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brightness. By resting with the translucent legs surrounding the body, the frog's edge appears softer, with less brightness gradient from the leaf to the legs and from the legs to the body, making the outline less noticeable. This camouflage phenomenon, in which the frog's edges are softened to match the relative brightness of its surroundings, is referred to as edge diffusion. Herpetology researchers study the pros and cons of transparency in glass frogs, it was established that the transparency offers more than regular color changes in the skin itself through limited pigments. Experiments with computer-generated images and gelatine models of opaque and translucent frogs found that the translucent frogs were less visible, and were attacked by birds significantly less often. Photographs of the frogs were taken both at nighttime and during the day, results showed little to no visibility of the frogs on any leaves in the daytime or nighttime. It was found in 2022 that these frogs have the ability to conceal red blood cells concentrated inside their livers, increasing transparency when they are vulnerable. While this would cause massive clotting in most animals (including humans), glass frogs are able to regulate the location, density, and packing of red cells without clotting. The findings could advance medical understanding of dangerous blood clotting.
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external view of the viscera—the internal organs present in the body's main cavity—making it so observers can witness the frog's internal processes, such as the heart beating and pumping blood through its arteries. Patterning of glass frogs is varied amongst different species, while some appear as a uniform green color, others display spots that range from yellow to white, mimicking the coloration of their eggs.
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body conditions, whether or not she is able to fend for herself will tell how long after her eggs are laid that she will remain by the clutch. Males will occasionally call for and mate with other females on the same leaf, establishing a multitude of different developmentally-staged egg clutches to guard.
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The majority of amphibians use cutaneous respiration, or the process of breathing through the skin. Due to the importance of the skin, amphibians are very sensitive to what goes through their permeable skin, the stratum corneum is the main skin barrier which is much thinner than other classes such as
989:
Centrolenidae is a species that has long-term parental care, males guard the clutch for various days after the eggs are laid. Environmental aspects also play into the amount of time the male glass frog tends to the young, such as rainfall or wind. Female post-oviposition care is most often based on
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The eggs are usually deposited on the leaves of trees or shrubs hanging over the running water of mountain streams, creeks, and small rivers. One species leaves its eggs over stones close to waterfalls. The method of egg-laying on the leaf varies between species. The males usually call from leaves
334:
The evolutionary relationships, biogeography, and character evolution of centrolenidae were discussed by
Guayasamin et al. (2008) Glass frogs originated in South America and dispersed multiple times into Central America. Character evolution seems to be complex, with multiple gains and/or losses of
232:, living mainly in trees, feeding on small insects and only coming out for mating season. Their transparency conceals them very effectively when sleeping on a green leaf, as they habitually do. However, climate change and habitat fragmentation has been threatening the survival rates of the family.
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coloration. An endangered species of glass frog found in Peru was compared to the N. mixomaculatus species and the following results were recorded: no humeral spine, no webbed fingers between II and III, finger I shorter than II, no vomerine teeth, no ulnar and tarsal tubercles or folds, no white
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of some fly species. Some glass frogs show parental care: in many species, glass frog females brood their eggs during the night the eggs are fertilized, which improves the survival of the eggs, while in almost a third of species, glass frog males stay on guard for much longer periods. After they
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Mating begins by the call of a male tree frog, who is perched either on the underside or top of a leaf over a lake edge or a stream. Once a female has responded to the male's call, mating begins on the leaf in the amplexus physical position, in which the male wraps his arms around the female and
903:
Glass frogs are generally small, ranging from 3–7.5 cm (1.2–3.0 in) in length. They appear light green in color over most of their bodies, except for the skin along the lower surface of the body and legs, which are transparent or translucent. The glass frog's transparent skin allows an
894:
The evolutionary advantage of a partly clear skin and an opaque back was a mystery, as it did not seem to be effective as camouflage. It was found that the colour of the frog's body changed little against darker or lighter foliage, but the legs were more translucent and consequently changed in
1285:
Frost, D. R.; Grant, T.; Faivovich, J. N.; Bain, R. H.; Haas, A.; Haddad, C. L. F. B.; De Sá, R. O.; Channing, A.; Wilkinson, M.; Donnellan, S. C.; Raxworthy, C. J.; Campbell, J. A.; Blotto, B. L.; Moler, P.; Drewes, R. C.; Nussbaum, R. A.; Lynch, J. D.; Green, D. M.; Wheeler, W. C. (2006).
465:
body and dorsal C-shaped eyes, that live buried within leaf packs in still or flowing water systems; and 5) eggs clutches deposited outside of water on vegetation or rocks above still or flowing water systems. Several molecular
315:. Later contributions by authors such as Juan Rivero, Savage, William Duellman, John D. Lynch, Pedro Ruiz-Carranza, and José Ayarzagüena increased the number of described taxa, especially from Central America,
986:
attaches himself to her back. Once the physical mating process has concluded, the female produces her eggs onto the leaf before departing, leaving the male to defend the newly-laid eggs against predators.
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and a bulbous liver. Since the publication of the extensive revision of the
Colombian glass frogs, several other publications have dealt with the glass frogs from Venezuela, Costa Rica, and Ecuador.
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Once the tadpoles, the frog aquatic larval stage, have been hatched, they fall from their original position on the leaf into the water below. When living in the water the tadpoles feed on the
1434:
Taboada, Carlos; Delia, Jesse; Chen, Maomao; Ma, Chenshuo; Peng, Xiaorui; Zhu, Xiaoyi; Jiang, Laiming; Vu, Tri; Zhou, Qifa; Yao, Junjie; O'Connell, Lauren; Johnsen, Sönke (22 December 2022).
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Guayasamin, J. M.; Castroviejo-Fisher, S.; Ayarzaguena, J.; Trueb, L.; Vilá, C. (2008). "Phylogenetic relationships of glass frogs (Centrolenidae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear genes".
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The biggest threats they have are deforestation, invasive species, pollution, habitat loss and illegal pet trade. These many threats have led to a decline in the population of this species.
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A main predator on the glass frog in its tadpole stage are "frog flies", which lay their eggs within the frog eggs; after hatching the maggots feed on the embryos of the glass frogs.
216:), native to the Central American Rainforests. The general background coloration of most glass frogs is primarily lime green, the abdominal skin of some members of this family is
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fall into the waters below. The tadpoles are elongated, with powerful tails and low fins, suited for fast-flowing water. Outside of the breeding season, some species live in the
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groups. That paper was the first of a series of contributions dealing with the glass frogs from
Colombia that led them to describe almost 50 species of glass frogs. The genus
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228:, are visible through the skin. When active their blood makes them visible; when sleeping most of the blood is concealed in the liver, hiding them. Glass frogs are
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characters, the herpetologists Pedro Ruiz-Carranza and John D. Lynch published a proposal for a taxonomic classification of the
Centrolenidae based on
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of
Centrolenidae is supported by morphological and behavioral characters, including: 1) presence of a dilated process on the medial side of the third
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Their digit tips are expanded, allowing them to climb, thus allowing most to live in elevated areas along forest streams, such as trees and shrubs.
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453:); 2) ventral origin of the musculus flexor teres digiti III relative to the musculus transversi metacarpi I; 3) terminal phalanges T-shaped; 4)
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RuĂz-Carranza, P.M. and J. D. Lynch. 1991. Ranas
Centrolenidae de Colombia I: propuesta de una nueva clasificación genérica. Lozania, 57, 1–30.
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was observed having a flattened body posture to avoid predation, after disturbing the frog it propped up into a sitting position. Another male
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published a large revision of the glass frogs from
Ecuador, showing the species richness of Centrolenidae was particularly concentrated in the
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close to their egg clutches. These eggs are less vulnerable to predators than those laid within water, but are affected by the parasitic
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glass frogs are carnivores, their diet mainly including small insects like crickets, moths, flies, spiders, and other smaller frogs.
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963:(700 to 900 nanometers) when examined by infrared color photography. Infrared reflectance may confer adaptive advantage to these
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The taxonomic classification of the
Centrolenidae was recently modified. The family now contains two subfamilies and 12 genera.
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mammals or birds. Chemicals and high amounts of elements in water or rainfall may disturb frogs’ health and possibly lives.
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1038:(CITES) meaning that international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permitting system.
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The taxonomical classification of the glass frogs has been problematic. In 1991, after a major revision of the species and
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was observed protecting an egg clutch with a body positioning of extending all limbs and lifting its body from the leaf.
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to include the species with a bulbous liver. However, they left a heterogeneous group of species in the genus
1918:
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259:
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Schwalm, P.; Starrett, P.; McDiarmid, R. (1977). "Infrared reflectance in leaf-sitting neotropical frogs".
1246:(Amphibia: Anura: Centrolenidae) from Ecuador with comments on the taxonomy and biogeography of Glassfrogs"
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1101:. They live along rivers and streams during the breeding season, and are particularly diverse in montane
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920:. However, hylid tree frogs have eyes that face to the side, whilst those of glass frogs face forward.
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Guayasamin, J. M.; Castroviejo-Fisher, S.; Trueb, L.; AyarzagĂĽena, J.; Rada, M.; VilĂ , C. (2009).
258:. Several species were described in subsequent years by different herpetologists (including G. A.
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Glass frog behaviors to avoid predation vary from species to species as well as circumstances.
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This source has a photograph showing frogs that are almost invisible sleeping on a green leaf.
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Kubicki, Brian. Ranas De Vidrio – Costa Rica – Glass Frogs (2007). In
Spanish and English.
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2011:
1996:
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1337:"Phylogenetic systematics of glassfrogs (Amphibia: Centrolenidae) and their sister taxon
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was erected for the species with basal webbing among outer fingers (part of the previous
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pigment in the visceral or hepatic peritonea, and differing coloration and spots.
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in 1945. Between the 1950s and 1970s, most species of glass frogs were known from
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2016:
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and streamside detritus until undergoing metamorphosis to become a froglet.
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humeral spines, reduced hand webbing, and complete ventral transparency.
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Glass frogs are similar in appearance to some green frogs of the genus
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418:. Previously, the family was considered closely related to the family
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Imperfect transparency and camouflage in glass frogs. PNAS. 117, 23.
1436:"Glassfrogs conceal blood in their liver to maintain transparency"
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of
Central and South America, although some species occur also in
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The Centrolenidae are a diverse family, distributed from southern
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extensively worked, and just a few species were known to occur in
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Zweifel, Robert G. (1998). Cogger, H.G.; Zweifel, R.G. (eds.).
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Zweifel, Robert G. (1998). Cogger, H.G.; Zweifel, R.G. (eds.).
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1417:"Why glass frogs have see-through skin becomes clear in study"
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Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
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Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
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Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
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Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
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Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
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Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
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Guayasamin, Castroviejo, Trueb, Ayarzagüena, Rada, Vilá, 2009
1170:"Scientists find secret to how glass frogs turn transparent"
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and recently a new taxonomy has been proposed (see below).
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1305:
10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2
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Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
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in 1872, based on a specimen collected in northeastern
392:
Centrolene, Cochranella, Hyalinobatrachium, Nymphargus
220:, giving the glass frog its common name. The internal
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Two members of the glass-frog family Centrolenidae:
2096:
1932:
1889:
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1292:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
1651:"(Some) Frogs Are Better Parents Than We Thought"
1753:Fleischmann's glass frog at National Geographic
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1278:
1240:Cisneros-Heredia, D.F.; McDiarmid, R.W (2006).
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1628:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 94–95.
1503:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 94–95.
8:
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967:frogs both in thermoregulation and infrared
426:studies have placed them (and their sister
354:was proposed to include the species with a
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470:also support the monophyly of the clade.
283:The family Centrolenidae was proposed by
189:Distribution of Centrolenidae (in black)
1034:All glass frogs are protected under the
266:), but usually placed together with the
1626:Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians
1501:Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians
1157:
852:
1716:Centrolenidae in the Tree of Life site
1619:
1617:
1168:Rannard, Georgina (23 December 2022).
539:Cisneros-Heredia & McDiarmid, 2007
1736:Centrolenidae in Animal Diversity Web
1731:Centrolenidae in Livingunderworld.org
1193:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
916:and to some tree frogs of the family
461:, burrower/fossorial tadpoles with a
7:
1701:Centrolenidae in AmphibiaWeb Ecuador
1711:Glassfrogs (Centrolenidae) Project
1602:from the original on 11 April 2020
224:, including the heart, liver, and
25:
244:of Centrolenidae was the "giant"
2068:
1880:
1598:. Madison, WI: Henry Vilas Zoo.
1393:Zug, George R. (31 March 2022).
872:
855:
62:
830:Ruiz-Carranza & Lynch, 1991
601:(Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch, 1989)
1696:Amphibian Species of the World
930:Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni
410:The family Centrolenidae is a
358:in adult males, and the genus
299:, where Taylor, Julia F., and
1:
1054:, and through the Andes from
1020:Hyalinobatrachium iaspidiense
798:Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch, 1995
768:Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch, 1991
692:Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch, 1995
677:Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch, 1995
662:Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch, 1991
632:Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch, 1995
307:. In 1973, John D. Lynch and
1706:Centrolenidae in AmphibiaWeb
1415:Nicola Davis (25 May 2020).
1288:"The amphibian tree of life"
1242:"A new species of the genus
370:, defined just by lacking a
1741:Centrolenidae en InfoNatura
1649:Bender, Eric (2017-05-09).
1205:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.04.012
1066:, with some species in the
617:Flores and McDiarmid, 1989)
252:Marcos Jiménez de la Espada
218:transparent and translucent
2352:
1594:Hyalinobatrachium valerioi
1125:Hyalinobatrachium valerioi
925:Centrolenella fleischmanni
722:(Cadle and McDiarmid, 1990
495:Jiménez de la Espada, 1872
2065:
1878:
1809:
1726:Research on Centrolenidae
1358:10.11646/zootaxa.2100.1.1
837:Subfamily incertae sedis
188:
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163:
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59:Scientific classification
57:
48:
39:
34:
1592:"Reticulated Glass Frog
864:Cochranella albomaculata
647:(Cochran and Goin, 1970)
394:) have been shown to be
346:principles and defining
51:Hyalinobatrachium ruedai
2336:Neotropical realm fauna
1684:10.1073/pnas.1919417117
1460:10.1126/science.abl6620
1399:Encyclopedia Britannica
1097:Glass frogs are mostly
434:) closer to the family
1675:Barnet et al. (2020).
1546:10.1126/science.860137
956:Pachymedusa dacnicolor
449:(an apparently unique
226:gastrointestinal tract
2280:Paleobiology Database
1721:Centrolenidae in ITIS
1078:region, southeastern
881:Cochranella granulosa
587:Genus incertae sedis
247:Centrolene geckoideum
1804:families by suborder
1765:Various Frog Species
1653:. Boston University.
1568:"Appendices | CITES"
1271:PDF of the abstract.
950:Agalychnis moreletii
832:– "True" Glass Frogs
385:Cochranella ocellata
291:, particularly from
240:The first described
27:Family of amphibians
1942:Amphignathodontidae
1538:1977Sci...196.1225S
1532:(4295): 1225–1227.
1452:2022Sci...378.1315T
1446:(6626): 1315–1320.
1339:Allophryne ruthveni
961:near-infrared light
783:(AyarzagĂĽena, 1992)
707:(AyarzagĂĽena, 1992)
377:In 2006, the genus
309:William E. Duellman
262:, G. K. Noble, and
1758:2007-10-28 at the
1746:2012-04-09 at the
1058:and the island of
808:Hyalinobatrachinae
597:acanthidiocephalum
422:; however, recent
167:Hyalinobatrachinae
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2267:Open Tree of Life
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2012:Leptodactylidae
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1159:
1155:
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1082:, and northern
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996:
983:
978:
945:Phyllomedusinae
901:
899:Characteristics
892:
885:
884:from Costa Rica
877:
868:
867:from Costa Rica
860:
479:
436:Leptodactylidae
408:
289:Central America
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2037:Pyxicephalidae
2034:
2032:Petropedetidae
2029:
2027:Myobatrachidae
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1992:Hemiphractidae
1989:
1987:Heleophrynidae
1984:
1979:
1977:Craugastoridae
1974:
1969:
1964:
1962:Brevicipitidae
1959:
1954:
1952:Arthroleptidae
1949:
1944:
1938:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1926:
1924:Rhinophrynidae
1921:
1919:Scaphiopodidae
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1895:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1872:Leiopelmatidae
1869:
1867:Discoglossidae
1864:
1862:Bombinatoridae
1859:
1853:
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1268:on 2011-07-21.
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406:Classification
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270:in the genera
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1103:cloud forests
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484:Centroleninae
481:
480:
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456:
452:
448:
444:
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433:
432:Allophrynidae
430:, the family
429:
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405:
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397:
393:
390:Four genera (
388:
386:
382:
381:
375:
373:
372:humeral spine
369:
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356:humeral spine
353:
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305:South America
302:
301:Jay M. Savage
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170:
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132:Superfamily:
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56:
53:
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38:
33:
30:
19:
18:Centrolenidae
2293:Tree of Life
2097:
2057:Sooglossidae
2022:Microhylidae
2007:Hyperoliidae
1971:
1947:Aromobatidae
1934:Neobatrachia
1899:Megophryidae
1676:
1659:
1644:
1625:
1604:. Retrieved
1593:
1586:
1575:. Retrieved
1571:
1562:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1500:
1494:
1443:
1439:
1429:
1421:The Guardian
1420:
1398:
1395:"glass frog"
1348:
1344:
1338:
1330:
1295:
1291:
1266:the original
1253:
1249:
1243:
1235:
1196:
1192:
1173:
1147:
1130:
1123:
1122:
1096:
1088:
1074:basins, the
1045:
1042:Distribution
1033:
1023:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1006:Conservation
997:
988:
984:
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738:(Goin, 1966)
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566:
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517:Taylor, 1951
511:
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489:
472:
451:synapomorphy
440:
424:phylogenetic
409:
400:paraphyletic
391:
389:
384:
378:
376:
365:
359:
351:
348:monophyletic
337:
333:
282:
275:
271:
264:E. H. Taylor
245:
239:
206:
196:
194:
159:Subfamilies
145:
126:Neobatrachia
49:
29:
2331:Glass frogs
2215:iNaturalist
2122:Wikispecies
2017:Mantellidae
1997:Hemisotidae
1909:Pelodytidae
1904:Pelobatidae
1831:Superclass
1137:hatch, the
1000:leaf litter
790:Cochranella
775:Cochranella
760:Cochranella
745:Cochranella
730:Cochranella
714:Cochranella
699:Cochranella
658:petrophilum
513:Cochranella
367:Cochranella
250:, named by
197:glass frogs
35:Glass frog
2325:Categories
1857:Ascaphidae
1825:Subphylum
1577:2023-03-01
1368:1808/13694
1244:Centrolene
1153:References
1114:rainforest
1030:Protection
959:, reflect
943:subfamily
890:Camouflage
806:Subfamily
684:Centrolene
673:quindianum
669:Centrolene
654:Centrolene
639:Centrolene
628:guanacarum
624:Centrolene
608:Centrolene
593:Centrolene
579:Vitreorana
568:Teratohyla
557:Sachatamia
535:Nymphargus
524:Espadarana
502:Chimerella
491:Centrolene
482:Subfamily
447:metacarpal
380:Nymphargus
352:Centrolene
293:Costa Rica
268:tree frogs
122:Suborder:
1967:Bufonidae
1833:Tetrapoda
1606:30 August
1572:cites.org
1486:254998198
1314:2246/5781
1298:: 1–291.
1262:1175-5334
1120:forests.
1084:Argentina
1056:Venezuela
1011:Predators
976:Lifecycle
815:Celsiella
734:geijskesi
718:euhystrix
703:duidaeana
463:vermiform
443:monophyly
344:cladistic
340:taxonomic
317:Venezuela
260:Boulenger
201:amphibian
82:Kingdom:
76:Eukaryota
2107:Wikidata
1839:Amphibia
1827:Craniata
1821:Chordata
1815:Animalia
1813:Kingdom
1756:Archived
1744:Archived
1600:Archived
1478:36548427
1351:: 1–97.
1322:86140137
1256:: 1–32.
1213:18515151
1174:BBC News
1139:tadpoles
1099:arboreal
994:Tadpoles
965:arboreal
764:ramirezi
688:robledoi
546:Rulyrana
455:exotroph
321:Colombia
236:Taxonomy
230:arboreal
142:Family:
136:Hyloidea
106:Amphibia
96:Chordata
92:Phylum:
86:Animalia
72:Domain:
2042:Ranidae
2002:Hylidae
1914:Pipidae
1819:Phylum
1800:Extant
1534:Bibcode
1526:Science
1469:9984244
1448:Bibcode
1440:Science
1345:Zootaxa
1250:Zootaxa
1134:maggots
1111:ChocĂłan
1093:Biology
1064:Bolivia
969:cryptic
918:Hylidae
842:Ikakogi
779:riveroi
749:megista
420:Hylidae
416:anurans
325:Ecuador
272:Hylella
256:Ecuador
242:species
222:viscera
112:Order:
102:Class:
2305:uBio:
2285:373750
2272:467442
2259:507700
2246:208050
2233:108821
2168:112055
2113:Q53752
1837:Class
1802:anuran
1668:
1632:
1554:860137
1552:
1507:
1484:
1476:
1466:
1320:
1260:
1211:
1143:canopy
1107:Amazon
1080:Brazil
1068:Amazon
1060:Tobago
1052:Panama
1048:Mexico
981:Mating
933:, and
823:Genus
812:Genus
643:medemi
612:azulae
576:Genus
565:Genus
554:Genus
543:Genus
532:Genus
521:Genus
510:Genus
499:Genus
488:Genus
477:Genera
327:, and
297:Panama
204:family
153:, 1951
151:Taylor
2308:31795
2298:16952
2228:IRMNG
2220:21218
2181:622LM
1482:S2CID
1318:S2CID
941:hylid
459:lotic
428:taxon
412:clade
396:poly-
313:Andes
214:Anura
211:order
116:Anura
2254:NCBI
2241:ITIS
2207:6728
2202:GBIF
2194:1555
2163:BOLD
1666:ISBN
1630:ISBN
1608:2020
1550:PMID
1505:ISBN
1474:PMID
1349:2100
1258:ISSN
1254:1244
1209:PMID
1116:and
1109:and
1070:and
953:and
441:The
329:Peru
295:and
277:Hyla
195:The
2189:EoL
2176:CoL
2150:ASW
2137:ADW
1680:doi
1542:doi
1530:196
1464:PMC
1456:doi
1444:378
1363:hdl
1353:doi
1310:hdl
1300:doi
1296:297
1201:doi
1062:to
1050:to
414:of
398:or
274:or
2327::
2295::
2282::
2269::
2256::
2243::
2230::
2217::
2204::
2191::
2178::
2165::
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2109::
1672:..
1616:^
1570:.
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1442:.
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1407:^
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1308:.
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1277:^
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1207:.
1197:48
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1183:^
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1160:^
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1086:.
947::
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280:.
1793:e
1786:t
1779:v
1682::
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1458::
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615:(
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209:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
