393:
47:
516:
the least modernized farms and by 42.3% at farms with the medium level of technology used in livestock housing, while they increase the least at farms with the most advanced cooling technologies. On the contrary, if the warming is kept to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), costs at moderately modernized farms increase the least, by 12.5%, followed by the most modernized farms with a 19.9% increase, and the least technological farms seeing the greatest increase.
529:
401:
chickens for eating were produced yearly in the
European Union. Mass production of chicken meat is a global industry and at that time, only two or three breeding companies supplied around 90% of the world's breeder-broilers. The total number of meat chickens produced in the world was nearly 47 billion in 2004; of these, approximately 19% were produced in the US, 15% in China, 13% in the EU25 and 11% in Brazil.
433:, birds in the tropical countries do not begin to experience heat stress until 32 °C (90 °F). There is wider agreement that temperatures greater than 35 °C (95 °F) and 47 °C (117 °F) form "upper critical" and lethal zones, respectively. Average daily temperatures of around 33 °C (91 °F) are known to interfere with feeding in both broilers and egg hens, as well as lower their
247:
large pectoral muscles, which interfere with and reduce natural mating. The amount of sperm produced and deposited in the hen's reproductive tract may be limited because of this. Additionally, the males' overall sex drive may be significantly reduced due to growth selection. Artificial insemination has allowed many farmers to incorporate selected genes into their stock, increasing their genetic quality.
268:, and low levels of activity. Modern commercial broilers are bred to reach a slaughter-weight of about 2 kg (4.4 lb) in only 5 to 7 weeks. As a consequence, the behaviour and physiology of broilers reared for meat are those of immature birds, rather than adults. Slow growing free-range and organic strains have been developed which reach slaughter-weight at 12 to 16 weeks of age.
370:. Breeding for increased breast muscle affects the way chickens walk and puts additional stresses on their hips and legs. There is a high frequency of skeletal problems in broilers, mainly in the locomotory system. These leg abnormalities impair the locomotor abilities of the birds, and lame birds spend more time lying and sleeping. Increased inactivity is linked with an increase in
358:
165:
stocking density and in-house procedures must be evaluated regularly to support good welfare of the flock. The breeding stock (broiler-breeders) do grow to maturity but also have their own welfare concerns related to the frustration of a high feeding motivation and beak trimming. Broilers are usually grown as mixed-sex flocks in large sheds under intensive conditions.
255:
instrument is placed 2–4 cm into the vaginal orifice. As the semen is deposited, the pressure applied to the hen's abdomen is released simultaneously. The person performing this procedure typically uses one hand to move and direct the tail feathers, while using the other hand to insert the instrument and semen into the vagina.
294:
Broiler behavior is modified by the environment, and alters as the broilers' age and bodyweight rapidly increase. For example, the activity of broilers reared outdoors is initially greater than broilers reared indoors, but from six weeks of age, decreases to comparable levels in all groups. The same
246:
Artificial insemination is a mechanism in which spermatozoa are deposited into the reproductive tract of a female. Artificial insemination provides a number of benefits relating to reproduction in the poultry industry. Broiler breeds have been selected specifically for growth, causing them to develop
500:
is another popular antioxidant administered to poultry for these reasons. Though the effect of supplementation is limited, it is much cheaper than interventions to improve cooling or simply stock fewer birds, and so remains popular. While the majority of literature on poultry heat stress and dietary
238:
on the company's breeding plan for egg layers, which had been developed in the mid-1960s. A difficulty facing the breeders of the color-sexed broiler is that the chicken must be white-feathered by slaughter age. After 12 years, accurate color sexing without compromising economic traits was achieved.
515:
Around 2003, it was estimated that the poultry industry in the United States already lost up to $ 165 million annually due to heat stress at the time. One paper estimated that if global warming reaches 2.5 °C (4.5 °F), then the cost of rearing broilers in Brazil increases by 35.8% at
250:
Abdominal massage is the most common method used for semen collection. During this process, the rooster is restrained and the back region located towards the tail and behind the wings is caressed. This is done gently but quickly. Within a short period of time, the male should get an erection of the
237:
were included. A white feathered female line was purchased from Cobb. A full-scale breeding program was commenced in 1958, with commercial shipments in Canada and the US in 1959 and in Europe in 1963. As a second example, color sexing broilers was proposed by Shaver in 1973. The genetics were based
365:
Artificial selection has led to a great increase in the speed with which broilers develop and reach slaughter-weight. Selection and husbandry for very fast growth means there is a genetically induced mismatch between the energy-supplying organs of the broiler and its energy-consuming organs. Rapid
299:
abnormality at seven weeks of age. There is no evidence of reduced motivation to extend the behavioral repertoire, as, for example, ground pecking remained at significantly higher levels in the outdoor groups because this behavior could also be performed from a lying posture rather than standing.
254:
During artificial insemination, semen is most frequently deposited intra-vaginally by means of a plastic syringe. In order for semen to be deposited here, the vaginal orifice is everted through the cloaca. This is simply done by applying pressure to the abdomen of the hen. The semen-containing
164:
Due to extensive breeding selection for rapid early growth and the husbandry used to sustain this, broilers are susceptible to several welfare concerns, particularly skeletal malformation and dysfunction, skin and eye lesions and congestive heart conditions. Management of ventilation, housing,
400:
The commercial production of broiler chickens for meat consumption is a highly industrialized process. There are two major sectors: (1) rearing birds intended for consumption and (2) rearing parent stock for breeding the meat birds. A report in 2005 stated that around 5.9 billion broiler
174:
378:. Broilers are usually kept at high stocking densities. This can reduce feed intake and growth. Management conditions (litter quality, temperature and humidity) are however more important than stocking density. Many broilers die during the processes of catching, packing and transport.
795:
339:(FCR) of a broiler was 1.91 kilograms of feed per kilograms of liveweight in 2011, an improvement from 4.70 in 1925. Canada has a typical FCR of 1.72. New Zealand commercial broiler farms have recorded the world's best broiler chicken FCR at 1.38. The
331:
and modern broilers are given access to a special diet of high protein feed, usually delivered via an automated feeding system. This is combined with artificial lighting conditions to stimulate eating and growth and thus the desired body weight.
138:
production. Most commercial broilers reach slaughter weight between four and six weeks of age, although slower growing breeds reach slaughter weight at approximately 14 weeks of age. Typical broilers have white feathers and yellowish skin.
295:
study shows that in the outdoors group, surprisingly little use is made of the extra space and facilities such as perches – it was proposed that the main reason for this was leg weakness as 80 per cent of the birds had a detectable
189:
Before the development of modern commercial meat breeds, broilers were mostly young male chickens culled from farm flocks. Pedigree breeding began around 1916. Magazines for the poultry industry existed at this time. A
180:
179:
176:
175:
181:
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263:
Modern commercial broilers, for example, Cornish crosses and
Cornish-Rocks, are artificially selected and bred for large-scale, efficient meat production. They are noted for having very fast growth rates, a high
206:. This first attempt at a meat crossbreed was introduced in the 1930s and became dominant in the 1960s. The original crossbreed was plagued by problems of low fertility, slow growth and disease susceptibility.
178:
1730:"The use of dietary chromium associated with vitamins and minerals (synthetic and natural source) to improve some quality aspects of broiler thigh meat reared under heat stress condition"
425:
It is believed that the thermal comfort zone for poultry is in the 18–25 °C (64–77 °F) range. Some papers describe 26–35 °C (79–95 °F) as the "critical zone" for
283:). Modern crosses are also favorable for meat production because they lack the typical "hair" which many breeds have that must be removed by singeing after plucking the carcass.
959:
Blanco J, Wildt D, Höfle U, Voelker W, Donoghue A (2009). "Implementing artificial insemination as an effective tool for ex situ conservation of endangered avian species".
271:
Typical broilers have white feathers and yellowish skin. Recent genetic analysis has revealed that the gene for yellow skin was incorporated into domestic birds through
311:
in heavy cocks at 58 weeks and is probably a consequence of the large bulk or the conformation of the males at this age interfering in some way with the transfer of
1544:
Kuter, Eren; Cengiz, Özcan; Köksal, Bekir Hakan; Sevim, Ömer; Tatlı, Onur; Ahsan, Umair; Güven, Gülşen; Önol, Ahmet Gökhan; Bilgili, Sacit F. (December 28, 2022).
177:
2253:
609:
1070:
2248:
714:
213:(originally a breeder of egg-production breeds) began gathering breeding stock for a broiler program in 1950. Besides the breeds normally favored,
1444:"Biomarkers of heat stress and mechanism of heat stress response in Avian species: Current insights and future perspectives from poultry science"
1073:
1358:
418:
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of broiler meat were produced in 2014, and as of 2018, the worldwide estimation of broiler chick population was approximately 23 billion.
746:
562:
1634:"Organic Chromium Form Alleviates the Detrimental Effects of Heat Stress on Nutrient Digestibility and Nutrient Transporters in Laying Hens"
2741:
1089:
Weeks CA, Nicol CJ, Sherwin CM, Kestin SC (1994). "Comparison of the behaviour of broiler chickens in indoor and free-range environments".
404:
Consumption of broilers is surpassing that of beef in industrialized countries, with demand rising in Asia. Worldwide, 86.6 million
1906:
Bilal, Rana
Muhammad; Hassan, Faiz-ul; Farag, Mayada R.; Nasir, Taquir Ali; Ragni, Marco; Ahsan, Umair; Güven, Gülşen (April 20, 2021).
2494:
2085:
1771:"Resveratrol relieves chronic heat stress-induced liver oxidative damage in broilers by activating the Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathway"
779:
2379:
1769:
Ding, Kang-Ning; Lu, Meng-Han; Guo, Yan-Na; Liang, Shao-Shan; Mou, Rui-Wei; He, Yong-Ming He; Tang, Lu-Ping (December 14, 2022).
1390:
Bennett CE, Thomas R, Williams M, Zalasiewicz J, Edgeworth M, Miller H, Coles B, Foster A, Burton EJ, Marume U (December 2018).
615:. National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), Agricultural Statistics Board, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Archived from
2263:
1151:
534:
2646:
1289:
Dawkins MS, Donelly S, Jones TA (2004). "Chicken welfare is influenced more by housing conditions than by stocking density".
1246:
Vestergaard, K.S.; Sonatra, G.S. (1999). "Relationships between leg disorders and changes in behaviour of broiler chickens".
1632:
Orhan, Cemal; Tuzcu, Mehmet; Deeh, Patrick Brice Defo; Sahin, Nurhan; Komorowski, James R.; Sahin, Kazim (August 21, 2018).
1346:
1728:
Untea, Arabela Elena; Varzaru, Iulia; Turcu, Raluca Paula; Panaite, Tatiana
Dumitra; Saracila, Mihaela (October 13, 2021).
2406:
1546:"Litter quality and incidence and severity of footpad dermatitis in heat stressed broiler chickens fed supplemental zinc"
2767:
2329:
251:
phallus. Once this occurs, the cloaca is squeezed and semen is collected from the external papilla of the vas deferens.
392:
352:
46:
1681:"Effects of the supplemental chromium form on performance and oxidative stress in broilers exposed to heat stress"
2401:
2390:
2319:
1585:"Effect of chronic heat stress on some physiological and immunological parameters in different breed of broilers"
2772:
2165:
1124:
Duncan IJH, Hocking PM, Seawright E (1990). "Sexual behaviour and fertility in broiler breeder domestic fowl".
572:
31:
2016:
de
Carvalho Curi, T. M. R.; de Alencar Nääs, I.; da Silva Lima, N. D.; Martinez, A. A. G. (January 24, 2022).
616:
2567:
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303:
Examining the frequency of all sexual behaviour shows a large decrease with age, suggestive of a decline in
2726:
2661:
2575:
2122:
2115:
1908:"Thermal stress and high stocking densities in poultry farms: Potential effects and mitigation strategies"
1907:
1860:
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1443:
547:
1497:
Alhenaky, Alhanof; Abdelqader, Anas; Abuajamieh, Mohannad; Al-Fataftah, Abdur-Rahman (November 3, 2017).
1041:
721:
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2547:
2487:
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336:
265:
222:
218:
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199:
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of the broiler also has a large effect in addition to the birds nutrition and genetics on overall FCR.
2590:
2364:
2029:
1974:
1919:
1872:
1679:
Sahin, N; Hayirli, A; Orhan, C; Tuzcu, M; Akdemir, F; Komorowski, J R; Sahin, K (December 11, 2019).
1510:
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1479:
1322:
1271:
1106:
669:
542:
340:
2416:
1005:"Poultry Industry Frequently Asked Questions Provided by the U.S. Poultry & Egg Association"
2017:
1963:"Zinc in a Combination with Magnesium Helps Reducing Negative Effects of Heat Stress in Quails"
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1990:
1962:
1935:
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Modern broilers have become very different from the
Cornish/Rock crossbreeds. As an example,
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2480:
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1982:
1927:
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1782:
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1557:
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1499:"The effect of heat stress on intestinal integrity and Salmonella invasion in broiler birds"
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1221:
1133:
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976:
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854:
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of worse quality under heat stress, and also seem to benefit from mineral supplementation.
2711:
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276:
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Eriksson, J., Larson G., Gunnarsson, U., Bed'hom, B., Tixier-Boichard, M., et al. (2008)
972:
2033:
1978:
1923:
1876:
1583:
Xu, Yongjie; Lai, Xiaodan; Li, Zhipeng; Zhang, Xiquan; Luo, Qingbin (November 1, 2018).
1514:
1459:
1302:
882:"The Relationship Between Body Weight and Reproductive Efficiency in Meat-Type Chickens"
2736:
2696:
2628:
2542:
2527:
2223:
1609:
1584:
1416:
1391:
1067:
Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene
Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken.
502:
375:
234:
226:
1437:
1435:
934:
858:
147:
is also used sometimes to refer specifically to younger chickens under 2.0 kilograms (
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2671:
2522:
2461:
2334:
2314:
2238:
2049:
1947:
1804:
1755:
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567:
485:
210:
2002:
1714:
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1004:
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2281:
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2183:
1931:
1884:
1522:
1467:
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1275:
589:
437:, with outcomes such as reduced weight gain/egg production or greater incidence of
230:
214:
1746:
1729:
921:
Vishwanath R (January 15, 2003). "Artificial insemination: the state of the art".
1787:
1770:
1561:
1225:
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2369:
2359:
2349:
2018:"Climate change impact on Brazilian broiler production cost: a simulation study"
1217:
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497:
493:
477:
426:
2041:
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2421:
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371:
191:
907:
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2552:
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2218:
1218:"Host genetics and gut microbiota contribute to feed efficiency in chickens"
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461:
357:
308:
1994:
1939:
1892:
1845:
1818:
Sahin, K; Sahin, N; Kucuk, O; Hayirli, A; Prasad, A. S. (October 1, 2009).
1796:
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2228:
2132:
1861:"Effect of thermal stress on fertility and egg quality of Japanese quail"
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481:
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growth can lead to metabolic disorders such as sudden death syndrome and
328:
185:
Video of chickens almost ready to be slaughtered in a modern broiler farm
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127:
108:
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405:
316:
304:
880:
Robinson FE, Wilson JL, Yu MW, Fasenko GM, Hardin RT (May 1, 1993).
842:
501:
supplementation focuses on chickens, similar findings were seen in
2127:
391:
356:
312:
172:
120:
1392:"The broiler chicken as a signal of human reconfigured biosphere"
489:
296:
135:
2476:
2067:
715:"How 90 years of poultry breeding has shaped today's industry"
510:
374:
caused by a greater amount of time in contact with ammonia in
2022:
International
Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
774:
Damerow, G. 1995. A Guide to
Raising Chickens. Storey Books.
361:
One-day-old chicks arriving to be unpacked and placed in shed
307:. The decline in libido is not enough to account for reduced
460:
ends up with a lower proportion of essential compounds like
202:
strain, and a female of a tall, large-boned strain of white
2472:
2063:
480:. Multiple studies show that dietary supplementation with
1820:"Role of dietary zinc in heat-stressed poultry: A review"
1442:
Oladokun, Samson; Adewole, Deborah I. (October 1, 2022).
286:
Both male and female broilers are reared for their meat.
1176:. Small Flock Poultry Farmers of Canada. August 21, 2013
198:
was produced from a male of a naturally double-breasted
1042:"The Welfare of Broiler Chickens in the European Union"
30:
This article is about the poultry. For other uses, see
505:, which eat less and gain less weight, suffer reduced
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2510:
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2262:
2174:
2151:
2101:
98:
90:
82:
74:
69:
61:
53:
652:Bessei W (2006). "Welfare of broilers: A review".
1343:2014 – Facts and figures about the animals we eat
161: lb), as compared with the larger roasters.
1364:(Report). USDA. October 11, 2018. Archived from
789:
787:
419:Effects of climate change on livestock § Poultry
396:Estimated chicken consumption per person in 2012
1359:Livestock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade
2488:
2079:
488:properties, particularly in combination with
8:
1040:Turner, J.; Garcés L. and Smith, W. (2005).
484:can help to relieve these issues due to its
39:
2254:European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC
1859:El-Tarabany, Mahmoud S. (August 27, 2016).
134:) that is bred and raised specifically for
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2481:
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2064:
708:
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45:
38:
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637:
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1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1025:
720:. Poultry International. Archived from
600:
1775:Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
796:"The History of Shaver Breeding Farms"
954:
952:
823:Pathways to Pregnancy and Parturition
689:"What Are the Main Types of Chicken?"
563:Concentrated animal feeding operation
7:
1010:. U.S. Poultry & Egg Association
973:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.09.019
836:
834:
832:
1047:. Compassion in World Farming Trust
825:. Redmond: Current Conceptions Inc.
608:Kruchten, Tom (November 27, 2002).
2320:Avian infectious laryngotracheitis
798:. Hendrix Genetics. Archived from
452:. Persistent heat stress leads to
25:
2335:Histomoniasis (blackhead disease)
1967:Biological Trace Element Research
1734:Italian Journal of Animal Science
1638:Biological Trace Element Research
687:Gerrard, Gene (January 7, 2019).
2380:Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome
1126:Applied Animal Behaviour Science
610:"U.S Broiler Industry Structure"
527:
429:, but others report that due to
417:This section is an excerpt from
382:World production and consumption
2249:Abnormal behaviour in captivity
654:World's Poultry Science Journal
535:Agriculture and Agronomy portal
1961:Kucuk, O. (January 10, 2008).
1932:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2021.102944
1885:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.08.004
1523:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2017.10.015
1468:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2022.103332
1198:. Watt AgGate. August 27, 2012
841:Donoghue A, Wishart G (2000).
1:
1747:10.1080/1828051X.2021.1978335
935:10.1016/S0093-691X(02)01241-4
859:10.1016/s0378-4320(00)00160-3
319:which otherwise look normal.
78:Yellow, brown, black or mixed
2330:Avian sarcoma leukosis virus
1788:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114411
1562:10.1016/j.livsci.2022.105145
1196:"NZ FCR Broiler Performance"
1138:10.1016/0168-1591(90)90137-3
1069:PLoS Genet January 23, 2008
847:Animal Reproduction Science
353:Welfare of broiler chickens
323:Feeding and feed conversion
2789:
2042:10.1007/s13762-021-03893-z
1912:Journal of Thermal Biology
1865:Journal of Thermal Biology
1503:Journal of Thermal Biology
1448:Journal of Thermal Biology
1396:Royal Society Open Science
1226:10.21203/rs.3.rs-967786/v1
1154:. National Chicken Council
1152:"U.S. Broiler Performance"
843:"Storage of Poultry Semen"
456:in tissues, and harvested
416:
385:
350:
29:
2402:Infectious bursal disease
2391:Gallid alphaherpesvirus 3
1987:10.1007/s12011-007-8083-6
1650:10.1007/s12011-018-1485-9
1103:10.1017/S0962728600016833
1071:Genetics.plosjournals.org
747:"Watt Publishing History"
713:Hardiman, J. (May 2007).
666:10.1017/s0043933906001085
412:Impacts of climate change
335:In the U.S., the average
103:
44:
2166:List of poultry feathers
821:Senger, Phillip (2012).
794:Smith, Kingsley (2010).
573:Intensive animal farming
132:Gallus gallus domesticus
32:Broiler (disambiguation)
2457:Tibial dyschondroplasia
2452:Squamous cell carcinoma
2161:List of chicken colours
584:The Chicken of Tomorrow
242:Artificial insemination
2727:Organic egg production
2662:Cannibalism in poultry
749:. Watt. Archived from
548:Animal welfare science
397:
362:
186:
1837:10.3382/ps.2008-00560
802:on September 24, 2015
472:, yet an increase in
395:
360:
337:feed conversion ratio
266:feed conversion ratio
184:
27:Chicken bred for meat
2742:In the United States
2365:Dermanyssus gallinae
1260:10.1136/vr.144.8.205
1174:"Ontario Canada FCR"
622:on December 29, 2013
2768:Chicken crossbreeds
2034:2022JEST...1910589D
2028:(11): 10589–10598.
1979:2008BTER..123..144K
1924:2021JTBio..9902944B
1877:2016JTBio..61...38E
1515:2017JTBio..70....9A
1460:2022JTBio.11003332O
1408:10.1098/rsos.180325
1371:on October 11, 2012
1311:10.1038/nature02226
1303:2004Natur.427..342S
41:
2667:Chicken eyeglasses
2345:Campylobacteriosis
899:10.3382/ps.0720912
398:
363:
281:G. sonneratii
231:Jersey Black Giant
187:
2755:
2754:
2687:Chicken harvester
2470:
2469:
2427:Newcastle disease
2407:Infectious coryza
1830:(10): 2176–2183.
1698:10.3382/ps/pex249
1691:(12): 4317–4324.
1601:10.3382/ps/pey256
1595:(11): 4073–4082.
1550:Livestock Science
1297:(6972): 342–344.
1248:Veterinary Record
691:. The Spruce Eats
182:
118:
117:
86:white/light brown
16:(Redirected from
2780:
2732:Pastured poultry
2497:
2490:
2483:
2474:
2214:Broiler industry
2088:
2081:
2074:
2065:
2054:
2053:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1973:(1–3): 144–153.
1958:
1952:
1951:
1903:
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1896:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1839:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1790:
1766:
1760:
1759:
1749:
1740:(1): 1491–1499.
1725:
1719:
1718:
1700:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1612:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1494:
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995:
994:
984:
956:
947:
946:
918:
912:
911:
901:
877:
871:
870:
853:(1–3): 213–232.
838:
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811:
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791:
782:
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763:
762:
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753:on July 19, 2012
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454:oxidative stress
388:Broiler industry
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111:
49:
42:
21:
2788:
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2779:
2778:
2777:
2773:Poultry farming
2758:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2712:Furnished cages
2707:Free-range eggs
2639:Poultry farming
2633:
2600:
2562:
2538:Domestic pigeon
2506:
2501:
2471:
2466:
2417:Marek's disease
2325:Avian influenza
2301:
2258:
2209:Poultry farming
2204:Chicken tractor
2194:Furnished cages
2170:
2147:
2097:
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2062:
2057:
2015:
2014:
2010:
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1824:Poultry Science
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886:Poultry Science
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727:on May 25, 2012
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578:Poultry farming
533:
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503:Japanese quails
435:immune response
431:acclimatization
422:
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277:grey junglefowl
261:
259:General biology
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169:Modern breeding
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2753:
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2750:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2737:Poultry litter
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2697:Forced molting
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2643:
2641:
2635:
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2631:
2629:White striping
2626:
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2616:
2610:
2608:
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2535:
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2512:
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2500:
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2492:
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2477:
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2317:
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2259:
2257:
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2224:Forced molting
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2119:
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2061:
2060:External links
2058:
2056:
2055:
2008:
1953:
1898:
1851:
1810:
1761:
1720:
1671:
1644:(2): 529–537.
1624:
1575:
1536:
1509:(Pt B): 9–14.
1489:
1431:
1402:(12): 180325.
1382:
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1281:
1254:(8): 205–209.
1238:
1209:
1187:
1165:
1143:
1132:(3): 201–213.
1116:
1097:(3): 179–192.
1091:Animal Welfare
1081:
1076:2012-05-25 at
1058:
1021:
996:
967:(1): 200–213.
961:Theriogenology
948:
929:(2): 571–584.
923:Theriogenology
913:
892:(5): 912–922.
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543:Animal cruelty
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492:or herbs like
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386:Main article:
383:
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376:poultry litter
351:Main article:
348:
347:Welfare issues
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204:Plymouth Rocks
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2315:Aspergillosis
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1556:: 1491–1499.
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1078:archive.today
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486:antioxidative
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273:hybridization
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223:New Hampshire
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219:Plymouth Rock
216:
212:
211:Donald Shaver
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168:
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146:
145:broiler-fryer
143:or sometimes
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65:Meat/feathers
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52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
2682:Chicken coop
2677:Chick sexing
2652:Battery cage
2591:Goose breeds
2548:Muscovy duck
2389:
2297:Rooster Flag
2282:Cockfighting
2234:Chick sexing
2184:Battery cage
2142:
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2011:
1970:
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1956:
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1385:
1373:. Retrieved
1366:the original
1353:
1339:
1335:
1294:
1290:
1284:
1251:
1247:
1241:
1231:November 16,
1229:. Retrieved
1212:
1200:. Retrieved
1190:
1178:. Retrieved
1168:
1156:. Retrieved
1146:
1129:
1125:
1119:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1066:
1061:
1051:November 16,
1049:. Retrieved
1012:. Retrieved
999:
964:
960:
926:
922:
916:
889:
885:
875:
850:
846:
822:
816:
806:December 31,
804:. Retrieved
800:the original
755:. Retrieved
751:the original
741:
729:. Retrieved
722:the original
693:. Retrieved
682:
657:
653:
624:. Retrieved
617:the original
603:
590:Ayam Kampong
582:
441:infections,
424:
403:
399:
364:
334:
326:
302:
293:
285:
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262:
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249:
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215:Cornish Game
208:
188:
163:
144:
140:
131:
123:
119:
54:Distribution
36:
2647:Antibiotics
2581:Duck breeds
2437:Psittacosis
2422:Mycoplasmas
2370:Egg binding
2355:Coccidiosis
2350:Candidiasis
2153:Terminology
982:10261/61328
558:Chicken tax
498:Resveratrol
494:wood sorrel
478:cholesterol
427:heat stress
317:copulations
194:variety of
2762:Categories
2722:Hock burns
2702:Free range
2533:Guineafowl
2432:Omphalitis
2375:Erysipelas
2277:Cockatrice
2189:Free range
2103:As poultry
1918:: 102944.
1781:: 114411.
1454:: 103332.
1341:Meat Atlas
596:References
509:and hatch
470:zeaxanthin
458:white meat
450:meningitis
446:dermatitis
439:salmonella
372:dermatitis
341:microbiome
75:Skin color
57:World-wide
2692:Debeaking
2624:Scaly leg
2553:Puna ibis
2447:Scaly leg
2292:Sarimanok
2176:Husbandry
2050:246211499
1948:233555119
1871:: 38–43.
1805:254723325
1756:244583811
1666:255452740
1570:254914487
1484:252361675
1345:, p. 41,
1158:August 1,
908:0032-5791
507:fertility
462:vitamin E
329:omnivores
309:fertility
275:with the
227:Langshans
192:crossbred
141:#broiler#
91:Comb type
83:Egg color
2717:Hatchery
2657:Blinders
2606:Diseases
2442:Pullorum
2397:Gapeworm
2340:Botulism
2307:Diseases
2287:Kapparos
2244:Candling
2229:Hatchery
2133:Poularde
2003:24775551
1995:18188513
1940:34420608
1893:27712658
1846:19762873
1797:36525949
1715:10630678
1707:29053811
1658:30132119
1619:29931080
1531:29108563
1476:36462852
1426:30662712
1319:14737165
1268:10097343
1111:82317011
1074:Archived
1014:June 21,
991:19004491
943:12499005
867:10924826
695:June 16,
674:86638983
626:June 23,
521:See also
482:chromium
290:Behavior
18:Broilers
2747:Yarding
2619:Malaria
2614:Fowlpox
2518:Chicken
2511:Species
2504:Poultry
2412:Malaria
2385:Fowlpox
2272:As pets
2264:Culture
2199:Yarding
2143:Broiler
2138:Poussin
2111:As food
2095:Chicken
2030:Bibcode
1975:Bibcode
1920:Bibcode
1873:Bibcode
1610:6162357
1511:Bibcode
1456:Bibcode
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1375:July 2,
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1299:Bibcode
1276:7739290
1202:May 29,
1180:May 29,
757:July 1,
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474:glucose
443:footpad
368:ascites
315:during
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200:Cornish
196:chicken
156:⁄
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126:is any
124:broiler
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305:libido
233:, and
70:Traits
2528:Goose
2360:Colds
2128:Capon
2046:S2CID
1999:S2CID
1944:S2CID
1801:S2CID
1752:S2CID
1711:S2CID
1662:S2CID
1566:S2CID
1480:S2CID
1369:(PDF)
1362:(PDF)
1323:S2CID
1272:S2CID
1107:S2CID
1045:(PDF)
1008:(PDF)
725:(PDF)
718:(PDF)
670:S2CID
620:(PDF)
613:(PDF)
313:semen
121:Breed
2523:Duck
1991:PMID
1936:PMID
1889:PMID
1842:PMID
1793:PMID
1703:PMID
1654:PMID
1615:PMID
1527:PMID
1472:PMID
1422:PMID
1377:2012
1315:PMID
1264:PMID
1233:2023
1204:2015
1182:2015
1160:2019
1053:2014
1016:2012
987:PMID
939:PMID
904:ISSN
863:PMID
808:2013
776:ISBN
759:2012
733:2012
697:2020
628:2012
511:eggs
490:zinc
476:and
468:and
297:gait
136:meat
2038:doi
1983:doi
1971:123
1928:doi
1881:doi
1832:doi
1783:doi
1779:249
1742:doi
1693:doi
1646:doi
1642:189
1605:PMC
1597:doi
1558:doi
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1519:doi
1464:doi
1452:110
1412:PMC
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1347:pdf
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1295:427
1256:doi
1252:144
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