1324:
72:
2038:
169:
1424:. A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. The microtubules then pull the chromatids apart toward the centrosomes, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and DNA can again be transcribed. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, which enables these giant DNA structures to be contained within a cell nucleus.
3033:
1243:
1313:
336:
2030:
131:
1440:(s)). Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are passed on through the sex chromosomes. The autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. All act in the same way during cell division. Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell. In addition to these, human cells have many hundreds of copies of the
450:
1118:
793:
1195:
495:
2460:
Exposure of males to certain lifestyle, environmental and/or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploid spermatozoa. In particular, risk of aneuploidy is increased by tobacco smoking, and occupational exposure to benzene, insecticides, and perfluorinated compounds. Increased aneuploidy
3143:
up to 100,000 copies of the chromosome can be present. Plasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, highly variable in copy number. The number of plasmids in the cell is almost entirely determined by the rate of division of the plasmid – fast division causes high copy
2352:
of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. "Cri du chat" means "cry of the cat" in French; the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, moderate to severe mental health
1238:
The packaging of DNA into nucleosomes causes a 10 nanometer fibre which may further condense up to 30 nm fibres Most of the euchromatin in interphase nuclei appears to be in the form of 30-nm fibers. Chromatin structure is the more decondensed state, i.e. the 10-nm conformation allows
2369:, or trisomy-18, the second most common trisomy. Symptoms include motor retardation, developmental disability and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent of those affected die in infancy. They have characteristic clenched hands and overlapping fingers.
2439:(X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. Females with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a "caved-in" appearance to the chest.
1022:. The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a defined region of the bacterial cell. This structure is, however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled by the actions of a range of histone-like proteins, which associate with the bacterial chromosome. In
6074:
Romanenko SA, Perelman PL, Serdukova NA, Trifonov VA, Biltueva LS, Wang J, Li T, Nie W, O'Brien PC, Volobouev VT, Stanyon R, Ferguson-Smith MA, Yang F, Graphodatsky AS (December 2006). "Reciprocal chromosome painting between three laboratory rodent species".
6170:
Hayes H, Rogel-Gaillard C, Zijlstra C, De Haan NA, Urien C, Bourgeaux N, Bertaud M, Bosma AA (2002). "Establishment of an R-banded rabbit karyotype nomenclature by FISH localization of 23 chromosome-specific genes on both G- and R-banded chromosomes".
896:. By inspection through the microscope, he counted twenty-four pairs, which would mean forty-eight chromosomes. His error was copied by others and it was not until 1956 that the true number, forty-six, was determined by Indonesian-born cytogeneticist
1343:
stops) and become a compact transportable form. The loops of thirty-nanometer chromatin fibers are thought to fold upon themselves further to form the compact metaphase chromosomes of mitotic cells. The DNA is thus condensed about ten-thousand-fold.
2117:, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are often highly variable. There may be variation between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization. In some cases, there is significant variation within species. Often there is:
784:
3028:
all have the same number of nuclear chromosomes (see the table). Other eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-like small chromosomes, are much more variable in number, and there may be thousands of copies per cell.
655:
in cells, either visible or not under light microscopy. Others use the concept in a narrower sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, visible under light microscopy due to high condensation.
2480:
The number of chromosomes in eukaryotes is highly variable (see table). In fact, chromosomes can fuse or break and thus evolve into novel karyotypes. Chromosomes can also be fused artificially. For example, the 16 chromosomes of
2445:, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by growth retardation, delayed motor skills development, "Greek Helmet" facial features, and mild to profound mental health problems.
2381:, which is very rare. It is also called the 11q terminal deletion disorder. Those affected have normal intelligence or mild developmental disability, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called
609:. During metaphase, the X-shaped structure is called a metaphase chromosome, which is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study. In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in
6027:
Nie W, Wang J, O'Brien PC, Fu B, Ying T, Ferguson-Smith MA, Yang F (2002). "The genome phylogeny of domestic cat, red panda and five mustelid species revealed by comparative chromosome painting and G-banding".
3108:
as well as the wild progenitors. The more-common pasta and bread wheat types are polyploid, having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes, compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in the wild wheat.
2391:(XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile and tend to be taller and have longer arms and legs than their peers. Boys with the syndrome are often shy and quiet and have a higher incidence of
7498:
6355:
Vitturi R, Libertini A, Sineo L, Sparacio I, Lannino A, Gregorini A, Colomba M (2005). "Cytogenetics of the land snails
Cantareus aspersus and C. mazzullii (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Pulmonata)".
842:'s earlier work, Boveri was able to point out the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes. Boveri influenced two generations of American cytologists:
1064:
of the bacteria. In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA).
3104:. Plants important in agriculture such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid, compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some
7465:
6560:
Ciudad J, Cid E, Velasco A, Lara JM, Aijón J, Orfao A (May 2002). "Flow cytometry measurement of the DNA contents of G0/G1 diploid cells from three different teleost fish species".
5428:
Xia Y, Bian Q, Xu L, Cheng S, Song L, Liu J, Wu W, Wang S, Wang X (October 2004). "Genotoxic effects on human spermatozoa among pesticide factory workers exposed to fenvalerate".
1180:, with one or two arms projecting from the centromere, although, under most circumstances, these arms are not visible as such. In addition, most eukaryotes have a small circular
2238:
was not certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46. He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an
1363:, plays an important role in holding the chromatin into compact chromosomes. Loops of thirty-nanometer structure further condense with scaffold into higher order structures.
6752:
Komaki K, Ishikawa H (March 2000). "Genomic copy number of intracellular bacterial symbionts of aphids varies in response to developmental stage and morph of their host".
3220:
1275:, which consists of mostly inactive DNA. It seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages. Heterochromatin can be further distinguished into two types:
6439:
Houck ML, Kumamoto AT, Gallagher DS, Benirschke K (2001). "Comparative cytogenetics of the
African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus)".
7491:
2280:
It took until 1954 before the human diploid number was confirmed as 46. Considering the techniques of
Winiwarter and Painter, their results were quite remarkable.
5569:
Shao, Yangyang; Lu, Ning; Wu, Zhenfang; Cai, Chen; Wang, Shanshan; Zhang, Ling-Li; Zhou, Fan; Xiao, Shijun; Liu, Lin; Zeng, Xiaofei; Zheng, Huajun (August 2018).
1176:
with nuclei such as those found in plants, fungi, and animals) possess multiple large linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one
6966:
752:
1323:
7484:
6482:
Semba U, Umeda Y, Shibuya Y, Okabe H, Tanase S, Yamamoto T (October 2004). "Primary structures of guinea pig high- and low-molecular-weight kininogens".
481:
2326:, although they may lead to a higher chance of bearing a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, called
1054:
1457:
6868:
4642:
Lodish, U.H.; Lodish, H.; Berk, A.; Kaiser, C.A.; Kaiser, C.; Kaiser, U.C.A.; Krieger, M.; Scott, M.P.; Bretscher, A.; Ploegh, H.; others (2008).
3312:
3231:
2363:). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate developmental disability.
6286:
Robinson TJ, Yang F, Harrison WR (2002). "Chromosome painting refines the history of genome evolution in hares and rabbits (order
Lagomorpha)".
5379:
Xing C, Marchetti F, Li G, Weldon RH, Kurtovich E, Young S, Schmid TE, Zhang L, Rappaport S, Waidyanatha S, Wyrobek AJ, Eskenazi B (June 2010).
1452:
has provided a great deal of information about each of the chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the
636:. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo
7455:
7096:
5847:
Kenton A, Parokonny AS, Gleba YY, Bennett MD (August 1993). "Characterization of the
Nicotiana tabacum L. genome by molecular cytogenetics".
5189:
4854:
4651:
3590:
3498:
3420:
3317:
2470:
2412:
2150:
770:
terms have become outdated. For example, Chromatin (Flemming 1880) and
Chromosom (Waldeyer 1888), both ascribe color to a non-colored state.
999:) from which replication starts, whereas some archaea contain multiple replication origins. The genes in prokaryotes are often organized in
7460:
3535:
1112:
593:(where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form). Before this happens, each chromosome is duplicated (
2314:
Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell. They can cause genetic conditions in humans, such as
866:
1409:
Mitotic metaphase chromosomes are best described by a linearly organized longitudinally compressed array of consecutive chromatin loops.
865:, Wilson linked together the independent work of Boveri and Sutton (both around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of inheritance the
6917:
3877:
6530:
4569:
2409:, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, without the characteristic folded hand.
2307:
6959:
6340:
5051:
4585:
Poonperm, Rawin; Takata, Hideaki; Hamano, Tohru; Matsuda, Atsushi; Uchiyama, Susumu; Hiraoka, Yasushi; Fukui, Kiichi (1 July 2015).
3914:
3055:
species have one set of chromosomes that are the same in all body cells. However, asexual species can be either haploid or diploid.
1339:(cell division), the chromatin double helix becomes more and more condensed. They cease to function as accessible genetic material (
6890:
2451:. XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings. Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are more likely to have learning difficulties.
1366:
This highly compact form makes the individual chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four-arm structure, a pair of sister
5984:"rDNA (18S–28S and 5S) colocalization and linkage between ribosomal genes and (TTAGGG)(n) telomeric sequence in the earthworm,
4404:
Sandman K, Reeve JN (March 2000). "Structure and functional relationships of archaeal and eukaryal histones and nucleosomes".
2424:
2318:, although most aberrations have little to no effect. Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as
1416:
grow from centrosomes located at opposite ends of the cell and also attach to the centromere at specialized structures called
8321:
8152:
7747:
3198:
474:
55:
3089:), and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge (
1026:, the DNA in chromosomes is even more organized, with the DNA packaged within structures similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes.
5260:
Templado C, Uroz L, Estop A (October 2013). "New insights on the origin and relevance of aneuploidy in human spermatozoa".
8288:
7081:
6848:
6392:"A second-generation integrated map of the silkworm reveals synteny and conserved gene order between lepidopteran insects"
5235:
5205:
5295:
Shi Q, Ko E, Barclay L, Hoang T, Rademaker A, Martin R (August 2001). "Cigarette smoking and aneuploidy in human sperm".
2442:
605:
is located equatorially, or a two-arm structure, if the centromere is located distally. The joined copies are now called
7936:
6952:
3137:
has multiple copies of its chromosome, ranging from 10 to 400 copies per cell. However, in some large bacteria, such as
2070:
71:
6123:"A Comparison of the Chromosomes of the Rat and Mouse with Reference to the Question of Chromosome Homology in Mammals"
5514:"Chromosomal aneuploidies and DNA fragmentation of human spermatozoa from patients exposed to perfluorinated compounds"
3123:
generally have one copy of each major chromosome, but most cells can easily survive with multiple copies. For example,
2488:
The tables below give the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes) in a cell nucleus. For example, most
30:
7856:
7612:
6214:
5943:
Ambarish, C.N.; Sridhar, K.R. (2014). "Cytological and karyological observations on two endemic giant pill-millipedes
4806:"Relevance of human chromosome analysis activities against mutation concept in genetics course. IOP Conference Series"
3307:
3302:
3297:
3261:
2239:
2228:
2186:
1402:
meaning tail in French). This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical
995:
Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes. Bacteria typically have a one-point (the
944:
4753:
3626:
3578:
2508:. This gives 46 chromosomes in total. Other organisms have more than two copies of their chromosome types, such as
2485:
have been fused into one giant chromosome and the cells were still viable with only somewhat reduced growth rates.
889:, all of a rather dogmatic turn of mind. Eventually, complete proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan's own lab.
825:
575:
243:
2415:. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material.
8157:
7228:
3755:
3125:
2182:, with the set of chromosomes arranged, autosomes in order of length, and sex chromosomes (here X/Y) at the end.
838:, and Boveri was able to test and confirm this hypothesis. Aided by the rediscovery at the start of the 1900s of
467:
143:
encode genes, which provide functions. A human DNA can have up to 500 million base pairs with thousands of genes.
644:
leading to its own death, but sometimes mutations in the cell hamper this process and thus cause progression of
8004:
7905:
7822:
7282:
7066:
3256:
2482:
2382:
2231:
2106:
2037:
1340:
1072:
1042:
261:
5790:"Chromosome painting using repetitive DNA sequences as probes for somatic chromosome identification in maize"
4908:
Painter, Theophilus S. (April 1923). "Studies in mammalian spermatogenesis. II. The spermatogenesis of man".
3789:
8031:
7807:
6880:
6707:
6517:
Wayne RK, Ostrander EA (March 1999). "Origin, genetic diversity, and genome structure of the domestic dog".
4667:
4561:
3139:
3085:
cell. During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves (
2651:
2202:
1282:
571:
6885:
3032:
828:
of heredity, with two notions that became known as 'chromosome continuity' and 'chromosome individuality'.
168:
8259:
7575:
7235:
7218:
7188:
7161:
3163:
3037:
2323:
2301:
2140:
614:
6932:
5741:"Genetic map of diploid wheat, Triticum monococcum L., and its comparison with maps of Hordeum vulgare L"
2216:
8326:
8019:
7992:
7223:
7121:
3208:
3101:
3086:
2146:
2062:
1899:
1831:
1815:
1799:
1783:
1767:
1751:
1735:
1719:
1703:
1687:
1671:
1655:
1639:
996:
843:
621:
434:
414:
379:
291:
286:
4006:"Sympatric speciation in a bacterial endosymbiont results in two genomes with the functionality of one"
3628:
Biological Stains – A Handbook on the Nature and Uses of the Dyes
Employed in the Biological Laboratory
5512:
Governini L, Guerranti C, De Leo V, Boschi L, Luddi A, Gori M, Orvieto R, Piomboni P (November 2015).
3662:
3069:
having two sets of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans), one set from the mother and one from the father.
8316:
7963:
7958:
7834:
7443:
7368:
7353:
7183:
7131:
7106:
7046:
6800:
5801:
5739:
Dubcovsky J, Luo MC, Zhong GY, Bransteitter R, Desai A, Kilian A, Kleinhofs A, Dvorák J (June 1996).
5688:
5584:
5001:
4917:
4697:
4598:
4468:
4413:
4303:
4115:
3720:
3339:
3251:
3215:
3052:
2538:
2388:
2289:
2009:
1967:
1623:
1607:
1591:
1575:
1559:
1543:
1527:
1511:
1495:
1441:
1034:
975:
956:
531:
136:
6708:"Kurze Mitteilung über die Chromosomenzahlen und die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Triticum-Arten"
8199:
8041:
7997:
7953:
7691:
7111:
3707:
3324:
3283:
3183:
3058:
1348:
1242:
927:
882:
637:
629:
563:
409:
389:
354:
324:
281:
275:
266:
238:
6639:
5338:
Rubes J, Lowe X, Moore D, Perreault S, Slott V, Evenson D, Selevan SG, Wyrobek AJ (October 1998).
4102:
Han K, Li ZF, Peng R, Zhu LP, Zhou T, Wang LG, Li SG, Zhang XB, Hu W, Wu ZH, Qin N, Li YZ (2013).
3708:"New trends in plant cytogenetics and cytoembryology: Dedicated to the memory of Emilio Battaglia"
8249:
6620:
6542:
6464:
6311:
6268:
6196:
6100:
6053:
5964:
5872:
5616:
5551:
5453:
5320:
5129:
5025:
4823:
4437:
4386:
4272:
4188:
4035:
3969:
Thanbichler M, Shapiro L (November 2006). "Chromosome organization and segregation in bacteria".
3951:
3845:
3736:
3687:
3471:
3288:
2966:
2602:
2331:
2235:
950:
930:, but many variations exist. The chromosomes of most bacteria, which some authors prefer to call
893:
855:
404:
399:
374:
296:
6874:
6243:
De
Grouchy J (August 1987). "Chromosome phylogenies of man, great apes, and Old World monkeys".
3436:
Bonev, Boyan; Cavalli, Giacomo (14 October 2016). "Organization and function of the 3D genome".
1312:
8244:
7948:
7173:
7085:
6828:
6769:
6688:
6612:
6577:
6534:
6499:
6456:
6421:
6372:
6336:
6303:
6260:
6188:
6152:
6092:
6045:
6009:
5925:
5864:
5829:
5770:
5716:
5657:
5608:
5600:
5543:
5494:
5471:
Xia Y, Cheng S, Bian Q, Xu L, Collins MD, Chang HC, Song L, Liu J, Wang S, Wang X (May 2005).
5445:
5410:
5361:
5312:
5277:
5185:
5121:
5047:
5017:
4974:
4850:
4849:(6th ed.). London: Chapman and Hall, distributed by Halsted Press, New York. p. 28.
4723:
4647:
4624:
4565:
4531:
4496:
4429:
4378:
4329:
4264:
4223:
4180:
4141:
4084:
4027:
3986:
3943:
3910:
3873:
3837:
3586:
3560:
3520:
Microscopical researches into the accordance in the structure and growth of animals and plants
3494:
3463:
3416:
3389:
3203:
3194:
2430:
2378:
2338:
2156:
1184:
1141:
878:
633:
606:
454:
339:
218:
6914:
3642:
Waldeyer-Hartz (1888). "Über
Karyokinese und ihre Beziehungen zu den Befruchtungsvorgängen".
1464:. Total chromosome length is an estimate as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced
7980:
7874:
7507:
7363:
7262:
6818:
6808:
6761:
6719:
6680:
6651:
6604:
6569:
6526:
6491:
6448:
6411:
6403:
6364:
6295:
6252:
6180:
6142:
6134:
6084:
6037:
5999:
5956:
5915:
5907:
5891:
5856:
5819:
5809:
5760:
5752:
5706:
5696:
5647:
5592:
5535:
5525:
5484:
5437:
5400:
5392:
5351:
5304:
5269:
5173:
5113:
5105:
5090:
5069:
Understanding
Genetics: A New York, Mid-Atlantic Guide for Patients and Health Professionals
5009:
4966:
4956:
4925:
4813:
4713:
4705:
4614:
4606:
4523:
4486:
4476:
4421:
4368:
4360:
4319:
4311:
4254:
4215:
4172:
4131:
4123:
4074:
4066:
4017:
3978:
3935:
3827:
3728:
3677:
3550:
3453:
3445:
3379:
3371:
3225:
2721:
2416:
2366:
2349:
2046:
2029:
1453:
1094:
814:
760:
671:
582:
567:
346:
7418:
7413:
8237:
7931:
7910:
7839:
7642:
7255:
7076:
7024:
6921:
4754:"Ensembl genome browser 71: Homo sapiens – Chromosome summary – Chromosome 1: 1–1,000,000"
4684:
Naumova N, Imakaev M, Fudenberg G, Zhan Y, Lajoie BR, Mirny LA, Dekker J (November 2013).
3610:
3246:
3236:
2983:
2958:
2505:
2436:
2420:
2372:
2207:
Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question:
2102:
1465:
1461:
1272:
1076:
1061:
874:
651:
Some use the term chromosome in a wider sense, to refer to the individualized portions of
6858:
4818:
4805:
3926:
Gartler, Stanley M. (1 August 2006). "The chromosome number in humans: a brief history".
6804:
5805:
5692:
5588:
5005:
4921:
4701:
4602:
4472:
4417:
4373:
4348:
4307:
4119:
3724:
3605:
3518:
2516:
and has six copies of seven different chromosome types – 42 chromosomes in total.
8227:
8114:
7985:
7844:
7827:
7632:
7562:
7146:
7070:
6823:
6788:
6416:
6391:
6147:
6122:
5920:
5895:
5765:
5740:
5405:
5380:
5181:
4961:
4944:
4718:
4685:
4619:
4586:
4324:
4291:
4176:
4136:
4103:
4079:
4054:
3384:
3359:
3271:
3241:
2816:
2753:
2731:
2661:
2641:
2406:
2375:, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication 15 (inv dup 15).
2319:
2066:
1445:
1437:
1398:
in the Latin alphabet; q-g "grande"; alternatively it is sometimes said q is short for
1173:
1153:
1149:
858:
were all influenced by Boveri (Wilson, Stevens, and Painter actually worked with him).
847:
821:
805:
725:
394:
319:
7476:
6765:
6724:
5824:
5789:
5711:
5676:
5381:"Benzene exposure near the U.S. permissible limit is associated with sperm aneuploidy"
5356:
5339:
4527:
8310:
8267:
8232:
8075:
8065:
8036:
7669:
7662:
7126:
6684:
5968:
5133:
4491:
4456:
3489:
Alberts B, Bray D, Hopkin K, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014).
3409:
3334:
3090:
2561:
2356:
2315:
2284:, the closest living relatives to modern humans, have 48 chromosomes as do the other
2276:
Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputable karyogram.
2220:
1281:, which is never expressed. It is located around the centromere and usually contains
1218:, the uncondensed DNA exists in a semi-ordered structure, where it is wrapped around
1181:
1145:
1068:
851:
839:
801:
590:
6671:
Smith J, Burt DW (August 1998). "Parameters of the chicken genome (Gallus gallus)".
6624:
6468:
6315:
6200:
6104:
5620:
5571:
5555:
5457:
5324:
4827:
4779:
4441:
4390:
4276:
4206:
Kelman LM, Kelman Z (September 2004). "Multiple origins of replication in archaea".
4192:
4039:
3955:
3849:
3740:
3691:
3663:"Chromosome numbers of the Italian flora. From the Caryologia foundation to present"
3475:
1194:
8254:
8097:
8057:
8024:
7796:
7782:
7680:
7101:
6975:
6546:
6272:
6057:
5876:
5029:
4740:
3278:
3266:
3062:
3041:
2826:
2711:
2701:
2613:
2509:
2448:
2400:
2392:
2267:
2163:
Also, variation in karyotype may occur during development from the fertilized egg.
2129:
2095:
1863:
1847:
1449:
1417:
1018:
do not possess nuclei. Instead, their DNA is organized into a structure called the
980:
939:
897:
835:
831:
384:
4104:"Extraordinary expansion of a Sorangium cellulosum genome from an alkaline milieu"
3864:
2433:(XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and have a higher incidence of dyslexia.
2273:
Squashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane
1162:
are responsible for the first and most basic unit of chromosome organization, the
6495:
6368:
6330:
5960:
5756:
4514:
Johnson JE, Chiu W (April 2000). "Structures of virus and virus-like particles".
3732:
3682:
8278:
8144:
8092:
8087:
7600:
7320:
7315:
7178:
7156:
7151:
7019:
6407:
6138:
5988:(Annelida: Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae), revealed by single- and double-color FISH"
5147:
5064:
4843:
4349:"Diversity of prokaryotic chromosomal proteins and the origin of the nucleosome"
3670:
Caryologia – International Journal of Cytology, Cytosystematics and Cytogenetics
3188:
2836:
2691:
2591:
2580:
2345:
2281:
1413:
1266:
961:
886:
570:
the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity. These chromosomes display a complex
6793:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5794:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5681:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5213:
4461:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4292:"High-resolution mapping of the spatial organization of a bacterial chromosome"
4022:
4005:
1117:
8186:
8181:
8134:
8127:
8122:
8107:
8102:
7878:
7627:
7569:
7340:
7330:
7325:
7310:
7250:
7240:
7141:
7116:
7090:
7041:
6088:
6041:
6004:
5983:
5596:
5441:
5174:
4219:
4070:
3982:
3832:
3815:
3555:
3493:(Fourth ed.). New York, New York, US: Garland Science. pp. 621–626.
3158:
3153:
3117:
3045:
2926:
2876:
2806:
2489:
2360:
2327:
2285:
2261:
2175:
2114:
2058:
1895:
1485:
1403:
1371:
1367:
1255:
1251:
1203:
1177:
1169:
1163:
1098:
1015:
915:
870:
817:
was the first scientist to recognize the structures now known as chromosomes.
602:
598:
551:
547:
511:
314:
228:
208:
140:
5636:"Meiotic cytology and chromosome behaviour in wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana"
5604:
5340:"Smoking cigarettes is associated with increased sperm disomy in teenage men"
4481:
2359:, the most common trisomy, usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (
1049:) and viruses, the DNA is often densely packed and organized; in the case of
808:(right) independently developed the chromosome theory of inheritance in 1902.
8191:
8176:
8163:
7915:
7703:
7622:
7617:
7607:
7595:
7534:
7292:
7036:
7014:
6995:
6944:
6813:
5814:
5489:
5472:
5273:
4709:
4315:
4055:"An interdependent metabolic patchwork in the nested symbiosis of mealybugs"
3329:
3173:
3130:
3097:
2846:
2676:
2257:
2088:
2084:
2076:
2054:
2042:
2024:
1421:
1352:
1317:
1259:
1227:
1215:
1207:
1188:
1135:
1106:
1088:
1046:
1038:
935:
931:
792:
767:
756:
652:
641:
586:
506:
499:
271:
119:
111:
88:
6832:
6773:
6616:
6581:
6538:
6503:
6460:
6425:
6376:
6307:
6192:
6156:
6096:
6049:
6013:
5947:(Pocock 1895) (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida) of the Western Ghats of India".
5929:
5833:
5701:
5661:
5652:
5635:
5612:
5547:
5498:
5449:
5414:
5316:
5281:
5125:
5091:"Short- and long-term effects of chromosome mis-segregation and aneuploidy"
5021:
4929:
4794:
The colors of each row match those of the karyogram (see Karyotype section)
4727:
4628:
4535:
4433:
4333:
4268:
4227:
4145:
4088:
4031:
3990:
3947:
3872:. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. p. 88.
3841:
3564:
3467:
3393:
2306:
1327:
Stages of early mitosis in a vertebrate cell with micrographs of chromatids
783:
6692:
6264:
6218:
5868:
5774:
5720:
5365:
4784:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Center for Biotechnology Information. 1998.
4743:, all data in this table was derived from this database, 11 November 2008.
4500:
4425:
4382:
4364:
4184:
3458:
8222:
8168:
8070:
8014:
8009:
7900:
7861:
7817:
7719:
7524:
7278:
7062:
6926:
6531:
10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(199903)21:3<247::AID-BIES9>3.0.CO;2-Z
5911:
5117:
4978:
3756:"Caryoneme alternative to chromosome and a new caryological nomenclature"
3449:
3375:
3105:
3082:
2916:
2906:
2796:
2501:
2396:
2190:
2171:
2125:
1433:
1269:, which consists of DNA that is active, e.g., being expressed as protein.
1206:, the 10 nm "beads-on-a-string" fibre, the 30 nm fibre and the
1067:
Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic DNA, generally
1019:
969:
919:
909:
610:
543:
330:
213:
203:
160:
5539:
5396:
5180:(5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp.
4587:"Chromosome Scaffold is a Double-Stranded Assembly of Scaffold Proteins"
2423:(or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is
873:
remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists:
8204:
8082:
7866:
7851:
7554:
7529:
7448:
7302:
7213:
7208:
6908:
6900:
6656:
6573:
6256:
5860:
4970:
3168:
3120:
3078:
3074:
3066:
3025:
2253:
2224:
2210:
2091:
2050:
1336:
1332:
1307:
1303:
1223:
1219:
1159:
1130:
1102:
1071:. The DNA must first be released into its relaxed state for access for
1050:
1030:
1023:
1000:
923:
625:
594:
559:
555:
494:
54:
This article is about the DNA molecule. For the genetic algorithm, see
6608:
6452:
6299:
6184:
5530:
5513:
5013:
4610:
4259:
4242:
4127:
1140:
Chromatin contains the vast majority of the DNA in an organism, but a
1053:, by homology to eukaryotic histones, and in the case of bacteria, by
824:
gave definitive contributions to elucidating that chromosomes are the
8295:
8273:
7970:
7893:
7888:
7653:
7544:
7539:
7358:
7245:
7009:
7005:
7000:
6390:
Yasukochi Y, Ashakumary LA, Baba K, Yoshido A, Sahara K (July 2006).
5308:
3070:
2866:
2856:
2493:
2133:
1004:
645:
601:, resulting either in an X-shaped structure (pictured above), if the
546:. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with
539:
223:
198:
6332:
Rabbits, Hares and Pikas. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan
5109:
4160:
4004:
Van Leuven JT, Meister RC, Simon C, McCutcheon JP (September 2014).
3939:
954:, to more than 14,000,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacterium
2334:
is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement.
1894:
Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the
1187:, and some eukaryotes may have additional small circular or linear
973:
are a notable exception to this arrangement, with bacteria such as
7777:
7769:
7587:
7549:
7423:
7408:
7403:
7398:
7393:
7388:
7383:
7378:
7373:
7348:
7286:
6863:
6852:
6595:
Burt DW (2002). "Origin and evolution of avian microchromosomes".
4243:"The bacterial nucleoid: a highly organized and dynamic structure"
3134:
3031:
2886:
2763:
2497:
2337:
The gain or loss of DNA from chromosomes can lead to a variety of
2305:
2178:. These cells are then stained, photographed, and arranged into a
2036:
2028:
1902:, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups:
1386:
1376:
1360:
1356:
1322:
1311:
1193:
965:
493:
4870:
von Winiwarter H (1912). "Études sur la spermatogenèse humaine".
3358:
Hammond CM, Strømme CB, Huang H, Patel DJ, Groth A (March 2017).
104:Gene
97:DNA
81:Chromosome
8283:
7975:
7516:
6904:
6893:, European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet
6638:
Itoh M, Ikeuchi T, Shimba H, Mori M, Sasaki M, Makino S (1969).
4992:
Ford CE, Hamerton JL (November 1956). "The chromosomes of man".
2786:
1479:
130:
103:
7480:
6948:
6877:, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
6871:, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
3763:
Caryologia – International Journal of Cytology, Cytosystematics
2170:. Cells can be locked part-way through division (in metaphase)
5473:"Genotoxic effects on spermatozoa of carbaryl-exposed workers"
3178:
2896:
2550:
2461:
is often associated with increased DNA damage in spermatozoa.
2245:
New techniques were needed to definitively solve the problem:
2110:
1199:
1126:
748:
535:
193:
188:
96:
6938:
2166:
The technique of determining the karyotype is usually called
738:
728:
6640:"A Comparative Karyotype Study in Fourteen Species of Birds"
3077:: They have one set of chromosomes. Gametes are produced by
2185:
Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special
1460:. Number of genes is an estimate, as it is in part based on
5896:"Evolution of DNA amounts across land plants (embryophyta)"
4455:
Pereira SL, Grayling RA, Lurz R, Reeve JN (November 1997).
3644:
Archiv für Mikroskopische Anatomie und Entwicklungsmechanik
3536:"Chromosome condensation and decondensation during mitosis"
713:
698:
689:
683:
6896:
5044:
Human and mammalian cytogenetics: a historical perspective
3581:(2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),
2310:
In Down syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome 21.
2270:
0.075 M KCl, which swells them and spreads the chromosomes
2049:. It is a graphical representation of the idealized human
747:, "body"), describing their strong staining by particular
6855:: Huntington's Outreach Project for Education at Stanford
6787:
Mendell JE, Clements KD, Choat JH, Angert ER (May 2008).
3512:
3510:
892:
The number of human chromosomes was published in 1923 by
3411:
Molecular biology of the cell : a problems approach
7466:
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
6215:"The Genetics of the Popular Aquarium Pet – Guppy Fish"
5982:
Vitturi R, Colomba MS, Pirrone AM, Mandrioli M (2002).
3360:"Histone chaperone networks shaping chromatin function"
2330:, may be lethal or may give rise to genetic disorders.
1133:, forming a compact complex of proteins and DNA called
820:
In a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s,
34:
4290:
Le TB, Imakaev MV, Mirny LA, Laub MT (November 2013).
3631:. Commission on Standardization of Biological Stains.
2139:
3. variation between members of a population, due to
2094:. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of
2065:, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the
1432:
Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types:
1125:
Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long linear
710:
707:
695:
692:
677:
3790:"Otto Bütschli (1848–1920) Where we will genuflect?"
680:
62:
8215:
8143:
8056:
7924:
7806:
7795:
7768:
7740:
7690:
7679:
7652:
7641:
7586:
7515:
7436:
7339:
7301:
7271:
7199:
7055:
6986:
6939:
Unique – The Rare Chromosome Disorder Support Group
2399:. Without testosterone treatment, some may develop
834:suggested that each chromosome carries a different
716:
701:
686:
674:
51:DNA molecule containing genetic material of a cell
6864:On-line exhibition on chromosomes and genome (SIB)
5570:
4842:
4241:Thanbichler M, Wang SC, Shapiro L (October 2005).
3706:
3408:
3221:List of number of chromosomes of various organisms
6941:Support for people with rare chromosome disorders
6859:Chromosome Abnormalities at AtlasGeneticsOncology
4889:Painter TS (1922). "The spermatogenesis of man".
4347:Sandman K, Pereira SL, Reeve JN (December 1998).
3866:Mendel's Legacy: The Origin of Classical Genetics
2087:is the characteristic chromosome complement of a
1060:Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the
2504:, each present as two homologous pairs, and two
5788:Kato A, Lamb JC, Birchler JA (September 2004).
5572:"Creating a functional single-chromosome yeast"
5054:p. 10: "It's amazing that he even came close!"
4551:
4549:
4547:
4545:
2053:karyotype. It shows dark and white regions on
1258:where the cell is not dividing), two types of
751:. The term was coined by the German anatomist
7492:
6960:
4161:"Linear plasmids and chromosomes in bacteria"
2203:Argument from authority § Use in science
2193:). These are XX in females and XY in males.
1041:that contain cellular DNA and play a role in
475:
8:
6329:Chapman JA, Flux JE (1990), "section 4.W4",
6069:
6067:
5734:
5732:
5730:
4804:Erwinsyah, R.; Riandi; Nurjhani, M. (2017).
4053:McCutcheon JP, von Dohlen CD (August 2011).
1458:Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database
640:. Usually, this will make the cell initiate
3816:"Theodor Boveri and the natural experiment"
18:
7803:
7687:
7649:
7499:
7485:
7477:
7298:
6967:
6953:
6945:
6929:from the U.S. National Library of Medicine
6238:
6236:
6116:
6114:
3024:Normal members of a particular eukaryotic
2938:
2626:
2522:
2288:: in humans two chromosomes fused to form
1470:
482:
468:
151:
6822:
6812:
6789:"Extreme polyploidy in a large bacterium"
6754:Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
6723:
6655:
6415:
6146:
6003:
5919:
5823:
5813:
5764:
5710:
5700:
5651:
5529:
5488:
5404:
5355:
4960:
4817:
4717:
4618:
4490:
4480:
4372:
4323:
4258:
4135:
4078:
4021:
3831:
3681:
3585:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
3554:
3457:
3383:
2008:Very small, acrocentric (and 21, 22 with
1420:, one of which is present on each sister
1144:inherited maternally can be found in the
581:Chromosomes are normally visible under a
6886:Chromosome News from Genome News Network
4686:"Organization of the mitotic chromosome"
2628:Chromosome numbers (2n) in some animals
1904:
1384:, small) and the longer arms are called
1241:
1198:The major structures in DNA compaction:
1121:Organization of DNA in a eukaryotic cell
1116:
139:long strand of DNA unraveled. The DNA's
24:This is an accepted version of this page
6903:project, presenting chromosomes, their
5634:Armstrong SJ, Jones GH (January 2003).
4159:Hinnebusch J, Tilly K (December 1993).
3705:Peruzzi L, Garbari F, Bedini G (2012).
3661:Garbari F, Bedini G, Peruzzi L (2012).
3350:
3313:Temperature-dependent sex determination
3232:Maternal influence on sex determination
1877:
1226:), forming a composite material called
1037:. These are circular structures in the
159:
20:
6849:An Introduction to DNA and Chromosomes
5677:"The Giemsa C-banded karyotype of rye"
5297:Molecular Reproduction and Development
5098:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
3364:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
2940:Chromosome numbers in other organisms
1152:, with a few exceptions, for example,
934:, can range in size from only 130,000
498:Diagram of a replicated and condensed
7456:List of organisms by chromosome count
6740:Organization of the prokaryote genome
4516:Current Opinion in Structural Biology
3896:, Ed. 3. Macmillan, New York. p. 923.
3318:Haplodiploid sex-determination system
3228:(explains gene location nomenclature)
3193:For information about chromosomes in
3093:), a new diploid organism is formed.
2471:List of organisms by chromosome count
2413:Small supernumerary marker chromosome
1982:Small, metacentric or submetacentric
1927:Large, metacentric or submetacentric
7:
5089:Santaguida S, Amon A (August 2015).
4353:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
3894:The Cell in Development and Heredity
2057:. Each row is vertically aligned at
1351:, which is made of proteins such as
1113:Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure
869:(the names are sometimes reversed).
863:The Cell in Development and Heredity
574:, which plays a significant role in
3523:. Printed for the Sydenham Society.
2572:Maize (diploid or palaeotetraploid)
2421:isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome
2209:How many chromosomes does a normal
1456:'s human genome information in the
1436:(body chromosome(s)) and allosome (
597:), and both copies are joined by a
120:Function
6933:Visualisation of human chromosomes
4962:10.1111/j.1601-5223.1956.tb03010.x
4177:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1993.tb00963.x
3534:Antonin W, Neumann H (June 2016).
3100:: They have more than two sets of
3096:Some animal and plant species are
2524:Chromosome numbers in some plants
2159:or otherwise abnormal individuals.
2121:1. variation between the two sexes
554:cells the most important of these
49:
6869:What Can Our Chromosomes Tell Us?
6725:10.15281/jplantres1887.32.379_150
5385:Environmental Health Perspectives
5172:Miller KR (2000). "Chapter 9-3".
4810:Materials Science and Engineering
2189:(sex chromosomes, in contrast to
6685:10.1046/j.1365-2052.1998.00334.x
6644:The Japanese Journal of Genetics
6484:International Immunopharmacology
5849:Molecular & General Genetics
5675:Gill BS, Kimber G (April 1974).
4247:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
3907:The growth of biological thought
1966:Medium-sized, acrocentric, with
1898:and sometimes the presence of a
1298:Metaphase chromatin and division
926: – typically have a single
791:
782:
670:
550:-forming packaging proteins; in
449:
448:
335:
334:
167:
129:
70:
7077:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
6935:and comparison to other species
6875:Try making a karyotype yourself
6597:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
6288:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
6173:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
5071:, Genetic Alliance, 8 July 2009
4910:Journal of Experimental Zoology
3543:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
2500:who have 22 different types of
2197:History and analysis techniques
2069:(bottom right), as well as the
1291:, which is sometimes expressed.
1246:Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
945:Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola
867:Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory
8153:Last universal common ancestor
7748:Defective interfering particle
6441:Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics
5640:Journal of Experimental Botany
5240:European Chromosome 11 Network
4945:"The chromosome number of man"
4819:10.1088/1757-899x/180/1/012285
3814:Maderspacher, Florian (2008).
3611:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
3583:English Pronouncing Dictionary
3199:chromosome (genetic algorithm)
1374:. The shorter arms are called
1370:attached to each other at the
1214:In the nuclear chromosomes of
1029:Certain bacteria also contain
56:Chromosome (genetic algorithm)
1:
8289:Clonally transmissible cancer
7725:Satellite-like nucleic acids
6927:Home reference on Chromosomes
6766:10.1016/S0965-1748(99)00125-3
5894:, Bennett MD (January 2005).
5357:10.1016/S0015-0282(98)00261-1
4668:Chromosome Mapping: Idiograms
4528:10.1016/S0959-440X(00)00073-7
3971:Journal of Structural Biology
3415:. New York: Garland Science.
2353:problems, and are very short.
2141:balanced genetic polymorphism
1953:Medium-sized, submetacentric
1003:, and do not usually contain
951:Candidatus Tremblaya princeps
6911:loci graphically via the web
6496:10.1016/j.intimp.2004.06.003
6369:10.1016/j.micron.2004.12.010
5961:10.1080/00087114.2014.891700
5262:Molecular Human Reproduction
3733:10.1080/11263504.2012.712553
3683:10.1080/00087114.2012.678090
1279:Constitutive heterochromatin
562:. These proteins, aided by
6742:. ASM Press, Washington DC.
6738:Charlebois R.L. (ed) 1999.
6408:10.1534/genetics.106.055541
5065:"Chromosomal Abnormalities"
4758:apr2013.archive.ensembl.org
3308:XO sex-determination system
3303:ZW sex-determination system
3298:ZO sex-determination system
3262:XY sex-determination system
2518:
2465:Number in various organisms
2232:sex determination mechanism
2219:reported 47 chromosomes in
2045:of a human, with annotated
1289:Facultative heterochromatin
632:play a significant role in
572:three-dimensional structure
8343:
7845:Class II or DNA transposon
7840:Class I or retrotransposon
7117:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
5757:10.1093/genetics/143.2.983
4023:10.1016/j.cell.2014.07.047
3754:Battaglia, Emilio (2009).
3073:, reproductive cells, are
2468:
2425:Pallister–Killian syndrome
2341:. Human examples include:
2299:
2200:
2174:(in a reaction vial) with
2113:is highly standardized in
2074:
2022:
1301:
1110:
1092:
1086:
907:
759:, which was introduced by
739:
729:
576:transcriptional regulation
53:
8158:Earliest known life forms
8032:Repeated sequences in DNA
7461:List of sequenced genomes
7229:Chromosomal translocation
7102:A chromosome/B chromosome
7093:(or accessory chromosome)
6881:Kimballs Chromosome pages
6139:10.1093/genetics/13.2.180
6121:Painter TS (March 1928).
6089:10.1007/s00335-006-0081-z
5597:10.1038/s41586-018-0382-x
5442:10.1016/j.tox.2004.05.018
4943:Tjio JH, Levan A (1956).
4220:10.1016/j.tim.2004.07.001
4071:10.1016/j.cub.2011.06.051
3983:10.1016/j.jsb.2006.05.007
3863:Carlson, Elof A. (2004).
3833:10.1016/j.cub.2008.02.061
3556:10.1016/j.ceb.2016.01.013
3517:Schleyden, M. J. (1847).
2348:, which is caused by the
2136:and the rest of the body)
2124:2. variation between the
2033:Karyogram of a human male
1316:Human chromosomes during
753:Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer
8005:Endogenous viral element
7823:Horizontal gene transfer
7283:Telomere-binding protein
7097:Supernumerary chromosome
6706:Sakamura, Tetsu (1918).
5046:. Springer-Verlag, N.Y.
4841:White, M. J. D. (1973).
4482:10.1073/pnas.94.23.12633
4406:Archives of Microbiology
3257:Sex-determination system
3065:(body cells), which are
2443:Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome
2383:Paris-Trousseau syndrome
1995:Very small, metacentric
1148:. It is present in most
1043:horizontal gene transfer
755:, referring to the term
538:with part or all of the
31:latest accepted revision
7702:dsDNA satellite virus (
6814:10.1073/pnas.0707522105
6042:10.1023/A:1015292005631
6005:10.1093/jhered/93.4.279
5992:The Journal of Heredity
5815:10.1073/pnas.0403659101
5344:Fertility and Sterility
4710:10.1126/science.1236083
4562:Oxford University Press
4316:10.1126/science.1242059
3928:Nature Reviews Genetics
3438:Nature Reviews Genetics
3140:Epulopiscium fishelsoni
2989:Columba livia domestica
2266:Pretreating cells in a
1331:In the early stages of
861:In his famous textbook
502:eukaryotic chromosome:
8260:Helper dependent virus
7576:Biological dark matter
7219:Structural alterations
5986:Octodrilus complanatus
5890:Leitch IJ, Soltis DE,
5702:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1247
5477:Toxicological Sciences
4930:10.1002/jez.1400370303
4644:Molecular Cell Biology
4457:"Archaeal nucleosomes"
4208:Trends in Microbiology
4165:Molecular Microbiology
3491:Essential Cell Biology
3164:Chromosome segregation
3102:homologous chromosomes
3049:
3038:chromosome territories
2681:Octodrilus complanatus
2324:chromosomal inversions
2311:
2302:Chromosome abnormality
2249:Using cells in culture
2147:geographical variation
2080:
2063:homologous chromosomes
2034:
1940:Large, submetacentric
1328:
1320:
1262:can be distinguished:
1247:
1211:
1122:
1045:. In prokaryotes (see
991:Structure in sequences
983:, containing a single
615:chromosome segregation
523:
8322:Nuclear substructures
8020:Endogenous retrovirus
7993:Origin of replication
7709:ssDNA satellite virus
7699:ssRNA satellite virus
7236:Numerical alterations
7224:Chromosomal inversion
7122:Homologous chromosome
6712:Shokubutsugaku Zasshi
5490:10.1093/toxsci/kfi066
5274:10.1093/molehr/gat039
5210:Trisomy 18 Foundation
5206:"What is Trisomy 18?"
4556:Cooper, G.M. (2019).
4426:10.1007/s002039900122
4365:10.1007/s000180050259
3892:Wilson, E.B. (1925).
3407:Wilson, John (2002).
3209:Genealogical DNA test
3053:Asexually reproducing
3035:
2743:Oryctolagus cuniculus
2309:
2075:Further information:
2040:
2032:
1900:chromosomal satellite
1326:
1315:
1245:
1197:
1120:
1007:, unlike eukaryotes.
997:origin of replication
844:Edmund Beecher Wilson
836:genetic configuration
497:
435:Personalized medicine
429:Personalized medicine
292:Quantitative genetics
287:Mendelian inheritance
135:A chromosome and its
7964:Secondary chromosome
7959:Extrachromosomal DNA
7835:Transposable element
7444:Extrachromosomal DNA
7132:Satellite chromosome
7107:Lampbrush chromosome
7047:Nuclear organization
6920:12 July 2007 at the
5653:10.1093/jxb/54.380.1
4872:Archives de Biologie
3625:Coxx, H. J. (1925).
3450:10.1038/nrg.2016.112
3376:10.1038/nrm.2016.159
3346:Notes and references
3340:Parasitic chromosome
3252:Secondary chromosome
3216:Lampbrush chromosome
3059:Sexually reproducing
2666:Arthrosphaera fumosa
2539:Arabidopsis thaliana
2389:Klinefelter syndrome
2071:mitochondrial genome
1442:mitochondrial genome
1283:repetitive sequences
1234:Interphase chromatin
1035:extrachromosomal DNA
976:Borrelia burgdorferi
957:Sorangium cellulosum
774:History of discovery
355:Branches of genetics
8200:Model lipid bilayer
8042:Interspersed repeat
7137:Centromere position
7112:Polytene chromosome
7082:Circular chromosome
6915:Genographic Project
6805:2008PNAS..105.6730M
6490:(10–11): 1391–400.
6030:Chromosome Research
5806:2004PNAS..10113554K
5693:1974PNAS...71.1247G
5589:2018Natur.560..331S
5397:10.1289/ehp.0901531
5236:"Terminal deletion"
5148:"Genetic Disorders"
5006:1956Natur.178.1020F
4922:1923JEZ....37..291P
4702:2013Sci...342..948N
4603:2015NatSR...511916P
4473:1997PNAS...9412633P
4418:2000ArMic.173..165S
4308:2013Sci...342..731L
4120:2013NatSR...3E2101H
3909:. Harvard. p. 749.
3725:2012PBios.146..674P
3325:Polytene chromosome
3284:Y-chromosomal Aaron
2941:
2768:poecilia reticulata
2629:
2614:Adder's tongue fern
2525:
2217:Hans von Winiwarter
2213:human cell contain?
2061:level. It shows 22
2047:bands and sub-bands
1472:
1349:chromosome scaffold
1254:(the period of the
928:circular chromosome
883:Richard Goldschmidt
638:mitotic catastrophe
630:sexual reproduction
325:Genetic engineering
282:Population genetics
155:Part of a series on
21:Page version status
7510:organic structures
6657:10.1266/jjg.44.163
6574:10.1002/cyto.10100
6335:, pp. 61–94,
6257:10.1007/bf00057436
5912:10.1093/aob/mci014
5861:10.1007/BF00277053
5216:on 30 January 2017
4778:"Chromosome Map".
4591:Scientific Reports
4108:Scientific Reports
3614:. Merriam-Webster.
3289:Y-chromosomal Adam
3195:genetic algorithms
3050:
2967:Trypanosoma brucei
2939:
2627:
2603:Cultivated tobacco
2523:
2332:Genetic counseling
2312:
2268:hypotonic solution
2081:
2073:(at bottom left).
2035:
1864:Y (sex chromosome)
1848:X (sex chromosome)
1471:
1329:
1321:
1248:
1212:
1123:
1075:, regulation, and
894:Theophilus Painter
856:Theophilus Painter
766:Some of the early
564:chaperone proteins
524:
297:Molecular genetics
256:History and topics
27:
8304:
8303:
8245:Non-cellular life
8052:
8051:
7791:
7790:
7764:
7763:
7718:ssRNA satellite (
7474:
7473:
7432:
7431:
7169:Centromere number
7086:Linear chromosome
6609:10.1159/000063018
6453:10.1159/000056992
6300:10.1159/000063034
6185:10.1159/000069807
5583:(7718): 331–335.
5531:10.1111/and.12371
5191:978-0-13-436265-6
5014:10.1038/1781020a0
4856:978-0-412-11930-9
4781:Genes and Disease
4741:Vega.sanger.ad.uk
4653:978-0-7167-7601-7
4646:. W. H. Freeman.
4611:10.1038/srep11916
4260:10.1002/jcb.20519
4128:10.1038/srep02101
3905:Mayr, E. (1982).
3788:Fokin SI (2013).
3592:978-3-12-539683-8
3500:978-0-8153-4454-4
3422:978-0-8153-3577-1
3204:Genetic genealogy
3022:
3021:
3018:
3017:
3011:2 sex chromosomes
2935:
2934:
2623:
2622:
2431:Triple-X syndrome
2379:Jacobsen syndrome
2339:genetic disorders
2260:by a solution of
2016:
2015:
1892:
1891:
1428:Human chromosomes
1380:(from the French
879:Wilhelm Johannsen
724:) comes from the
634:genetic diversity
607:sister chromatids
492:
491:
219:Genetic variation
150:
149:
39:18 September 2024
8334:
7981:Gene duplication
7804:
7800:self-replication
7688:
7650:
7508:Self-replicating
7501:
7494:
7487:
7478:
7299:
7263:Polyploidization
7091:Extra chromosome
7006:Genetic material
6969:
6962:
6955:
6946:
6837:
6836:
6826:
6816:
6784:
6778:
6777:
6749:
6743:
6736:
6730:
6729:
6727:
6703:
6697:
6696:
6668:
6662:
6661:
6659:
6635:
6629:
6628:
6592:
6586:
6585:
6557:
6551:
6550:
6514:
6508:
6507:
6479:
6473:
6472:
6436:
6430:
6429:
6419:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6352:
6346:
6345:
6326:
6320:
6319:
6283:
6277:
6276:
6240:
6231:
6230:
6228:
6226:
6217:. Archived from
6211:
6205:
6204:
6179:(2–3): 199–205.
6167:
6161:
6160:
6150:
6118:
6109:
6108:
6077:Mammalian Genome
6071:
6062:
6061:
6024:
6018:
6017:
6007:
5979:
5973:
5972:
5940:
5934:
5933:
5923:
5900:Annals of Botany
5887:
5881:
5880:
5844:
5838:
5837:
5827:
5817:
5785:
5779:
5778:
5768:
5736:
5725:
5724:
5714:
5704:
5672:
5666:
5665:
5655:
5631:
5625:
5624:
5574:
5566:
5560:
5559:
5533:
5509:
5503:
5502:
5492:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5425:
5419:
5418:
5408:
5376:
5370:
5369:
5359:
5335:
5329:
5328:
5309:10.1002/mrd.1048
5292:
5286:
5285:
5257:
5251:
5250:
5248:
5246:
5232:
5226:
5225:
5223:
5221:
5212:. Archived from
5202:
5196:
5195:
5179:
5169:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5158:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5095:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5078:
5076:
5061:
5055:
5042:Hsu T.C. (1979)
5040:
5034:
5033:
5000:(4541): 1020–3.
4989:
4983:
4982:
4964:
4940:
4934:
4933:
4905:
4899:
4898:
4886:
4880:
4879:
4867:
4861:
4860:
4848:
4838:
4832:
4831:
4821:
4801:
4795:
4792:
4786:
4785:
4775:
4769:
4768:
4766:
4764:
4750:
4744:
4738:
4732:
4731:
4721:
4696:(6161): 948–53.
4681:
4675:
4674:– 13 August 2013
4672:Nature Education
4664:
4658:
4657:
4639:
4633:
4632:
4622:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4553:
4540:
4539:
4511:
4505:
4504:
4494:
4484:
4452:
4446:
4445:
4401:
4395:
4394:
4376:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4327:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4262:
4238:
4232:
4231:
4203:
4197:
4196:
4156:
4150:
4149:
4139:
4099:
4093:
4092:
4082:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4025:
4016:(6): 1270–1280.
4001:
3995:
3994:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3923:
3917:
3903:
3897:
3890:
3884:
3883:
3871:
3860:
3854:
3853:
3835:
3826:(7): R279–R286.
3811:
3805:
3804:
3794:
3785:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3760:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3713:Plant Biosystems
3710:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3685:
3667:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3622:
3616:
3615:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3575:
3569:
3568:
3558:
3540:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3514:
3505:
3504:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3461:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3414:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3387:
3355:
3184:Genetic deletion
2959:Microchromosomes
2942:
2722:Laboratory mouse
2652:Common fruit fly
2630:
2526:
2519:
2456:Sperm aneuploidy
2417:Cat-eye syndrome
2367:Edwards syndrome
2227:, concluding an
2083:In general, the
1905:
1473:
1462:gene predictions
1454:Sanger Institute
1412:During mitosis,
1129:associated with
1095:DNA condensation
795:
786:
761:Walther Flemming
742:
741:
737:, "colour") and
732:
731:
723:
722:
719:
718:
715:
712:
709:
704:
703:
700:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
585:only during the
583:light microscope
540:genetic material
484:
477:
470:
457:
452:
451:
347:Medical genetics
343:
338:
337:
171:
152:
133:
132:
122:
115:
106:
99:
92:
83:
74:
63:
8342:
8341:
8337:
8336:
8335:
8333:
8332:
8331:
8307:
8306:
8305:
8300:
8250:Synthetic virus
8238:Artificial cell
8211:
8139:
8048:
7937:RNA replication
7932:DNA replication
7920:
7911:Group II intron
7809:
7799:
7787:
7778:Mammalian prion
7760:
7736:
7715:dsRNA satellite
7712:ssDNA satellite
7682:
7675:
7644:
7637:
7582:
7511:
7505:
7475:
7470:
7428:
7335:
7297:
7267:
7256:Paleopolyploidy
7201:
7195:
7051:
7025:Heterochromatin
6988:
6982:
6973:
6922:Wayback Machine
6845:
6840:
6786:
6785:
6781:
6751:
6750:
6746:
6737:
6733:
6705:
6704:
6700:
6673:Animal Genetics
6670:
6669:
6665:
6637:
6636:
6632:
6603:(1–4): 97–112.
6594:
6593:
6589:
6559:
6558:
6554:
6516:
6515:
6511:
6481:
6480:
6476:
6447:(3–4): 249–52.
6438:
6437:
6433:
6389:
6388:
6384:
6354:
6353:
6349:
6343:
6328:
6327:
6323:
6285:
6284:
6280:
6242:
6241:
6234:
6224:
6222:
6213:
6212:
6208:
6169:
6168:
6164:
6120:
6119:
6112:
6083:(12): 1183–92.
6073:
6072:
6065:
6026:
6025:
6021:
5981:
5980:
5976:
5942:
5941:
5937:
5889:
5888:
5884:
5846:
5845:
5841:
5800:(37): 13554–9.
5787:
5786:
5782:
5738:
5737:
5728:
5674:
5673:
5669:
5633:
5632:
5628:
5568:
5567:
5563:
5511:
5510:
5506:
5470:
5469:
5465:
5427:
5426:
5422:
5378:
5377:
5373:
5337:
5336:
5332:
5294:
5293:
5289:
5259:
5258:
5254:
5244:
5242:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5219:
5217:
5204:
5203:
5199:
5192:
5171:
5170:
5166:
5156:
5154:
5152:medlineplus.gov
5146:
5145:
5141:
5110:10.1038/nrm4025
5093:
5088:
5087:
5083:
5074:
5072:
5063:
5062:
5058:
5041:
5037:
4991:
4990:
4986:
4942:
4941:
4937:
4907:
4906:
4902:
4888:
4887:
4883:
4869:
4868:
4864:
4857:
4845:The chromosomes
4840:
4839:
4835:
4803:
4802:
4798:
4793:
4789:
4777:
4776:
4772:
4762:
4760:
4752:
4751:
4747:
4739:
4735:
4683:
4682:
4678:
4665:
4661:
4654:
4641:
4640:
4636:
4584:
4583:
4579:
4572:
4555:
4554:
4543:
4513:
4512:
4508:
4467:(23): 12633–7.
4454:
4453:
4449:
4403:
4402:
4398:
4359:(12): 1350–64.
4346:
4345:
4341:
4302:(6159): 731–4.
4289:
4288:
4284:
4240:
4239:
4235:
4205:
4204:
4200:
4158:
4157:
4153:
4101:
4100:
4096:
4065:(16): 1366–72.
4059:Current Biology
4052:
4051:
4047:
4003:
4002:
3998:
3968:
3967:
3963:
3940:10.1038/nrg1917
3925:
3924:
3920:
3904:
3900:
3891:
3887:
3880:
3879:978-087969675-7
3869:
3862:
3861:
3857:
3820:Current Biology
3813:
3812:
3808:
3792:
3787:
3786:
3782:
3772:
3770:
3758:
3753:
3752:
3748:
3704:
3703:
3699:
3665:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3624:
3623:
3619:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3593:
3577:
3576:
3572:
3538:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3516:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3488:
3487:
3483:
3444:(11): 661–678.
3435:
3434:
3430:
3423:
3406:
3405:
3401:
3357:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3247:Non-disjunction
3237:Microchromosome
3150:
3115:
2986:
2984:Domestic pigeon
2954:
2949:
2506:sex chromosomes
2478:
2473:
2467:
2458:
2437:Turner syndrome
2403:during puberty.
2373:Isodicentric 15
2304:
2298:
2205:
2199:
2079:
2027:
2021:
1466:heterochromatin
1430:
1310:
1300:
1273:Heterochromatin
1239:transcription.
1236:
1154:red blood cells
1115:
1109:
1091:
1085:
1062:plasma membrane
1013:
993:
979:, the cause of
912:
906:
875:William Bateson
812:
811:
810:
809:
798:
797:
796:
788:
787:
776:
706:
673:
669:
662:
628:and subsequent
522:
488:
447:
440:
439:
430:
422:
421:
420:
419:
368:
360:
359:
351:
329:
310:
302:
301:
257:
249:
248:
235:
234:
233:
179:
146:
145:
144:
134:
126:
125:
124:
123:
118:
116:
109:
107:
102:
100:
95:
93:
86:
84:
79:
75:
59:
52:
47:
46:
45:
44:
43:
42:
26:
12:
11:
5:
8340:
8338:
8330:
8329:
8324:
8319:
8309:
8308:
8302:
8301:
8299:
8298:
8293:
8292:
8291:
8286:
8276:
8270:
8264:
8263:
8262:
8257:
8247:
8242:
8241:
8240:
8235:
8225:
8219:
8217:
8213:
8212:
8210:
8209:
8208:
8207:
8202:
8194:
8189:
8184:
8179:
8173:
8172:
8171:
8160:
8155:
8149:
8147:
8141:
8140:
8138:
8137:
8132:
8131:
8130:
8125:
8117:
8115:Kappa organism
8112:
8111:
8110:
8105:
8100:
8095:
8090:
8080:
8079:
8078:
8073:
8062:
8060:
8054:
8053:
8050:
8049:
8047:
8046:
8045:
8044:
8039:
8029:
8028:
8027:
8022:
8017:
8012:
8002:
8001:
8000:
7990:
7989:
7988:
7986:Non-coding DNA
7983:
7978:
7968:
7967:
7966:
7961:
7956:
7951:
7941:
7940:
7939:
7928:
7926:
7922:
7921:
7919:
7918:
7913:
7908:
7906:Group I intron
7903:
7898:
7897:
7896:
7886:
7885:
7884:
7881:
7872:
7869:
7864:
7859:
7849:
7848:
7847:
7842:
7832:
7831:
7830:
7828:Genomic island
7825:
7814:
7812:
7808:Mobile genetic
7801:
7793:
7792:
7789:
7788:
7786:
7785:
7780:
7774:
7772:
7766:
7765:
7762:
7761:
7759:
7758:
7757:
7756:
7753:
7744:
7742:
7738:
7737:
7735:
7734:
7733:
7732:
7729:
7723:
7716:
7713:
7710:
7707:
7700:
7696:
7694:
7685:
7677:
7676:
7674:
7673:
7666:
7658:
7656:
7647:
7639:
7638:
7636:
7635:
7633:dsDNA-RT virus
7630:
7628:ssRNA-RT virus
7625:
7623:(−)ssRNA virus
7620:
7618:(+)ssRNA virus
7615:
7610:
7605:
7604:
7603:
7592:
7590:
7584:
7583:
7581:
7580:
7579:
7578:
7573:
7563:Incertae sedis
7559:
7558:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7532:
7527:
7521:
7519:
7513:
7512:
7506:
7504:
7503:
7496:
7489:
7481:
7472:
7471:
7469:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7453:
7452:
7451:
7440:
7438:
7434:
7433:
7430:
7429:
7427:
7426:
7421:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7361:
7356:
7351:
7345:
7343:
7337:
7336:
7334:
7333:
7328:
7323:
7318:
7313:
7307:
7305:
7296:
7295:
7290:
7275:
7273:
7269:
7268:
7266:
7265:
7260:
7259:
7258:
7253:
7248:
7243:
7233:
7232:
7231:
7226:
7216:
7211:
7205:
7203:
7197:
7196:
7194:
7193:
7192:
7191:
7186:
7181:
7176:
7166:
7165:
7164:
7159:
7154:
7149:
7147:Submetacentric
7144:
7134:
7129:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7104:
7099:
7094:
7088:
7079:
7074:
7073:or heterosome)
7067:Sex chromosome
7059:
7057:
7053:
7052:
7050:
7049:
7044:
7039:
7034:
7029:
7028:
7027:
7022:
7012:
7003:
6998:
6992:
6990:
6984:
6983:
6974:
6972:
6971:
6964:
6957:
6949:
6943:
6942:
6936:
6930:
6924:
6912:
6894:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6872:
6866:
6861:
6856:
6844:
6843:External links
6841:
6839:
6838:
6799:(18): 6730–4.
6779:
6744:
6731:
6718:(379): 150–3.
6698:
6663:
6650:(3): 163–170.
6630:
6587:
6552:
6509:
6474:
6431:
6402:(3): 1319–28.
6382:
6347:
6341:
6321:
6294:(1–4): 223–7.
6278:
6251:(1–2): 37–52.
6232:
6221:on 31 May 2023
6206:
6162:
6110:
6063:
6019:
5974:
5935:
5882:
5839:
5780:
5726:
5667:
5626:
5561:
5504:
5463:
5436:(1–3): 49–60.
5420:
5371:
5330:
5287:
5268:(10): 634–43.
5252:
5227:
5197:
5190:
5164:
5139:
5081:
5056:
5035:
4984:
4955:(1–2): 723–4.
4935:
4916:(3): 291–336.
4900:
4881:
4862:
4855:
4833:
4796:
4787:
4770:
4745:
4733:
4676:
4659:
4652:
4634:
4577:
4571:978-1605357072
4570:
4560:(8 ed.).
4541:
4506:
4447:
4396:
4339:
4282:
4233:
4214:(9): 399–401.
4198:
4151:
4094:
4045:
3996:
3977:(2): 292–303.
3961:
3934:(8): 655–660.
3918:
3898:
3885:
3878:
3855:
3806:
3780:
3746:
3719:(3): 674–675.
3697:
3653:
3634:
3617:
3597:
3591:
3570:
3526:
3506:
3499:
3481:
3459:2027.42/151884
3428:
3421:
3399:
3370:(3): 141–158.
3349:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3286:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3272:X-inactivation
3254:
3249:
3244:
3242:Minichromosome
3239:
3234:
3229:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3201:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3149:
3146:
3114:
3113:In prokaryotes
3111:
3020:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3002:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2936:
2933:
2932:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2889:
2883:
2882:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2819:
2817:Domestic sheep
2813:
2812:
2809:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2779:
2775:
2774:
2771:
2760:
2759:
2756:
2754:Syrian hamster
2750:
2749:
2746:
2738:
2737:
2734:
2732:Laboratory rat
2728:
2727:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2704:
2698:
2697:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2684:
2673:
2672:
2669:
2662:Pill millipede
2658:
2657:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2644:
2642:Indian muntjac
2638:
2637:
2634:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2619:approx. 1,200
2617:
2610:
2609:
2606:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2565:
2558:
2557:
2554:
2547:
2546:
2543:
2534:
2533:
2530:
2477:
2474:
2469:Main article:
2466:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2410:
2407:Patau Syndrome
2404:
2386:
2376:
2370:
2364:
2354:
2320:translocations
2300:Main article:
2297:
2294:
2278:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2264:
2250:
2198:
2195:
2161:
2160:
2153:
2143:
2137:
2122:
2067:sex chromosome
2023:Main article:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2006:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1964:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1912:
1909:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1812:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1764:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1477:
1438:sex chromosome
1429:
1426:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1286:
1270:
1235:
1232:
1087:Main article:
1084:
1081:
1012:
1009:
992:
989:
908:Main article:
905:
902:
848:Nettie Stevens
822:Theodor Boveri
806:Theodor Boveri
800:
799:
790:
789:
781:
780:
779:
778:
777:
775:
772:
661:
658:
566:, bind to and
521:
520:
517:
514:
509:
503:
490:
489:
487:
486:
479:
472:
464:
461:
460:
459:
458:
442:
441:
438:
437:
431:
428:
427:
424:
423:
418:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
395:Immunogenetics
392:
387:
382:
377:
371:
370:
369:
366:
365:
362:
361:
358:
357:
350:
349:
344:
327:
322:
320:DNA sequencing
317:
311:
308:
307:
304:
303:
300:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
269:
264:
258:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
246:
241:
232:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
182:
181:
180:
178:Key components
177:
176:
173:
172:
164:
163:
157:
156:
148:
147:
128:
127:
117:
108:
101:
94:
85:
78:
77:
76:
69:
68:
67:
66:
50:
48:
28:
22:
19:
17:
16:
15:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8339:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8318:
8315:
8314:
8312:
8297:
8294:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8281:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8271:
8269:
8268:Nanobacterium
8265:
8261:
8258:
8256:
8253:
8252:
8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8239:
8236:
8234:
8233:Cell division
8231:
8230:
8229:
8226:
8224:
8221:
8220:
8218:
8214:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8197:
8195:
8193:
8190:
8188:
8185:
8183:
8180:
8178:
8174:
8170:
8167:
8166:
8165:
8161:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8151:
8150:
8148:
8146:
8142:
8136:
8133:
8129:
8126:
8124:
8121:
8120:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8109:
8106:
8104:
8101:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8089:
8086:
8085:
8084:
8081:
8077:
8076:Hydrogenosome
8074:
8072:
8069:
8068:
8067:
8066:Mitochondrion
8064:
8063:
8061:
8059:
8058:Endosymbiosis
8055:
8043:
8040:
8038:
8037:Tandem repeat
8035:
8034:
8033:
8030:
8026:
8023:
8021:
8018:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8007:
8006:
8003:
7999:
7996:
7995:
7994:
7991:
7987:
7984:
7982:
7979:
7977:
7974:
7973:
7972:
7969:
7965:
7962:
7960:
7957:
7955:
7952:
7950:
7947:
7946:
7945:
7942:
7938:
7935:
7934:
7933:
7930:
7929:
7927:
7925:Other aspects
7923:
7917:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7895:
7892:
7891:
7890:
7887:
7882:
7880:
7876:
7873:
7870:
7868:
7865:
7863:
7860:
7858:
7855:
7854:
7853:
7850:
7846:
7843:
7841:
7838:
7837:
7836:
7833:
7829:
7826:
7824:
7821:
7820:
7819:
7816:
7815:
7813:
7811:
7805:
7802:
7798:
7794:
7784:
7781:
7779:
7776:
7775:
7773:
7771:
7767:
7754:
7751:
7750:
7749:
7746:
7745:
7743:
7739:
7730:
7727:
7726:
7724:
7721:
7717:
7714:
7711:
7708:
7705:
7701:
7698:
7697:
7695:
7693:
7689:
7686:
7684:
7678:
7672:
7671:
7670:Avsunviroidae
7667:
7665:
7664:
7663:Pospiviroidae
7660:
7659:
7657:
7655:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7640:
7634:
7631:
7629:
7626:
7624:
7621:
7619:
7616:
7614:
7611:
7609:
7606:
7602:
7599:
7598:
7597:
7594:
7593:
7591:
7589:
7585:
7577:
7574:
7572:
7571:
7567:
7566:
7565:
7564:
7560:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7537:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7522:
7520:
7518:
7517:Cellular life
7514:
7509:
7502:
7497:
7495:
7490:
7488:
7483:
7482:
7479:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7454:
7450:
7447:
7446:
7445:
7442:
7441:
7439:
7435:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7346:
7344:
7342:
7338:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7304:
7300:
7294:
7291:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7277:
7276:
7274:
7270:
7264:
7261:
7257:
7254:
7252:
7249:
7247:
7244:
7242:
7239:
7238:
7237:
7234:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7222:
7221:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7207:
7206:
7204:
7202:and evolution
7198:
7190:
7187:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7171:
7170:
7167:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7139:
7138:
7135:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7127:Isochromosome
7125:
7123:
7120:
7118:
7115:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7105:
7103:
7100:
7098:
7095:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7083:
7080:
7078:
7075:
7072:
7068:
7064:
7061:
7060:
7058:
7054:
7048:
7045:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7017:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6993:
6991:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6970:
6965:
6963:
6958:
6956:
6951:
6950:
6947:
6940:
6937:
6934:
6931:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6919:
6916:
6913:
6910:
6906:
6902:
6898:
6895:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6876:
6873:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6854:
6850:
6847:
6846:
6842:
6834:
6830:
6825:
6820:
6815:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6794:
6790:
6783:
6780:
6775:
6771:
6767:
6763:
6759:
6755:
6748:
6745:
6741:
6735:
6732:
6726:
6721:
6717:
6713:
6709:
6702:
6699:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6667:
6664:
6658:
6653:
6649:
6645:
6641:
6634:
6631:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6591:
6588:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6563:
6556:
6553:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6525:(3): 247–57.
6524:
6520:
6513:
6510:
6505:
6501:
6497:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6478:
6475:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6442:
6435:
6432:
6427:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6386:
6383:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6351:
6348:
6344:
6342:9782831700199
6338:
6334:
6333:
6325:
6322:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6282:
6279:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6250:
6246:
6239:
6237:
6233:
6220:
6216:
6210:
6207:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6166:
6163:
6158:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6117:
6115:
6111:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6070:
6068:
6064:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6039:
6036:(3): 209–22.
6035:
6031:
6023:
6020:
6015:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5998:(4): 279–82.
5997:
5993:
5989:
5987:
5978:
5975:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5945:Arthrosphaera
5939:
5936:
5931:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5906:(1): 207–17.
5905:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5886:
5883:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5855:(2): 159–69.
5854:
5850:
5843:
5840:
5835:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5784:
5781:
5776:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5751:(2): 983–99.
5750:
5746:
5742:
5735:
5733:
5731:
5727:
5722:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5687:(4): 1247–9.
5686:
5682:
5678:
5671:
5668:
5663:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5646:(380): 1–10.
5645:
5641:
5637:
5630:
5627:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5573:
5565:
5562:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5524:(9): 1012–9.
5523:
5519:
5515:
5508:
5505:
5500:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5483:(1): 615–23.
5482:
5478:
5474:
5467:
5464:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5424:
5421:
5416:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5375:
5372:
5367:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5350:(4): 715–23.
5349:
5345:
5341:
5334:
5331:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5303:(4): 417–21.
5302:
5298:
5291:
5288:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5256:
5253:
5241:
5237:
5231:
5228:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5201:
5198:
5193:
5187:
5183:
5178:
5177:
5168:
5165:
5153:
5149:
5143:
5140:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5118:1721.1/117201
5115:
5111:
5107:
5104:(8): 473–85.
5103:
5099:
5092:
5085:
5082:
5070:
5066:
5060:
5057:
5053:
5052:9780387903644
5049:
5045:
5039:
5036:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4988:
4985:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4939:
4936:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4904:
4901:
4896:
4892:
4885:
4882:
4877:
4873:
4866:
4863:
4858:
4852:
4847:
4846:
4837:
4834:
4829:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4800:
4797:
4791:
4788:
4783:
4782:
4774:
4771:
4759:
4755:
4749:
4746:
4742:
4737:
4734:
4729:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4680:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4663:
4660:
4655:
4649:
4645:
4638:
4635:
4630:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4578:
4573:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4552:
4550:
4548:
4546:
4542:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4522:(2): 229–35.
4521:
4517:
4510:
4507:
4502:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4451:
4448:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4400:
4397:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4343:
4340:
4335:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4283:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4253:(3): 506–21.
4252:
4248:
4244:
4237:
4234:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4202:
4199:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4171:(5): 917–22.
4170:
4166:
4162:
4155:
4152:
4147:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4098:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4049:
4046:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4000:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3915:9780674364462
3912:
3908:
3902:
3899:
3895:
3889:
3886:
3881:
3875:
3868:
3867:
3859:
3856:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3810:
3807:
3802:
3798:
3791:
3784:
3781:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3750:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3709:
3701:
3698:
3693:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3664:
3657:
3654:
3649:
3645:
3638:
3635:
3630:
3629:
3621:
3618:
3613:
3612:
3607:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3579:Jones, Daniel
3574:
3571:
3566:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3537:
3530:
3527:
3522:
3521:
3513:
3511:
3507:
3502:
3496:
3492:
3485:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3429:
3424:
3418:
3413:
3412:
3403:
3400:
3395:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3354:
3351:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3335:Neochromosome
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3119:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3094:
3092:
3091:fertilization
3088:
3084:
3081:of a diploid
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3063:somatic cells
3061:species have
3060:
3056:
3054:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3036:The 23 human
3034:
3030:
3027:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2993:
2990:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2937:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2625:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2562:Einkorn wheat
2560:
2559:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2531:
2529:Plant species
2528:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2486:
2484:
2476:In eukaryotes
2475:
2472:
2464:
2462:
2455:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2357:Down syndrome
2355:
2351:
2347:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2316:Down syndrome
2308:
2303:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2221:spermatogonia
2218:
2214:
2212:
2204:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2158:
2154:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2107:transcription
2104:
2101:Although the
2099:
2097:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2078:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2031:
2026:
2018:
2011:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1887:
1885:3,079,843,747
1884:
1881:
1878:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1342:
1341:transcription
1338:
1334:
1325:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1297:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1191:chromosomes.
1190:
1186:
1183:
1182:mitochondrial
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1119:
1114:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1074:
1073:transcription
1070:
1065:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1011:DNA packaging
1010:
1008:
1006:
1002:
998:
990:
988:
986:
982:
978:
977:
972:
971:
967:
963:
959:
958:
953:
952:
947:
946:
941:
940:endosymbiotic
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
911:
903:
901:
899:
895:
890:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
859:
857:
853:
852:Walter Sutton
849:
845:
841:
840:Gregor Mendel
837:
833:
829:
827:
823:
818:
816:
815:Otto Bütschli
807:
803:
802:Walter Sutton
794:
785:
773:
771:
769:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
736:
727:
721:
667:
659:
657:
654:
649:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
622:recombination
618:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
591:cell division
588:
584:
579:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
504:
501:
496:
485:
480:
478:
473:
471:
466:
465:
463:
462:
456:
446:
445:
444:
443:
436:
433:
432:
426:
425:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
372:
364:
363:
356:
353:
352:
348:
345:
341:
332:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
312:
306:
305:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
277:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
259:
253:
252:
245:
242:
240:
237:
236:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
184:
183:
175:
174:
170:
166:
165:
162:
158:
154:
153:
142:
138:
121:
113:
105:
98:
90:
82:
73:
65:
64:
61:
57:
40:
36:
32:
25:
8327:Cytogenetics
8255:Viral vector
8098:Gerontoplast
8025:Transpoviron
7943:
7797:Nucleic acid
7783:Fungal prion
7681:Helper-virus
7668:
7661:
7568:
7561:
7168:
7136:
7031:
6979:
6976:Cytogenetics
6891:Eurochromnet
6796:
6792:
6782:
6760:(3): 253–8.
6757:
6753:
6747:
6739:
6734:
6715:
6711:
6701:
6679:(4): 290–4.
6676:
6672:
6666:
6647:
6643:
6633:
6600:
6596:
6590:
6565:
6561:
6555:
6522:
6518:
6512:
6487:
6483:
6477:
6444:
6440:
6434:
6399:
6395:
6385:
6363:(4): 351–7.
6360:
6356:
6350:
6331:
6324:
6291:
6287:
6281:
6248:
6244:
6223:. Retrieved
6219:the original
6209:
6176:
6172:
6165:
6133:(2): 180–9.
6130:
6126:
6080:
6076:
6033:
6029:
6022:
5995:
5991:
5985:
5977:
5955:(1): 49–56.
5952:
5948:
5944:
5938:
5903:
5899:
5885:
5852:
5848:
5842:
5797:
5793:
5783:
5748:
5744:
5684:
5680:
5670:
5643:
5639:
5629:
5580:
5576:
5564:
5540:11365/982323
5521:
5517:
5507:
5480:
5476:
5466:
5433:
5429:
5423:
5391:(6): 833–9.
5388:
5384:
5374:
5347:
5343:
5333:
5300:
5296:
5290:
5265:
5261:
5255:
5243:. Retrieved
5239:
5230:
5218:. Retrieved
5214:the original
5209:
5200:
5175:
5167:
5155:. Retrieved
5151:
5142:
5101:
5097:
5084:
5075:27 September
5073:, retrieved
5068:
5059:
5043:
5038:
4997:
4993:
4987:
4952:
4948:
4938:
4913:
4909:
4903:
4894:
4890:
4884:
4878:(93): 147–9.
4875:
4871:
4865:
4844:
4836:
4809:
4799:
4790:
4780:
4773:
4761:. Retrieved
4757:
4748:
4736:
4693:
4689:
4679:
4671:
4662:
4643:
4637:
4597:(1): 11916.
4594:
4590:
4580:
4557:
4519:
4515:
4509:
4464:
4460:
4450:
4412:(3): 165–9.
4409:
4405:
4399:
4356:
4352:
4342:
4299:
4295:
4285:
4250:
4246:
4236:
4211:
4207:
4201:
4168:
4164:
4154:
4111:
4107:
4097:
4062:
4058:
4048:
4013:
4009:
3999:
3974:
3970:
3964:
3931:
3927:
3921:
3906:
3901:
3893:
3888:
3865:
3858:
3823:
3819:
3809:
3800:
3797:Protistology
3796:
3783:
3771:. Retrieved
3766:
3762:
3749:
3716:
3712:
3700:
3676:(1): 65–66.
3673:
3669:
3656:
3647:
3643:
3637:
3627:
3620:
3609:
3606:"Chromosome"
3600:
3582:
3573:
3546:
3542:
3529:
3519:
3490:
3484:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3410:
3402:
3367:
3363:
3353:
3279:Y-chromosome
3267:X-chromosome
3138:
3124:
3116:
3095:
3057:
3051:
3042:prometaphase
3023:
2988:
2965:
2953:Intermediate
2827:Garden snail
2767:
2742:
2712:Domestic pig
2702:Domestic cat
2680:
2665:
2605:(tetraploid)
2583:(tetraploid)
2537:
2513:
2487:
2479:
2459:
2449:XYY syndrome
2401:gynecomastia
2393:speech delay
2336:
2313:
2290:chromosome 2
2279:
2244:
2208:
2206:
2184:
2179:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2100:
2096:cytogenetics
2082:
2000:
1987:
1974:
1958:
1945:
1932:
1919:
1911:Chromosomes
1893:
1450:human genome
1431:
1418:kinetochores
1414:microtubules
1411:
1408:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1365:
1346:
1330:
1288:
1278:
1249:
1237:
1222:(structural
1213:
1168:
1158:
1146:mitochondria
1142:small amount
1134:
1127:DNA molecule
1124:
1066:
1059:
1055:histone-like
1028:
1014:
994:
987:chromosome.
984:
981:Lyme disease
974:
968:
962:Spirochaetes
955:
949:
943:
913:
898:Joe Hin Tjio
891:
862:
860:
832:Wilhelm Roux
830:
819:
813:
768:karyological
765:
744:
734:
665:
663:
650:
620:Chromosomal
619:
580:
527:
525:
415:Quantitative
385:Cytogenetics
380:Conservation
262:Introduction
80:
60:
38:
29:This is the
23:
8317:Chromosomes
8279:Cancer cell
8145:Abiogenesis
8093:Chromoplast
8088:Chloroplast
7871:Degradative
7613:dsRNA virus
7608:ssDNA virus
7601:Giant virus
7596:dsDNA virus
7189:Polycentric
7179:Monocentric
7162:Holocentric
7157:Acrocentric
7152:Telocentric
7142:Metacentric
7020:Euchromatin
6980:chromosomes
6897:Ensembl.org
6568:(1): 20–5.
5245:20 February
4971:10261/15776
3803:(1): 22–35.
3189:Epigenetics
2955:chromosomes
2950:chromosomes
2807:Chimpanzees
2692:Tibetan fox
2616:(polyploid)
2594:(hexaploid)
2592:Bread wheat
2581:Durum wheat
2512:, which is
2510:bread wheat
2346:Cri du chat
2296:Aberrations
2282:Chimpanzees
2234:. In 1922,
2168:karyotyping
2103:replication
1855:154,913,754
1727:100,338,915
1711:106,360,585
1695:114,127,980
1679:132,289,534
1663:134,452,384
1647:135,374,737
1631:140,442,298
1615:146,274,826
1599:158,821,424
1583:170,896,993
1567:180,837,866
1551:191,263,063
1535:199,446,827
1519:242,751,149
1503:247,199,719
1490:% of bases
1267:Euchromatin
1210:chromosome.
1189:cytoplasmic
1077:replication
1069:supercoiled
1016:Prokaryotes
916:prokaryotes
904:Prokaryotes
887:T.H. Morgan
804:(left) and
112:10 - 10 bp
8311:Categories
8187:Proteinoid
8182:Coacervate
8135:Nitroplast
8128:Trophosome
8123:Bacteriome
8108:Apicoplast
8103:Leucoplast
7944:Chromosome
7862:Resistance
7570:Parakaryon
7341:Centromere
7272:Structures
7251:Polyploidy
7241:Aneuploidy
7042:Nucleosome
7032:Chromosome
6225:6 December
5949:Caryologia
5518:Andrologia
5430:Toxicology
5220:4 February
3773:6 November
3159:Chromomere
3154:Aneuploidy
3118:Prokaryote
3046:fibroblast
2927:Kingfisher
2877:Guinea pig
2490:eukaryotes
2361:trisomy 21
2328:aneuploidy
2286:great apes
2262:colchicine
2252:Arresting
2223:and 48 in
2201:See also:
2176:colchicine
2115:eukaryotes
2059:centromere
2041:Schematic
1896:centromere
1871:57,741,652
1839:49,528,953
1823:46,944,323
1807:62,435,965
1791:63,806,651
1775:76,117,153
1759:78,654,742
1743:88,822,254
1486:base pairs
1476:Chromosome
1446:Sequencing
1404:microscope
1372:centromere
1368:chromatids
1302:See also:
1256:cell cycle
1252:interphase
1216:eukaryotes
1204:nucleosome
1178:centromere
1170:Eukaryotes
1164:nucleosome
1111:See also:
1099:Nucleosome
1093:See also:
1083:Eukaryotes
1057:proteins.
936:base pairs
932:genophores
871:Ernst Mayr
666:chromosome
603:centromere
599:centromere
552:eukaryotic
548:nucleosome
528:chromosome
512:Centromere
410:Population
390:Ecological
315:Geneticist
229:Amino acid
209:Nucleotide
185:Chromosome
141:base pairs
89:10 - 10 bp
8196:Research
8177:Protocell
7916:Retrozyme
7875:Virulence
7857:Fertility
7704:Virophage
7692:Satellite
7683:dependent
7535:Eukaryota
7293:Protamine
7200:Processes
7184:Dicentric
7037:Chromatid
7015:Chromatin
6996:Karyotype
6562:Cytometry
6519:BioEssays
5969:219554731
5892:Soltis PS
5605:1476-4687
5134:205495880
4949:Hereditas
4891:Anat. Res
3769:(4): 1–80
3549:: 15–22.
3330:Protamine
3174:Condensin
3106:cultivars
3098:polyploid
3087:crossover
2677:Earthworm
2564:(diploid)
2553:(diploid)
2542:(diploid)
2514:hexaploid
2502:autosomes
2258:metaphase
2215:In 1912,
2191:autosomes
2187:gonosomes
2180:karyogram
2132:(between
2089:eukaryote
2085:karyotype
2077:Karyotype
2055:G banding
2043:karyogram
2025:Karyotype
2019:Karyotype
2010:satellite
2005:21–22, Y
1968:satellite
1914:Features
1468:regions.
1434:autosomes
1422:chromatid
1353:condensin
1318:metaphase
1260:chromatin
1228:chromatin
1208:metaphase
1136:chromatin
1107:Protamine
1089:Chromatin
1047:nucleoids
1039:cytoplasm
1033:or other
942:bacteria
757:chromatin
664:The word
660:Etymology
653:chromatin
642:apoptosis
587:metaphase
516:Short arm
507:Chromatid
500:metaphase
405:Molecular
400:Microbial
375:Classical
276:molecular
272:Evolution
8223:Organism
8216:See also
8192:Sulphobe
8169:Ribozyme
8164:RNA life
8071:Mitosome
8015:Prophage
8010:Provirus
7998:Replicon
7954:Circular
7901:Phagemid
7818:Mobilome
7810:elements
7720:Virusoid
7643:Subviral
7555:Protista
7540:Animalia
7525:Bacteria
7437:See also
7279:Telomere
7246:Euploidy
7174:Acentric
7071:allosome
7063:Autosome
6989:concepts
6918:Archived
6909:syntenic
6833:18445653
6774:10732993
6625:26017998
6617:12438785
6582:12116377
6539:10333734
6504:15313436
6469:23529399
6461:11528120
6426:16547103
6396:Genetics
6377:15857774
6316:19327437
6308:12438803
6245:Genetica
6201:29849096
6193:12698004
6157:17246549
6127:Genetics
6105:41546146
6097:17143584
6050:12067210
6014:12407215
5930:15596468
5834:15342909
5745:Genetics
5662:12456750
5621:51894920
5613:30069045
5556:13484513
5548:25382683
5499:15615886
5458:36073841
5450:15363581
5415:20418200
5325:35230655
5317:11468778
5282:23720770
5157:27 April
5126:26204159
5022:13378517
4828:90739754
4763:11 April
4728:24200812
4629:26132639
4558:The Cell
4536:10753814
4442:28946064
4434:10763747
4391:21101836
4374:11147202
4334:24158908
4277:25355087
4269:15988757
4228:15337158
4193:23852021
4146:23812535
4114:: 2101.
4089:21835622
4040:11839535
4032:25175626
3991:16860572
3956:21365693
3948:16847465
3850:15479331
3842:18397731
3741:83749502
3692:83748967
3565:26895139
3476:31259189
3468:27739532
3394:28053344
3148:See also
3144:number.
3131:symbiont
3126:Buchnera
3083:germline
2921:100–104
2917:Goldfish
2907:Hedgehog
2847:Elephant
2837:Silkworm
2797:Gorillas
2741:Rabbit (
2397:dyslexia
2350:deletion
2242:system.
2172:in vitro
2149:between
2126:germline
1950:6–12, X
1394:follows
1224:proteins
1220:histones
1160:Histones
1131:proteins
1031:plasmids
1020:nucleoid
970:Borrelia
920:bacteria
918: –
910:Nucleoid
611:anaphase
568:condense
560:histones
558:are the
556:proteins
544:organism
519:Long arm
455:Category
340:template
331:Genomics
309:Research
214:Mutation
204:Heredity
161:Genetics
137:packaged
35:reviewed
8205:Jeewanu
8119:Organs
8083:Plastid
7883:Cryptic
7852:Plasmid
7550:Plantae
7530:Archaea
7449:Plasmid
7303:Histone
7214:Meiosis
7209:Mitosis
6901:Ensembl
6824:2373351
6801:Bibcode
6693:9745667
6547:5547543
6417:1526672
6273:1098866
6265:3333352
6148:1200977
6058:9660694
5921:4246719
5877:6953185
5869:8355650
5802:Bibcode
5775:8725244
5766:1207354
5721:4133848
5689:Bibcode
5585:Bibcode
5406:2898861
5366:9797104
5176:Biology
5030:4155320
5002:Bibcode
4918:Bibcode
4719:4040465
4698:Bibcode
4690:Science
4620:4487240
4599:Bibcode
4501:9356501
4469:Bibcode
4414:Bibcode
4383:9893710
4325:3927313
4304:Bibcode
4296:Science
4185:7934868
4137:3696898
4116:Bibcode
4080:3169327
3721:Bibcode
3385:5319910
3169:Cohesin
3121:species
3079:meiosis
3075:haploid
3071:Gametes
3067:diploid
3040:during
3026:species
3005:Chicken
2945:Species
2646:6♀, 7♂
2633:Species
2496:, like
2494:diploid
2254:mitosis
2236:Painter
2225:oogonia
2211:diploid
2157:mosaics
2134:gametes
2092:species
2051:diploid
1448:of the
1337:meiosis
1333:mitosis
1308:meiosis
1304:mitosis
1250:During
1103:Histone
1051:archaea
1024:archaea
1005:introns
1001:operons
964:of the
938:in the
924:archaea
826:vectors
626:meiosis
624:during
613:during
595:S phase
532:package
267:History
239:Outline
8296:Virome
8274:Nanobe
7971:Genome
7949:Linear
7894:Fosmid
7889:Cosmid
7654:Viroid
7645:agents
7010:Genome
7001:Ploidy
6831:
6821:
6772:
6691:
6623:
6615:
6580:
6545:
6537:
6502:
6467:
6459:
6424:
6414:
6375:
6357:Micron
6339:
6314:
6306:
6271:
6263:
6199:
6191:
6155:
6145:
6103:
6095:
6056:
6048:
6012:
5967:
5928:
5918:
5875:
5867:
5832:
5825:518793
5822:
5773:
5763:
5719:
5712:388202
5709:
5660:
5619:
5611:
5603:
5577:Nature
5554:
5546:
5497:
5456:
5448:
5413:
5403:
5364:
5323:
5315:
5280:
5188:
5132:
5124:
5050:
5028:
5020:
4994:Nature
4979:345813
4977:
4897:: 129.
4853:
4826:
4726:
4716:
4650:
4627:
4617:
4568:
4534:
4499:
4489:
4440:
4432:
4389:
4381:
4371:
4332:
4322:
4275:
4267:
4226:
4191:
4183:
4144:
4134:
4087:
4077:
4038:
4030:
3989:
3954:
3946:
3913:
3876:
3848:
3840:
3739:
3690:
3589:
3563:
3497:
3474:
3466:
3419:
3392:
3382:
3197:, see
3135:aphids
3000:59–63
2867:Donkey
2498:humans
1992:19–20
1979:16–18
1963:13–15
1908:Group
1888:100.0
1882:21,000
1484:Total
1387:q arms
1377:p arms
1202:, the
1185:genome
1105:, and
985:linear
735:chroma
646:cancer
542:of an
453:
367:Fields
224:Allele
199:Genome
7770:Prion
7741:Other
7588:Virus
7545:Fungi
7287:TINF2
7056:Types
6987:Basic
6905:genes
6853:HOPES
6851:from
6621:S2CID
6543:S2CID
6465:S2CID
6312:S2CID
6269:S2CID
6197:S2CID
6101:S2CID
6054:S2CID
5965:S2CID
5873:S2CID
5617:S2CID
5552:S2CID
5454:S2CID
5321:S2CID
5130:S2CID
5094:(PDF)
5026:S2CID
4824:S2CID
4492:25063
4438:S2CID
4387:S2CID
4273:S2CID
4189:S2CID
4036:S2CID
3952:S2CID
3870:(PDF)
3846:S2CID
3793:(PDF)
3759:(PDF)
3737:S2CID
3688:S2CID
3666:(PDF)
3650:: 27.
3539:(PDF)
3472:S2CID
3226:Locus
3048:cells
2978:≈100
2948:Large
2887:Horse
2787:Hares
2778:Human
2764:Guppy
2483:yeast
2322:, or
2240:XX/XY
2229:XX/XO
2151:races
1879:Total
1480:Genes
1400:queue
1382:petit
1357:TOP2A
1174:cells
1150:cells
966:genus
730:χρῶμα
726:Greek
530:is a
244:Index
8284:HeLa
8228:Cell
7976:Gene
7069:(or
6907:and
6829:PMID
6770:PMID
6689:PMID
6613:PMID
6578:PMID
6535:PMID
6500:PMID
6457:PMID
6422:PMID
6373:PMID
6337:ISBN
6304:PMID
6261:PMID
6227:2009
6189:PMID
6153:PMID
6093:PMID
6046:PMID
6010:PMID
5926:PMID
5865:PMID
5830:PMID
5771:PMID
5717:PMID
5658:PMID
5609:PMID
5601:ISSN
5544:PMID
5495:PMID
5446:PMID
5411:PMID
5362:PMID
5313:PMID
5278:PMID
5247:2023
5222:2017
5186:ISBN
5184:–5.
5159:2022
5122:PMID
5077:2023
5048:ISBN
5018:PMID
4975:PMID
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