician status for a questionable adoption into a 2440: 2315:, p. 45: "On the other hand, the mimicry may also have functioned as fuel for 'laughter of the oppressed"... "'say, dear, would you be so kind as to pass on the milk?'" 472:("The Good Goddess") is a name, an honorific title and a respectful pseudonym; the goddess' true or cult name is unknown. Her other, less common names or pseudonyms include 1075:. Macrobius refers the serpent's image at the goddess' rites to this mythical transformation, and to the live, harmless serpents who roamed the goddess' temple precincts. 45: 3396: 2008:, p. 401: Macrobius may have been referring to her Aventine cult statue (now lost): cf. the sceptre as an attribute of Juno, and a dedication at Aquincum to 1875: 1536: 295: 1081:

explains the exclusion of men from Bona Dea's cult as a consequence of her great modesty; no man but her husband had ever seen her, or heard her name. For

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The proverbial phrase "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion" is based on Caesar's own justification of this divorce, following the scandal. See Cicero,

877: 1024:'s aristocratic foundation myth, which was thus re-embroidered as a Roman moral fable. Several variants are known; Fauna is daughter, wife or sister of 623:

The goddess also had a winter festival, attested on only two occasions (63 and 62 BC). It was held in December, at the home of a current senior annual

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wine, or perhaps both). Arnobius gives two 1st century BC sources (now lost) as his authority: Sextus Clodius, and Butas. See Brouwer, pp. 233-4, 325.

805:. As the Vestals seldom went beyond Rome's city boundary, these cults would have been led by leading women of local elites, whether virgin or matron. 220: 2552: 427: 288: 2521: 2491: 2429: 2375: 2354: 2081: 1225:, p. 14, cites Dumézil's theory that "Damia" was probably an ancient misreading or mistranslation of "Demeter", later institutionalised. 414:

for an invited group of elite matrons and female attendants. The latter festival came to scandalous prominence in 62 BC, when the politician

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politician and ally of Caesar, was said to have intruded, dressed as a woman and intent on the hostess's seduction. According to Plutarch,

276: 124: 880:. The temple's use and status at the time of the Bona Dea scandal are unknown. It was restored in the Imperial era, once by the empress 484:("The Holy One"). She is a goddess of "no definable type", with several origins and a range of different characteristics and functions. 1874:

Samuel Ball Platner (revised by Thomas Ashby): A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London: Oxford University Press, 1929, p.85.

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vitiated by Clodius' unlawful presence. Inscriptions of the Imperial era show her appeal as a personal or saviour-goddess, extolled as

3408: 1895: 1280: 1270: 866: 714: 670: 656: 242: 215: 55: 1935:, Columbia studies in the Classical tradition, BRILL, 1992, p. 124, footnote 125. The claim to be a male priest of Bona Dea is from 2174:. He claims the principal source for this prohibition is the 2nd century BC agriculturalist and moralist, Cato the Elder. See also 2201:, Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007), Brill, 2009, pp. 2132:, pp. 35, 47 Thesomphoria was a three-day festival; its participants, exclusively female, slept on "primitive" beds made of 985:; serpents are associated with many earth-deities, and had protective, fertilising and regenerating functions, as in the cults of 794: 1639:

Phyllis Cunham, in Harriet Flower (ed), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 155.

3202: 690: 461:. Approximately one third of her dedications are from men, some of whom can be identified as acolytes and priests of her cult. 1433: 1090:

with the empress Livia. Versnel (1992) notes the elements common to the Bona Dea festival, Fauna's myths, and Greek Demeter's

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Versnel, H.S., Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and reversal in myth and ritual, BRILL, 1994, p. 233.

1994: 1614:

His restoration of the Vestals began even before his pontificate. On his return from the final battle of the civil war, at

1124:. Their ritual obligations and religious integrity were central to the well being of the Roman state and all its citizens. 3464: 1533: 778: 487:

Based on what little they knew of her rites and attributes, Roman historians speculated about her true name and identity.

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Franz Cumont, "La Bona Dea et ses serpents", Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire, 1932, Vol. 49, Issue 49, pp. 1–5.

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claims to rightful religious and political dominance. The festival and temple's foundation year is uncertain –

3073: 3047: 2336: 1515: 997:. Some Romans kept live, harmless snakes as household pets, and credited them with similarly beneficial functions. 710: 3454: 3444: 3207: 3042: 1472:

See W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the period of the Republic, MacMillan (New York, 1899): pp. 102–106.

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Cicero makes no reference to any myth pertaining to Bona Dea. Later Roman scholars connected her to the goddess

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of sacrificial wine. The festival continued through the night, a banquet with female musicians, fun and games (

596: 423: 352: 332: 104: 33: 1526: 3306: 2538: 2328: 2202: 702: 458: 415: 1898:(contrary to the divine will and law). Presumably, men were allowed in the precincts but not the sanctuary. 942:(Mistress of sea and land). Private and public dedications associate her with agricultural deities such as 3134: 1120:

authority otherwise associated only with Roman men, and were answerable only to the Senior Vestal and the

961: 252: 1085:, this makes her the paragon of chaste womanhood. Most likely, once Fauna's mythology seemed to offer an 3353: 3250: 2906: 2825: 2573: 388: 367: 336: 328: 174: 114: 362:

Her rites allowed women the use of strong wine and blood-sacrifice, things otherwise forbidden them by

3348: 3232: 3186: 2976: 2820: 2593: 1059:(to prophesy): they "are also called Fatui because they utter divine prophecy in a state of stupor". 947: 269: 262: 1411:

The sacrifice could have been offered by the Vestals or, according to Plutarch, by the hostess; see

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The known features of Bona Dea's cults recall those of various earth and fertility goddesses of the

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cults by virgin or matron priestesses. Surviving statuary shows her as a sedate Roman matron with a

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concealed the cult objects of the Goddess's mysteries from the intruder; but as the rites had been

438: 225: 134: 109: 837: 651:, whose presence and naming were expressly forbidden. A banquet table was prepared, with a couch ( 616:

Licinia, with the gift of an altar, shrine and couch, was immediately annulled as unlawful by the

3265: 2891: 2855: 2815: 2790: 2693: 2673: 2613: 2468: 2406: 846: 488: 407: 2071: 492: 3403: 3363: 3017: 2971: 2845: 2835: 2785: 2658: 2638: 2633: 2618: 2517: 2487: 2460: 2425: 2398: 2371: 2350: 2077: 1769: 1640: 1275: 1129: 994: 951: 943: 817: 790: 624: 557: 512: 384: 372: 257: 3296: 3027: 2946: 2886: 2745: 2723: 2708: 2452: 1755: 1615: 1121: 1072: 1001: 874: 698: 584: 508: 191: 3418: 3413: 3332: 3327: 3180: 3148: 3032: 2565: 2387:"Why Were the Vestals Virgins? Or the Chastity of Women and the Safety of the Roman State" 1652:, p. 144, he might have removed the prophecies that had been used to condemn Licinia. 1479: 1292: 1253: 576: 568:

era, two such cults to Bona Dea were held at different times and locations in the city of

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was tried for his sacrilegious intrusion on the rites, allegedly bent on the seduction of

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V. 148–158. As a non-divinity, Livia could not have appeared on the religious calendar.

954:. She is also named in some dedications of public works, such as the restoration of the 3270: 3159: 3022: 2740: 2530: 1852:. Brouwer, p. 401, regards this as the most likely meaning, rather than a new building. 966: 854: 604: 565: 442: 348: 323: 196: 164: 2990: 3433: 3197: 3121: 3037: 2966: 2936: 2916: 2765: 2688: 2678: 2579: 2472: 1540: 1068: 1017: 850: 738: 694: 613: 580: 515:, or Cybele, worshiped under the names of Ops, Fauna and Fatua. The Christian author 434: 419: 400: 356: 344: 203: 185: 144: 449:

and a snake. Personal dedications to her are attested among all classes, especially

410:, for the benefit of the Roman people; the other was hosted by the wife of a Roman 3260: 3255: 3217: 3114: 2663: 2603: 1091: 955: 798: 718: 662: 631: 617: 561: 500: 87: 2668: 1892:

cum fuget a templis oculos Bona Diva virorum, praeterquam siquos illa venire iubet

1132:, the goddess of love and sexual desire. Its aphrodisiac effects were well known. 2481: 2419: 2365: 2344: 3012: 1760: 1519: 986: 678: 363: 3222: 3129: 2896: 2881: 2871: 2800: 2780: 2509: 2456: 2037: 1580:. To his opponents, he was a dangerous social renegade; he was murdered in 53. 1316: 1170: 1048: 1005: 813: 722: 516: 446: 395:). Most often, she was identified as the wife, sister, or daughter of the god 2464: 2402: 3368: 2956: 2850: 2255:

regards the wine as a substitution for earlier sacrifices of milk and honey.

1249: 1060: 1051:'s version, Faunus thrashes her to death, regrets the deed and deifies her. 1044: 821: 816:

in Rome's traditional religions presents Bona Dea as one of many aspects of

717:, the Vestals were obliged to repeat them, and after further inquiry by the 706: 504: 210: 1744:

The virgin goddess: studies in the pagan and Christian roots of mariology,

3275: 3212: 3153: 3057: 2876: 2830: 2805: 2735: 2643: 2628: 2598: 2029: 1669: 1182: 1086: 870: 782: 765: 761: 746: 730: 608: 454: 159: 75: 825:"foolish Fenta", daughter and wife to her incestuous father, and "good" 725:, Clodius was charged with desecration, which carried a death sentence. 2931: 2921: 2840: 2810: 2795: 2755: 2653: 2421:

From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion

2410: 1645: 1577: 990: 907: 885: 858: 635: 592: 496: 491:

describes her as identical with a "women's goddess" named Damia, which

392: 17: 2386: 820:

Caelestis, the celestial Virgin, Great Mother of the gods, whom later

3358: 3100: 3094: 3007: 2941: 2926: 2901: 2683: 2608: 2510:"Cultes féminins dans l'Adriatique romaine : autour de Bona Dea" 1765: 1031: 1025: 1021: 982: 862: 802: 733:

had hosted the previous year's rites, testified for the prosecution.

726: 648: 524: 426:. Clodius was found not guilty, but Caesar divorced Pompeia because " 396: 380: 154: 149: 873:

and couch for the goddess, but they were removed as unlawful by the

1811:, the Aventine's lesser height and probably identical with Ennius' 3227: 2951: 2775: 2730: 2718: 2703: 2648: 1804: 1782: 1568: 1296: 1112: 1108: 1078: 1040: 1036: 978: 960: 881: 836: 588: 520: 450: 139: 81: 1424:

Winter festival summary based on Brouwer (1989) as summarised in

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derives the names Faunus and Fauna, collectively the Fatui, from

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Hadrian, 19, is the sole source for a rebuilding under Hadrian:

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he was greeted by a procession of women, headed by the Vestals.

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The goddess had two main annual festivals. One was held at her

399:, thus an equivalent or aspect of the fertility nature-goddess 335:. She was associated with chastity and fertility among married 2770: 1064: 376: 1344:

Ovid, Fasti, 2, 35; he is the only source for this assertion.

2989: 1094:, as "wine, myrtle, serpents and female modesty blemished". 1035:, meaning Faunus "the foolish", or seer). Faunus was son of 343:. According to Roman literary sources, she was brought from 507:

identifies her as a universal earth-goddess, an epithet of

1772:, the one goddess ritually excluded from Bona Dea's rites. 849:

in Rome was situated on a lower slope of the northeastern

1733:, 6.316–344. See Brouwer, p. 269, for further commentary. 841:

Temple of Bona Dea on a map of ancient Rome around 300 AD

2199:

Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire

1443: 1441: 853:, beneath the height known as Saxum, southeast of the 2073:

Redefining Ancient Orphism: A Study in Greek Religion

1116:

was normally reserved for Roman gods, and Roman men.

433:

Bona Dea's cults in the city of Rome were led by the

2512:. In Christiane, Delplace; Tassaux, Francis (eds.). 1933:

The cult of Silvanus: a study in Roman folk religion

3379: 3341: 3315: 3284: 3243: 3171: 3087: 3066: 3000: 2864: 2572: 2346:

Bona Dea: The Sources and a Description of the Cult

2234:Modern scholarship on the Vestals is summarised in 1295:seems to have drawn this theology from the work of 812:From the late 2nd century, an increasing religious 1463:XVII.37 – XVIII.38; cited in Brouwer, pp. 165–166. 1000:Images of the goddess show her enthroned, clad in 689:The Winter festival rites of 62 BC were hosted by 2514:Les cultes polythéistes dans l'Adriatique romaine 1844:, V.157–158, refers to the Augustan restoration. 2441:"The Festival for Bona Dea and the Thesmophoria" 1603:deified the dead Caesar and established his cult 797:. Other state cults to the goddess are found at 661:) of a sow, sacrificed to her on behalf of the 2546: 1661: 1649: 1627: 1589: 1551: 1495: 296: 8: 1237:, pp. 237–238, 240–242, citing Festus, 1063:writes that Bona Dea is "the same as Fauna, 2238:, pp. 563–601. See also discussion in 2076:. Cambridge University Press. p. 178. 1746:BRILL, 2004, p. 168. Other goddesses named 1434:available via link to Bill Thayer's website 1239:Epitome of Flaccus, de Verborum Significatu 267: 201: 2586: 2553: 2539: 2531: 2136:, a willow species known to the Romans as 1995:link to French language article at Persée. 391:form of a Greek goddess, "Damia" (perhaps 303: 289: 29: 884:, wife of Augustus, and perhaps again by 480:("The Goddess who must be Praised"), and 403:, who could prophesy the fates of women. 2239: 2222: 2070:III, Radcliffe G. Edmonds (2013-11-07). 1861:The temple is listed in the 4th century 1824: 1764:(also known as "the Syrian Goddess" and 1429: 1365: 1004:and mantle. On her left arm she holds a 519:, claiming the late Republican polymath 495:sees as an ancient misreading of Greek " 347:at some time during the early or middle 2367:Ovid and the Fasti: An Historical Study 2312: 2300: 2288: 2276: 2264: 2252: 2218: 2214: 2175: 2129: 2108: 2096: 2021: 2005: 1972: 1960: 1948: 1919: 1907: 1705: 1693: 1681: 1447: 1425: 1381: 1353: 1332: 1312: 1300: 1234: 1222: 1210: 1198: 1157: 1150: 741:he was responsible for their piety. As 234: 173: 123: 66: 32: 2333:Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History 2235: 1876:courtesy link to Bill Thayer's website 1717: 1160:, pp. 163, 211–212, 325–327, 339. 768:, had to deal with its repercussions. 587:; its location connects her to Rome's 697:, senior magistrate in residence and 428:Caesar's wife must be above suspicion 339:, healing, and the protection of the 322: 7: 1931:The estimate is in Peter F. Dorcey, 1886:The meaning is uncertain: see Ovid, 60:sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter 934:; or as an all-goddess, titled as 366:. Men were barred from some of her 1393:Possibly, her own female servants. 793:, probably in connection with the 595:and emergent aristocracy resisted 243:Glossary of ancient Roman religion 25: 2391:The American Journal of Philology 2364:Herbert-Brown, Geraldine (1994). 1984:Brouwer 1989, p. 293, Inscript. 8 1827:, pp. 92–93, citing Cicero, 1672:deified her long after her death. 1368:, pp. 92–93, citing Cicero, 1098:Cult themes in modern scholarship 583:temple. Its date connects her to 499:". In the late Imperial era, the 2516:(in French). Ausonius Éditions. 1412: 829:only at drinking too much wine. 685:Clodius and the Bona Dea scandal 523:as his source, describes her as 44: 2480:Wildfang, Robin Lorsch (2006). 2343:Brouwer, Hendrik H. J. (1989). 2024:, p. 46; citing Plutarch, 1402:Presumably her Aventine Temple. 1781:Lactantius appears to draw on 1: 2508:Delplace, Christiane (2019). 2120:See Brouwer, p. xxiii, 266ff. 1664:, pp. 130, citing Ovid, 2331:., Price, S., North, J., 1850:Fecit et... Aedem Bonae Deae 1641:googlebooks partial preview. 1303:, p. 356 (footnote 255) 940:Terrae marisque Dominatrici 901:Dedications and iconography 3481: 3048:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus 2987: 2337:Cambridge University Press 527:' wife and sister, named " 3043:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus 2589: 2457:10.1017/S0017383500023974 2418:Staples, Ariadne (1998). 1807:took his auspices on the 1754:(Heavenly Queen) include 950:, and the virgin goddess 476:("The Women's Goddess"), 465:Titles, names and origins 3302:Rape of the Sabine Women 2486:. Taylor & Francis. 2385:Parker, Holt N. (2004). 2187:Valerius Maximus, 2.1.5. 1554:, pp. 134, 141–143. 711:Caesar's mother, Aurelia 412:senior annual magistrate 351:, and was given her own 341:state and people of Rome 327:; 'Good Goddess') was a 3307:Battle of Lacus Curtius 2439:Versnel, H. S. (1992). 1461:De Haruspicum Responsis 1315:, pp. 239, citing 703:Publius Clodius Pulcher 416:Publius Clodius Pulcher 2994: 2562:Ancient Roman religion 2043:, 1.22.9–11: Servius, 1601:As a dutiful heir, he 1043:and later, with Greek 1020:, a central figure in 974: 938:(Triumphal Queen), or 842: 591:commoner class, whose 333:ancient Roman religion 268: 253:Ancient Greek religion 202: 2993: 2483:Rome's Vestal Virgins 2041:Divinae Institutiones 1937:Inscriptiones Graecae 1578:tribune of the people 1321:Divinae Institutiones 964: 840: 67:Practices and beliefs 3465:December observances 3187:Interpretatio graeca 2111:, pp. 218, 221. 1910:, pp. 410, 429. 1708:, pp. 402, 407. 861:. On the other hand 779:imperial cult centre 324:[ˈbɔnaˈdɛ.a] 270:Interpretatio Graeca 263:Gallo-Roman religion 3440:Fertility goddesses 3387:Classical mythology 3208:Theology of victory 3053:Kings of Alba Longa 2370:. Clarendon Press. 2291:, pp. 125–126. 2099:, pp. 340–341. 1951:, pp. 384–386. 1890:, III, 637-638: ... 1684:, pp. 237–238. 1592:, pp. 141–143. 1201:, pp. 236–238. 439:Sacerdos Bonae Deae 2995: 2221:, p. 45, and 2142:vitex agnus castis 1785:as his source for 1662:Herbert-Brown 1994 1650:Herbert-Brown 1994 1628:Herbert-Brown 1994 1590:Herbert-Brown 1994 1576:, and was elected 1552:Herbert-Brown 1994 1511:, 1.13; Plutarch, 1509:Letters to Atticus 1496:Herbert-Brown 1994 1478:2012-06-24 at the 1428:, p. 32, and 1281:Libri Pontificales 1256:as his source for 975: 936:Regina Triumphalis 847:Temple of Bona Dea 843: 558:Graeco-Roman world 455:freedmen and women 105:funerary practices 3427: 3426: 3404:Etruscan religion 3018:Romulus and Remus 3001:Legendary figures 2985: 2984: 2634:Castor and Pollux 2523:978-2-35613-260-4 2493:978-0-203-96838-3 2445:Greece & Rome 2431:978-0-415-13233-6 2377:978-0-19-814935-4 2356:978-90-04-08606-7 2267:, pp. 85–90. 2242:, pp. 31–32. 2083:978-1-107-03821-9 2034:Adversus Nationes 2010:Bonae Deae Iunoni 1975:, pp. 79–80. 1846:Historia Augusta, 1335:, pp. 31–33. 956:Claudian Aqueduct 667:pro populo Romano 625:Roman magistrate 560:, especially the 547:Festival and cult 313: 312: 258:Etruscan religion 216:agricultural gods 115:mystery religions 61: 16:(Redirected from 3472: 3455:Virgin goddesses 3445:Health goddesses 3297:Founding of Rome 3067:Legendary beings 3028:Tullus Hostilius 2865:Abstract deities 2724:Lares Familiares 2587: 2555: 2548: 2541: 2532: 2527: 2497: 2476: 2435: 2414: 2381: 2360: 2316: 2310: 2304: 2298: 2292: 2286: 2280: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2256: 2249: 2243: 2232: 2226: 2212: 2206: 2194: 2188: 2185: 2179: 2164: 2158: 2151: 2145: 2127: 2121: 2118: 2112: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2087: 2067: 2061: 2054: 2048: 2026:Roman Questions, 2019: 2013: 2003: 1997: 1991: 1985: 1982: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1946: 1940: 1929: 1923: 1917: 1911: 1905: 1899: 1884: 1878: 1872: 1866: 1863:Notitia Regionis 1859: 1853: 1838: 1832: 1822: 1816: 1801: 1795: 1779: 1773: 1752:Regina Caelestis 1740: 1734: 1727: 1721: 1715: 1709: 1703: 1697: 1691: 1685: 1679: 1673: 1659: 1653: 1637: 1631: 1625: 1619: 1612: 1606: 1599: 1593: 1587: 1581: 1561: 1555: 1549: 1543: 1505: 1499: 1488: 1482: 1470: 1464: 1457: 1451: 1445: 1436: 1422: 1416: 1415:in this article. 1409: 1403: 1400: 1394: 1391: 1385: 1379: 1373: 1363: 1357: 1351: 1345: 1342: 1336: 1330: 1324: 1310: 1304: 1290: 1284: 1247: 1241: 1232: 1226: 1220: 1214: 1208: 1202: 1196: 1190: 1180: 1174: 1167: 1161: 1155: 1122:Pontifex Maximus 1073:Orphic mythology 875:pontifex maximus 743:pontifex maximus 699:pontifex maximus 575:One was held on 566:Roman Republican 478:Laudanda ... Dea 326: 321: 305: 298: 291: 273: 207: 192:Capitoline Triad 50: 48: 38: 30: 21: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3474: 3473: 3471: 3470: 3469: 3460:May observances 3450:Roman goddesses 3430: 3429: 3428: 3423: 3419:Myth and ritual 3414:Greek mythology 3375: 3337: 3333:Pignora imperii 3328:Parabiago Plate 3311: 3280: 3239: 3173: 3167: 3149:Sibylline Books 3083: 3062: 3033:Servius Tullius 2996: 2981: 2860: 2576: 2568: 2559: 2524: 2507: 2504: 2502:Further reading 2494: 2479: 2438: 2432: 2417: 2384: 2378: 2363: 2357: 2342: 2335:, illustrated, 2325: 2320: 2319: 2311: 2307: 2299: 2295: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2263: 2259: 2250: 2246: 2233: 2229: 2213: 2209: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2166:Aulus Gellius, 2165: 2161: 2152: 2148: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2107: 2103: 2095: 2091: 2084: 2069: 2068: 2064: 2055: 2051: 2020: 2016: 2004: 2000: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1979: 1971: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1947: 1943: 1930: 1926: 1918: 1914: 1906: 1902: 1885: 1881: 1873: 1869: 1860: 1856: 1839: 1835: 1823: 1819: 1803:Traditionally, 1802: 1798: 1780: 1776: 1742:Stephen Benko, 1741: 1737: 1728: 1724: 1716: 1712: 1704: 1700: 1692: 1688: 1680: 1676: 1660: 1656: 1638: 1634: 1626: 1622: 1613: 1609: 1600: 1596: 1588: 1584: 1562: 1558: 1550: 1546: 1529:and Suetonius, 1506: 1502: 1489: 1485: 1480:Wayback Machine 1471: 1467: 1458: 1454: 1446: 1439: 1423: 1419: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1397: 1392: 1388: 1380: 1376: 1364: 1360: 1352: 1348: 1343: 1339: 1331: 1327: 1311: 1307: 1293:Cornelius Labeo 1291: 1287: 1254:Cornelius Labeo 1248: 1244: 1233: 1229: 1221: 1217: 1209: 1205: 1197: 1193: 1181: 1177: 1168: 1164: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1142: 1100: 1014: 903: 890:medicinal herbs 835: 774: 687: 679:Roman tradition 644: 554: 549: 493:Georges Dumézil 467: 408:Aventine temple 364:Roman tradition 319: 309: 248:Roman mythology 230: 226:divine emperors 211:underworld gods 169: 165:Fratres Arvales 119: 62: 59: 52:Marcus Aurelius 36: 34: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3478: 3476: 3468: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3432: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3400: 3399: 3389: 3383: 3381: 3377: 3376: 3374: 3373: 3372: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3351: 3345: 3343: 3339: 3338: 3336: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3312: 3310: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3281: 3279: 3278: 3273: 3271:Pythagoreanism 3268: 3266:Peripateticism 3263: 3258: 3253: 3247: 3245: 3241: 3240: 3238: 3237: 3236: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3183: 3177: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3164: 3163: 3160:The Golden Ass 3151: 3146: 3145: 3144: 3132: 3127: 3126: 3125: 3118: 3106: 3105: 3104: 3091: 3089: 3085: 3084: 3082: 3081: 3079:Barnacle goose 3076: 3070: 3068: 3064: 3063: 3061: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3023:Numa Pompilius 3020: 3015: 3010: 3004: 3002: 2998: 2997: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2982: 2980: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2874: 2868: 2866: 2862: 2861: 2859: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2733: 2728: 2727: 2726: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2590: 2584: 2570: 2569: 2560: 2558: 2557: 2550: 2543: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2522: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2498: 2492: 2477: 2436: 2430: 2415: 2397:(4): 563–601. 2382: 2376: 2361: 2355: 2340: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2317: 2305: 2293: 2281: 2269: 2257: 2244: 2227: 2207: 2189: 2180: 2168:Noctes Atticae 2159: 2146: 2122: 2113: 2101: 2089: 2082: 2062: 2049: 2014: 1998: 1986: 1977: 1965: 1953: 1941: 1924: 1922:, p. 258. 1912: 1900: 1879: 1867: 1854: 1833: 1817: 1796: 1774: 1735: 1722: 1720:, p. 571. 1710: 1698: 1696:, p. 412. 1686: 1674: 1654: 1632: 1630:, p. 146. 1620: 1607: 1594: 1582: 1556: 1544: 1539:2012-05-30 at 1500: 1483: 1465: 1452: 1437: 1417: 1404: 1395: 1386: 1384:, p. 398. 1374: 1358: 1346: 1337: 1325: 1305: 1285: 1242: 1227: 1215: 1213:, p. 323. 1203: 1191: 1175: 1162: 1149: 1148: 1146: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1099: 1096: 1013: 1010: 902: 899: 855:Circus Maximus 834: 831: 773: 770: 686: 683: 643: 642:Festival rites 640: 605:Claudia Quinta 603:credits it to 579:at Bona Dea's 553: 552:Republican era 550: 548: 545: 537:the prophetess 466: 463: 435:Vestal Virgins 311: 310: 308: 307: 300: 293: 285: 282: 281: 280: 279: 274: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 237: 236: 235:Related topics 232: 231: 229: 228: 223: 221:childhood gods 218: 213: 208: 199: 197:Aventine Triad 194: 189: 181: 178: 177: 171: 170: 168: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 131: 128: 127: 121: 120: 118: 117: 112: 107: 102: 95: 90: 85: 78: 72: 69: 68: 64: 63: 49: 41: 40: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3477: 3466: 3463: 3461: 3458: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3435: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3398: 3395: 3394: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3378: 3370: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3355: 3352: 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Routledge. 2423: 2422: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2379: 2373: 2369: 2368: 2362: 2358: 2352: 2348: 2347: 2341: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2322: 2314: 2309: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2294: 2290: 2285: 2282: 2279:, p. 45. 2278: 2273: 2270: 2266: 2261: 2258: 2254: 2248: 2245: 2241: 2240:Wildfang 2006 2237: 2231: 2228: 2225:, p. 31. 2224: 2223:Wildfang 2006 2220: 2216: 2211: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2193: 2190: 2184: 2181: 2178:, p. 44. 2177: 2173: 2169: 2163: 2160: 2156: 2150: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2123: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2090: 2085: 2079: 2075: 2074: 2066: 2063: 2060:, 1.12.20–29. 2059: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2018: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2002: 1999: 1996: 1990: 1987: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1966: 1963:, p. 21. 1962: 1957: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1871: 1868: 1865:, (Regio XII) 1864: 1858: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1837: 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1271:indigitamenta 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1228: 1224: 1219: 1216: 1212: 1207: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1166: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1151: 1144: 1139: 1137: 1133: 1131: 1125: 1123: 1117: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1097: 1095: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1033: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1011: 1009: 1007: 1003: 998: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 972: 968: 963: 959: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 900: 898: 894: 891: 887: 883: 879: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 851:Aventine Hill 848: 839: 832: 830: 828: 823: 819: 815: 810: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 771: 769: 767: 764: 763: 757: 751: 748: 744: 740: 739:paterfamilias 734: 732: 729:, whose wife 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 695:Julius Caesar 692: 684: 682: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 659: 654: 650: 641: 639: 637: 633: 629: 628: 621: 619: 615: 614:Vestal Virgin 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 573: 571: 567: 563: 559: 551: 546: 544: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 485: 483: 479: 475: 471: 464: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 431: 429: 425: 424:wife, Pompeia 421: 420:Julius Caesar 417: 413: 409: 404: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 369: 365: 360: 358: 357:Aventine Hill 354: 350: 346: 345:Magna Graecia 342: 338: 334: 330: 325: 317: 306: 301: 299: 294: 292: 287: 286: 284: 283: 278: 275: 272: 271: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 240: 239: 238: 233: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 206: 205: 204:Indigitamenta 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 187: 186:Dii Consentes 183: 182: 180: 179: 176: 172: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 133: 132: 130: 129: 126: 122: 116: 113: 111: 110:imperial cult 108: 106: 103: 101: 100: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 83: 79: 77: 74: 73: 71: 70: 65: 57: 53: 47: 43: 42: 39: 31: 19: 3323:Gubernaculum 3292:Golden Bough 3261:Neoplatonism 3256:Epicureanism 3185: 3158: 3139: 3120: 3113: 3099: 2623: 2604:Anna Perenna 2578: 2513: 2482: 2451:(1): 31–55. 2448: 2444: 2420: 2394: 2390: 2366: 2345: 2332: 2323:Bibliography 2313:Versnel 1992 2308: 2301:Versnel 1992 2296: 2289:Staples 1998 2284: 2277:Versnel 1992 2272: 2265:Staples 1998 2260: 2253:Brouwer 1989 2247: 2230: 2219:Versnel 1992 2215:Versnel 1992 2210: 2198: 2192: 2183: 2176:Versnel 1992 2167: 2162: 2154: 2149: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2130:Versnel 1992 2125: 2116: 2109:Brouwer 1989 2104: 2097:Brouwer 1989 2092: 2072: 2065: 2057: 2052: 2044: 2040: 2033: 2025: 2022:Versnel 1992 2017: 2009: 2006:Brouwer 1989 2001: 1989: 1980: 1973:Brouwer 1989 1968: 1961:Brouwer 1989 1956: 1949:Brouwer 1989 1944: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1920:Brouwer 1989 1915: 1908:Brouwer 1989 1903: 1891: 1888:Ars Amatoria 1887: 1882: 1870: 1862: 1857: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1828: 1820: 1812: 1808: 1799: 1790: 1786: 1777: 1759: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1738: 1730: 1725: 1713: 1706:Brouwer 1989 1701: 1694:Brouwer 1989 1689: 1682:Brouwer 1989 1677: 1665: 1657: 1635: 1623: 1610: 1597: 1585: 1571: 1564: 1559: 1547: 1534:6.2 and 74.2 1530: 1523: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1491: 1486: 1468: 1460: 1455: 1448:Versnel 1992 1426:Versnel 1992 1420: 1407: 1398: 1389: 1382:Brouwer 1989 1377: 1369: 1361: 1354:Brouwer 1989 1349: 1340: 1333:Versnel 1992 1328: 1320: 1313:Brouwer 1989 1308: 1301:Brouwer 1989 1288: 1279: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1245: 1238: 1235:Brouwer 1989 1230: 1223:Staples 1998 1218: 1211:Brouwer 1989 1206: 1199:Brouwer 1989 1194: 1186: 1178: 1165: 1158:Brouwer 1989 1153: 1134: 1126: 1118: 1101: 1092:Thesmophoria 1077: 1056: 1029: 1028:(also named 1015: 999: 976: 971:Ager Albanus 970: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 904: 895: 871:small shrine 844: 826: 822:Mariologists 811: 807: 775: 772:Imperial Era 760: 752: 742: 735: 688: 674: 666: 663:Roman people 657: 652: 645: 626: 622: 618:Roman Senate 574: 562:Thesmophoria 555: 540: 539:" or Fenta " 536: 532: 528: 501:neoplatonist 486: 481: 477: 473: 469: 468: 432: 405: 361: 315: 314: 184: 97: 80: 56:head covered 37:ancient Rome 3397:Persecution 3349:Gallo-Roman 3141:Res divinae 3013:Rhea Silvia 2236:Parker 2004 2056:Macrobius, 2045:In Aeneidos 1939:, XIV 1499. 1829:De Domo Sua 1813:Mons Murcia 1787:Fenta Fatua 1761:Magna Mater 1718:Parker 2004 1520:Cassius Dio 1413:Cult themes 1370:De Domo Sua 1173:, 4, 9, 25. 1087:explanation 987:Aesculapius 878:P. Scaevola 785:honours an 627:cum imperio 541:the foolish 533:Fenta Fatua 529:Fenta Fauna 474:Feminea Dea 337:Roman women 125:Priesthoods 35:Religion in 27:Roman deity 3434:Categories 3342:Variations 3244:Philosophy 3223:Capitolium 3130:Propertius 2897:Averruncus 2882:Aeternitas 2872:Abundantia 2801:Proserpina 2155:De Legibus 2058:Saturnalia 2047:, 8, 314.. 2038:Lactantius 1896:religiosus 1317:Lactantius 1171:Propertius 1140:References 1049:Lactantius 1006:cornucopia 967:Antoninian 912:sacerdotes 814:syncretism 723:pontifices 707:popularist 693:, wife of 630:, whether 535:" (Fenta " 517:Lactantius 447:cornucopia 443:provincial 441:, and her 353:state cult 135:Pontifices 3369:Mithraism 3354:Mysteries 3203:Palladium 3181:Festivals 2957:Securitas 2907:Concordia 2851:Vertumnus 2669:Dīs Pater 2566:mythology 2473:162683316 2465:1477-4550 2403:0002-9475 2349:. Brill. 2157:, 2.9.21. 1748:Caelestis 1729:Juvenal, 1372:, 53.136. 1250:Macrobius 1145:Citations 1061:Macrobius 1012:Mythology 795:corn dole 789:Bona Dea 756:patrician 669:), and a 597:patrician 505:Macrobius 451:plebeians 368:mysteries 93:festivals 3409:Glossary 3380:See also 3276:Stoicism 3251:Cynicism 3213:Pomerium 3172:Concepts 3154:Apuleius 3074:She-wolf 3058:Hersilia 2977:Victoria 2877:Aequitas 2831:Summanus 2821:Silvanus 2806:Quirinus 2736:Libertas 2699:Hercules 2644:Cloacina 2629:Carmenta 2624:Bona Dea 2599:Angerona 2594:Agenoria 2329:Beard, M 2153:Cicero, 2036:, 5.18: 2030:Arnobius 2028:35: cf. 1670:Claudius 1569:plebeian 1537:Archived 1476:Archived 1459:Cicero, 1183:Lygdamus 1105:pontiffs 973:, Italy 948:Silvanus 920:ministri 916:magistri 859:Tarentum 783:Aquileia 766:Augustus 762:princeps 747:Plutarch 731:Terentia 715:vitiated 671:libation 653:pulvinar 609:plebeian 593:tribunes 589:plebeian 581:Aventine 470:Bona Dea 437:and the 349:Republic 316:Bona Dea 160:Epulones 155:Fetiales 150:Flamines 145:Vestales 76:libation 3392:Decline 3316:Objects 3218:Temples 3198:Charity 2932:Laverna 2922:Fortuna 2912:Feronia 2841:Veritas 2811:Salacia 2796:Priapus 2781:Penates 2761:Neptune 2756:Minerva 2751:Mercury 2714:Jupiter 2654:Dea Dia 2619:Bellona 2574:Deities 2411:1562224 2339:, 1998. 2203:253–267 2172:10.23.1 1768:), and 1731:Satires 1646:Gracchi 1278:in the 1189:, 5, 8. 1083:Servius 1053:Servius 1030:Faunus 991:Demeter 979:lararia 969:, from 928:Augusta 908:ingenui 886:Hadrian 833:Temples 791:Cereria 787:Augusta 691:Pompeia 636:praetor 503:author 497:Demeter 393:Demeter 387:, or a 355:on the 329:goddess 277:Decline 175:Deities 140:Augures 88:temples 18:Bonadea 3359:Cybele 3285:Events 3233:Celtic 3101:Aeneid 3095:Virgil 3008:Aeneas 2942:Pietas 2927:Fontus 2902:Caelus 2892:Annona 2887:Africa 2856:Vulcan 2816:Saturn 2791:Pomona 2694:Genius 2684:Faunus 2674:Egeria 2614:Aurora 2609:Apollo 2520: 2490: 2471: 2463: 2428: 2409: 2401: 2374: 2353: 2080: 1840:Ovid, 1766:Cybele 1758:, the 1616:Actium 1563:Beard 1531:Julius 1513:Caesar 1490:Beard 1299:. See 1264:, and 1252:cites 1187:Elegia 1109:augurs 1032:Fatuus 1026:Faunus 1022:Latium 1002:chiton 983:Pompei 932:Domina 924:mystes 863:Cicero 827:(bona) 803:Portus 727:Cicero 719:senate 675:ludere 649:myrtle 632:consul 531:" or " 525:Faunus 489:Festus 482:Sancta 459:slaves 457:, and 397:Faunus 381:Cybele 320:Latin: 3228:Cella 3135:Varro 3115:Fasti 3088:Texts 2972:Terra 2952:Salus 2917:Fides 2846:Vesta 2836:Venus 2786:Pluto 2776:Orcus 2731:Liber 2719:Lares 2704:Janus 2689:Flora 2679:Fauna 2659:Diana 2649:Cupid 2639:Ceres 2469:S2CID 2407:JSTOR 2140:, or 2138:agnos 2134:lugos 1842:Fasti 1809:Saxum 1805:Remus 1791:Fenta 1783:Varro 1770:Venus 1666:Fasti 1565:et al 1527:37.45 1492:et al 1297:Varro 1276:Terra 1266:Fatua 1262:Fauna 1130:Venus 1113:Liber 1079:Varro 1069:Fatua 1041:Inuus 1037:Picus 1018:Fauna 995:Ceres 981:) at 952:Diana 944:Ceres 882:Livia 867:altar 818:Virgo 799:Ostia 577:May 1 521:Varro 513:Terra 401:Fauna 389:Latin 385:Ceres 383:, or 373:Terra 82:votum 3364:Isis 3109:Ovid 2962:Spes 2947:Roma 2746:Mars 2741:Luna 2709:Juno 2664:Dies 2564:and 2518:ISBN 2488:ISBN 2461:ISSN 2426:ISBN 2399:ISSN 2372:ISBN 2351:ISBN 2078:ISBN 1756:Juno 1573:gens 1516:9-10 1258:Bona 1107:and 1057:fari 993:and 930:and 845:The 801:and 721:and 705:, a 658:exta 601:Ovid 585:Maia 570:Rome 543:"). 509:Maia 99:ludi 2937:Pax 2826:Sol 2771:Ops 2766:Nox 2453:doi 2395:125 1750:or 1274:of 1268:as 1169:In 1067:or 1065:Ops 1045:Pan 918:or 781:in 634:or 422:'s 377:Ops 331:in 3436:: 2467:. 2459:. 2449:39 2447:. 2443:. 2405:. 2393:. 2389:. 2170:, 2032:, 1789:. 1522:, 1518:; 1440:^ 1319:, 1260:, 1185:, 989:, 958:. 946:, 914:, 869:, 701:. 572:. 511:, 453:, 379:, 375:, 359:. 2583:) 2577:( 2554:e 2547:t 2540:v 2526:. 2496:. 2475:. 2455:: 2434:. 2413:. 2380:. 2359:. 2205:. 2086:. 2012:. 1815:. 665:( 318:( 304:e 297:t 290:v 58:) 54:( 20:)

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