1183:. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By
733:
1308:
684:
680:. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.
1101:
819:
1568:
1251:. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).
835:
1862:
38:
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Hydrochloric acid provides acidic pH for pepsin. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. Pepsin breaks down proteins into
963:
and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.
1096:
The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing
962:
Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood
1869:
There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. Connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose-insulin
728:
that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.
1154:
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any
373:
to digest milk proteins. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus and bicarbonates are secreted by the stomach. They provide a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of chemicals like concentrated hydrochloric acid while also aiding lubrication.
1097:
these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.
1945:
Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract.
409:
and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the
1385:
and bicarbonates are secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. Mainly proteins are digested in stomach. The partially digested food enters the
1142:
behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more
879:. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species. The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.
1199:, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:
1345:
is around 9 metres (30 feet) long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.
2883:
Viola-Villegas N, Rabideau AE, Bartholomä M, Zubieta J, Doyle RP (August 2009). "Targeting the cubilin receptor through the vitamin B(12) uptake pathway: cytotoxicity and mechanistic insight through fluorescent Re(I) delivery".
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functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body. Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of
867:
primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.
1748:. Lactose intolerance varies widely by genetic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.
1484:
and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and
538:
In a channel transport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the
1976:
In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the
1054:, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material. Solids clump together to form the cud (or
966:
The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest.
1187:, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.
477:, secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the
629:
Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of
470:) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.
1127:
have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).
386:
by enzymes in the small intestine. Studies suggest that increasing the number of chews per bite increases relevant gut hormones and may decrease self-reported hunger and food intake.
446:
Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most
551:. This secretion system transports various chemical species, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20–900 kDa). The chemical species secreted vary in size from the small
3047:
426:
MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Absorption of water, simple sugar and alcohol also takes place in stomach. Waste material (
944:
is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly
1740:. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat
2009:
587:
and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host's cells rather than be secreted into the extracellular medium.
270:, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of
921:. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is used to roll food particles into a
2004:
1151:. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
1254:
The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by
1669:. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of
3040:
948:
quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.
1985:
to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.
329:
in the oral cavity (mouth). After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a
732:
2735:
2323:
2301:
2252:
603:, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of
3033:
3003:
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or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.
2986:
1923:(GIP) – is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce
1999:
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1913:(CCK) – is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the
1313:
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1324:
2347:
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2110:
2054:
121:
2239:
Maton, Anthea; Jean
Hopkins; Charles William McLaughlin; Susan Johnson; Maryanna Quon Warner; David LaHart; Jill D. Wright (1993).
1285:. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes.
1829:-haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B
2019:
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1994:
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Fatty acid metabolism § Dietary sources of fatty acids, their digestion, absorption, transport in the blood and storage
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1933:
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machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in
512:
Both cells recircularize their plasmids, synthesize second strands, and reproduce pili; both cells are now viable donors.
3065:
2919:
Beasley, DeAnna E.; Koltz, Amanda M.; Lambert, Johanna E.; Fierer, Noah; Dunn, Rob R. (July 2015). Li, Xiangzhen (ed.).
1342:
102:
1334:
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The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the
235:
that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term
3159:
2668:
Miserez, A; Li, Y; Waite, H; Zok, F (2007). "Jumbo squid beaks: Inspiration for design of robust organic composites".
2619:"Entamoeba histolytica Phagocytosis of Human Erythrocytes Involves PATMK, a Member of the Transmembrane Kinase Family"
1962:
540:
74:
1116:
has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of
1058:). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.
3483:
3216:
1920:
1548:
1312:
458:
into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products
239:
refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by
55:
1093:, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.
48:
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139:
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2187:
Miquel-Kergoat, Sophie; Azais-Braesco, Veronique; Burton-Freeman, Britt; Hetherington, Marion M. (2015-11-01).
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1394:. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of
1317:
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88:
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1547:. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating
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used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the
717:: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth/anus, which can be described as an incomplete
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673:
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The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the
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Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through
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683:
596:
2617:
Boettner, D.R.; Huston, C.D.; Linford, A.S.; Buss, S.N.; Houpt, E.; Sherman, N.E.; Petri, W.A. (2008).
2275:
Dusenbery, David B. (1996). "Life at Small Scale", pp. 113–115. Scientific
American Library, New York.
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1889:. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH.
1221:
and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex chemical species into simple structures,
1331:
70:
3352:
3322:
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2189:"Effects of chewing on appetite, food intake and gut hormones: A systematic review and meta-analysis"
1966:
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molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.
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1745:
1719:, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and
1450:
1047:
459:
147:
143:
135:
2545:"Release of outer membrane vesicles by Gram-negative bacteria is a novel envelope stress response"
1512:, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to
1323:
1316:
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3089:
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1501:
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1954:. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.
1758:, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars
1321:
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2836:"Holotranscobalamin, a marker of vitamin B-12 status: analytical aspects and clinical utility"
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The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is transferred to the recipient cell.
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414:(large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic (about 5.6 ~ 6.9). Some vitamins, such as
279:
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2098:
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1978:
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1910:
1715:. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic
1469:
1286:
918:
411:
303:), which provides the ideal conditions of pH for amylase to work; and other electrolytes (
275:
224:
2936:
571:
means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of
3424:
3270:
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1631:. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the
1468:
The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the
1454:
1266:
1247:
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and
1239:
Egestion (Excretion): Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through
1078:
1066:
983:
791:
645:
of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
95:
1567:
583:) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in
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1958:
1878:
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A flesh fly "blowing a bubble", possibly to concentrate its food by evaporating water
781:
765:
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625:
346:
1425:
In the large intestine, the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the
834:
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compounds into small water-soluble components so that they can be absorbed into the
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1914:
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1532:, which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1–3. Acid release is also triggered by
1517:
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1473:
1422:
of the intestine. Bile helps in emulsification of fats and also activates lipases.
1419:
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736:
642:
326:
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1508:. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of
530:
use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.
2945:
2683:
2635:
633:, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form
188:
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3378:
3123:
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1982:
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Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting
1184:
1139:
1074:
941:
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906:
350:
342:
296:
291:
37:
2410:"Biogenesis, architecture, and function of bacterial Type IV secretion systems"
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1936:
component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin.
3504:
3429:
3228:
3149:
2142:"Gastroduodenal mucus bicarbonate barrier: protection against acid and pepsin"
1882:
1777:
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with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a
1240:
1196:
1117:
937:
910:
773:
706:
611:
435:
383:
322:
232:
2459:"Electron microscopic observations on the excretion of cell-wall material by
2408:
Christie PJ; Atmakuri K; Jabubowski S; Krishnamoorthy V; Cascales E. (2005).
2214:
2165:
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To aid in the digestion of their food, animals evolved organs such as beaks,
3362:
3211:
2921:"The Evolution of Stomach Acidity and Its Relevance to the Human Microbiome"
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2479:
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2141:
1970:
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to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.
1537:
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660:, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent
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from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of
709:. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a
2488:
2316:
Bacterial
Secreted Proteins: Secretory Mechanisms and Role in Pathogenesis
223:. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the
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17:
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2014:
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1841:-IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where
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1950:
is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into
1277:. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is
1206:: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),
3334:
3292:
3204:
3175:
3094:
2504:"Bacterial outer membrane vesicles and the host-pathogen interaction"
2045:. Introduction by C. Everett Koop. New York: Chelsea House. pp.
1965:
proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides
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1685:) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, but no
1516:
ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and
1429:
to take place. Here, water is absorbed and waste material stored as
1258:
bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.
201:
1723:(2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.
1042:). Ruminants have a fore-stomach with four chambers. These are the
672:
In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above,
504:
Pilus attaches to recipient cell, bringing the two cells together.
3329:
3131:
1904:
1860:
1391:
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1043:
1031:
957:
940:
region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the
898:
872:
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731:
710:
682:
497:
487:
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171:
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possess another method for release of material: the formation of
652:, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the
138:. For the treatment of precipitates in analytical chemistry, see
3537:
1395:
1218:
1214:
902:
875:
is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked
856:
852:
776:
microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with
714:
263:
break down food into the small compounds that the body can use.
216:
3029:
1806:) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their
1762:
and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.
1635:. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of
1306:
1562:
31:
1607:
in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and
1504:
of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in
994:
or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce
1505:
1578: with: digestion of other substances. You can help by
1500:
The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by
1147:
from grass by giving their food a second pass through the
1120:
with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.
1418:
to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the
1281:, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of
1615:
secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into
1917:. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme.
1899:
and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the
1579:
1365:
from where it enters the stomach through the action of
917:. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth
1520:
secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release
1957:
The stomach's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of
1907:. This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.
1528:
to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5%
1085:
in these chambers (the reticulo-rumen) by microbes: (
986:, or croup, is a thin-walled expanded portion of the
1661:
Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where
523:
Secretion § Secretion in Gram negative bacteria
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3521:
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3303:
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3189:
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3142:
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2010:
Discovery and development of proton pump inhibitors
382:, which is further broken down into dipeptides and
182:
170:
165:
160:
155:
62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2296:, p. 280. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
2240:
1799:Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example
2140:Allen, Adrian; Flemström, Gunnar (January 2005).
1961:within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it
1012:Rough illustration of a ruminant digestive system
913:(deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by
619:, conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-
2753:"Disintegration of solid foods in human stomach"
1711:units arranged in long chains called amylose, a
1681:. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a
1381:which would damage the walls of the stomach and
2146:American Journal of Physiology. Cell Physiology
1754:is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide
1310:
401:where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the
1155:nutritional value from many plant components.
764:. The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the
3041:
1744:milk-based foods. This is commonly known as
1269:in which saliva is produced in the mouth and
859:that are specialised according to the bird's
8:
2340:Bacterial Pathogenesis: A Molecular Approach
1903:and it stimulates the bile secretion in the
1885:(an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin) and
1707:In humans, dietary starches are composed of
1603:Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and
1337:Upper and lower human gastrointestinal tract
1293:, and the process finishes with defecation.
1265:, preparation for digestion begins with the
1001:Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged
492:Schematic drawing of bacterial conjugation.
2005:Evolution of the mammalian digestive system
1818:in saliva strongly binds and protects the B
3527:
3469:
3260:
3247:
3077:
3070:
3048:
3034:
3026:
2594:"How does the Venus flytrap digest flies?"
1472:. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the
282:, an enzyme which starts the digestion of
243:. Mechanical digestion takes place in the
140:Precipitation (chemistry) § Digestion
2954:
2944:
2859:
2768:
2644:
2634:
2568:
2519:
2478:
2433:
2384:
2361:"The versatile Type IV secretion systems"
2204:
1665:breaks down some short chain lipids into
1445:Neural and biochemical control mechanisms
1167:'s digestive system consists of a mouth,
840:Squid beak with ruler for size comparison
122:Learn how and when to remove this message
2792:
2790:
2788:
2705:Gordon John Larkman Ramel (2008-09-29).
2338:Salyers, A.A. & Whitt, D.D. (2002).
1639:, which is activated in the duodenum by
1007:
298:
27:Biological process of breaking down food
2730:. Sumter, SC: Levi Publishing Co, Inc.
2247:. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2234:
2232:
2031:
1932:– is in the duodenum and increases the
1877:– is in the stomach and stimulates the
1643:to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves
1406:. The intestinal walls are lined with
897:is skeletal muscle on the floor of the
559:cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.
2834:Nexo E, Hoffmann-Lücke E (July 2011).
2426:10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123630
2342:, 2nd ed., Washington, DC: ASM Press.
1865:Action of the major digestive hormones
1480:. After this it is routed through the
974:which are used to kill and tear meat.
901:of most vertebrates, that manipulates
810:, teeth, crops, gizzards, and others.
768:around the particle. A phagosome is a
286:in the food. The saliva also contains
199:
152:
1791:(DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.
1619:that are then broken down by various
780:in their maturation process, forming
760:formed around a particle absorbed by
473:Some organisms, including nearly all
7:
2797:Digestion of fats (triacylglycerols)
1736:to its component parts, glucose and
1433:to be removed by defecation via the
1069:, is primarily broken down into the
215:is the breakdown of large insoluble
60:adding citations to reliable sources
2997:How does the Digestive System Work?
2543:McBroom, A.J.; Kuehn, M.J. (2007).
2000:Digestive system of humpback whales
555:peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the
450:still rely on it. In this process,
274:. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the
251:and in the small intestine through
2815:. US National Institutes of Health
1981:empties into the duodenum, adding
1969:, damaging or eliminating various
1729:is an enzyme that breaks down the
925:before being transported down the
668:Release of outer membrane vesicles
641:. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus
623:conjugation. Such elements as the
481:, digestion can be conducted to a
25:
2502:Kuehn, M.J.; Kesty, N.C. (2005).
2457:Chatterjee, S.N.; Das, J (1967).
1776:DNA and RNA are broken down into
798:Specialised organs and behaviours
290:, which lubricates the food; the
2770:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00766.x
2561:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05522.x
2359:Cascales E, Christie PJ (2003).
1566:
1489:(secretes gastrin) activity via
1191:Overview of vertebrate digestion
833:
817:
393:opens, partially digested food (
353:. Gastric juice mainly contains
134:For the industrial process, see
36:
2813:US National Library of Medicine
2707:"The Alimentary Canal in Birds"
2467:Journal of General Microbiology
2020:Gastroesophageal reflux disease
333:. It will then travel down the
146:. For the term in alchemy, see
47:needs additional citations for
2751:Kong F, Singh RP (June 2008).
1995:Digestive system of gastropods
369:, gastric juice also contains
1:
3264:Bile and pancreatic secretion
2987:NIH guide to digestive system
2206:10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.07.017
1934:migrating myoelectric complex
1870:system) have been uncovered.
1023:Digestive system of ruminants
998:to feed newly hatched birds.
2982:Human Physiology – Digestion
2946:10.1371/journal.pone.0134116
2684:10.1016/j.actbio.2006.09.004
2636:10.1371/journal.ppat.0040008
2292:Dusenbery, David B. (2009).
1853:-IF complexes in the blood.
1343:human gastrointestinal tract
2365:Nature Reviews Microbiology
2097:(3rd ed.). St. Louis:
1524:, which in turn stimulates
3623:
3484:Interstitial cell of Cajal
2318:. Caister Academic Press.
2314:Wooldridge K, ed. (2009).
2158:10.1152/ajpcell.00102.2004
1921:Gastric inhibitory peptide
1833:molecules which rebind to
1769:
1696:
1654:
1453:take place including: the
1414:are covered with numerous
1300:
1289:occurs in the stomach and
1020:
955:
886:
743:with ingested erythrocytes
607:is the prototypic system.
520:
321:). About 30% of starch is
133:
3559:Enterohepatic circulation
3415:Segmentation contractions
3018:Resources in your library
2809:"Genetics Home Reference"
2193:Physiology & Behavior
1795:Non-destructive digestion
1647:to smaller polypeptides.
605:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
601:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
569:type III secretion system
430:) is eliminated from the
253:segmentation contractions
231:. Digestion is a form of
194:
2243:Human Biology and Health
2094:Principles of Physiology
2039:Avraham, Regina (1989).
1559:Breakdown into nutrients
1349:Digestion begins in the
534:Channel transport system
405:and bile juice from the
3489:Basal electrical rhythm
3420:Migrating motor complex
3058:gastrointestinal system
2852:10.3945/ajcn.111.013458
2508:Genes & Development
2480:10.1099/00221287-49-1-1
1772:nucleic acid metabolism
1703:Carbohydrate catabolism
1699:Carbohydrate metabolism
1390:as a thick semi-liquid
1361:and swallowed into the
1297:Human digestion process
1130:Other animals, such as
724:In a plant such as the
678:outer membrane vesicles
557:Pseudomonas fluorescens
545:membrane fusion protein
391:pyloric sphincter valve
142:. For the journal, see
3444:Enteric nervous system
2726:Levi, Wendell (1977).
2549:Molecular Microbiology
1866:
1810:. To digest vitamin B
1693:Carbohydrate digestion
1673:from the pancreas and
1338:
1303:Human digestive system
1291:gastrointestinal tract
1109:Specialised behaviours
1105:
1013:
744:
692:
674:gram-negative bacteria
549:outer membrane protein
513:
468:gastrointestinal tract
462:back to the organism.
349:in the stomach starts
268:human digestive system
196:Anatomical terminology
3358:Enterochromaffin cell
3353:Enteroendocrine cells
2294:Living at Micro Scale
1967:non-specific immunity
1864:
1766:DNA and RNA digestion
1697:Further information:
1336:
1103:
1011:
828:'s seed-shearing beak
787:Entamoeba histolytica
741:Entamoeba histolytica
735:
702:gastrovascular cavity
696:Gastrovascular cavity
686:
591:Conjugation machinery
491:
3346:Endocrine cell types
2992:The Digestive System
2042:The Digestive System
1849:and circulation of B
1273:are produced in the
1071:volatile fatty acids
770:cellular compartment
496:Donor cell produces
237:mechanical digestion
56:improve this article
3372:Exocrine cell types
3305:Glucose homeostasis
2937:2015PLoSO..1034116B
2598:Scientific American
2521:10.1101/gad.1299905
1814:non-destructively,
1746:lactose intolerance
1451:phases of digestion
294:hydrogencarbonate (
177:systema digestorium
148:Digestion (alchemy)
144:Digestion (journal)
136:Anaerobic digestion
3495:Gastrocolic reflex
3056:Physiology of the
2671:Acta Biomaterialia
2414:Annu Rev Microbiol
2377:10.1038/nrmicro753
1941:Significance of pH
1925:insulin secretion.
1867:
1857:Digestive hormones
1549:sympathetic fibers
1357:by the mechanical
1339:
1106:
1061:Fibre, especially
1014:
745:
693:
514:
257:chemical digestion
3589:
3588:
3567:
3566:
3517:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3452:Submucous plexus
3438:
3437:
3387:
3386:
3239:
3238:
3004:Library resources
2898:10.1021/jm900777v
2892:(16): 5253–5261.
2840:Am. J. Clin. Nutr
2737:978-0-85390-013-9
2514:(22): 2645–2655.
2325:978-1-904455-42-4
2302:978-0-674-03116-6
2254:978-0-13-981176-0
1887:hydrochloric acid
1845:receptors enable
1808:functional groups
1785:deoxyribonuclease
1671:pancreatic lipase
1599:Protein digestion
1596:
1595:
1553:pyloric sphincter
1530:hydrochloric acid
1478:medulla oblongata
1375:hydrochloric acid
1271:digestive enzymes
1118:pigeons and doves
871:The mouth of the
689:Dionaea muscipula
563:Molecular syringe
517:Secretion systems
355:hydrochloric acid
351:protein digestion
341:by the action of
241:digestive enzymes
210:
209:
205:
132:
131:
124:
106:
16:(Redirected from
3614:
3602:Digestive system
3581:Peritoneal fluid
3543:Pancreatic juice
3528:
3470:
3457:Myenteric plexus
3399:Intestinal juice
3261:
3248:
3160:Gastric emptying
3112:Intrinsic factor
3078:
3071:
3050:
3043:
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3027:
3009:Digestive system
2969:
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2874:
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2863:
2846:(1): 359S–365S.
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2128:
2127:
2089:Levy, Matthew N.
2085:Berne, Robert M.
2081:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2071:
2036:
1948:Salivary amylase
1835:intrinsic factor
1591:
1588:
1570:
1563:
1463:intestinal phase
1412:epithelial cells
1404:intestinal juice
1400:pancreatic juice
1309:
1230:active transport
988:alimentary tract
861:ecological niche
837:
821:
790:can phagocytose
553:Escherichia coli
442:Digestive system
320:
314:
308:
302:
280:salivary amylase
202:edit on Wikidata
156:Digestive system
153:
127:
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3299:
3276:Cholecystokinin
3235:
3185:
3164:
3138:
3127:
3060:
3054:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3012:
3011:
3007:
2978:
2973:
2972:
2931:(7): e0134116.
2918:
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2461:Vibrio cholerae
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2028:
1991:
1979:pancreatic duct
1952:monosaccharides
1943:
1911:Cholecystokinin
1859:
1852:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1813:
1804:
1797:
1778:mononucleotides
1774:
1768:
1705:
1695:
1659:
1653:
1601:
1592:
1586:
1583:
1576:needs expansion
1561:
1470:cerebral cortex
1447:
1335:
1307:
1305:
1299:
1193:
1161:
1111:
1038:in the case of
1025:
1019:
980:
960:
954:
919:mucous membrane
891:
885:
863:. For example,
850:
845:
844:
843:
842:
841:
838:
830:
829:
822:
800:
792:red blood cells
750:
698:
687:Venus Flytrap (
670:
612:nitrogen-fixing
593:
565:
536:
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519:
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316:
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304:
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295:
276:salivary glands
225:small intestine
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3573:Abdominopelvic
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3119:Foveolar cells
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3102:Parietal cells
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2800:
2784:
2743:
2736:
2718:
2697:
2678:(1): 139–149.
2660:
2623:PLOS Pathogens
2609:
2592:Leege, Lissa.
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2555:(2): 545–558.
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1811:
1802:
1796:
1793:
1770:Main article:
1767:
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1713:polysaccharide
1694:
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1663:lingual lipase
1655:Main article:
1652:
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1526:parietal cells
1455:cephalic phase
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1301:Main article:
1298:
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1267:cephalic phase
1245:
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1079:propionic acid
1067:hemi-cellulose
1021:Main article:
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956:Main article:
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887:Main article:
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3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3103:
3100:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3076:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3051:
3046:
3044:
3039:
3037:
3032:
3031:
3028:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3010:
3005:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2975:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2915:
2912:
2907:
2903:
2899:
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2871:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2827:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2763:(5): R67–80.
2762:
2758:
2754:
2747:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2729:
2722:
2719:
2708:
2701:
2698:
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2620:
2613:
2610:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2585:
2580:
2576:
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2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2539:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2462:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2404:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2348:1-55581-171-X
2345:
2341:
2335:
2332:
2327:
2321:
2317:
2310:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2281:0-7167-5060-0
2278:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2245:
2244:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2180:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2133:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2112:0-323-00813-5
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2056:0-7910-0015-X
2052:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2035:
2032:
2025:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1959:carbohydrates
1955:
1953:
1949:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1863:
1856:
1854:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1823:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1700:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1651:Fat digestion
1650:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1621:exopeptidases
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1598:
1590:
1581:
1577:
1574:This section
1572:
1569:
1565:
1564:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1534:acetylcholine
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1510:acetylcholine
1507:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1493:secretion of
1492:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1459:gastric phase
1456:
1452:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1371:Gastric juice
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1344:
1304:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1257:
1252:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1198:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1159:In earthworms
1158:
1156:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1126:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1114:Regurgitation
1108:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1030:have evolved
1029:
1024:
1016:
1010:
1006:
1004:
999:
997:
993:
989:
985:
977:
975:
973:
969:
964:
959:
951:
949:
947:
943:
939:
934:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
905:for chewing (
904:
900:
896:
890:
882:
880:
878:
874:
869:
866:
862:
858:
854:
847:
836:
827:
820:
811:
809:
805:
797:
795:
793:
789:
788:
784:. In humans,
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
766:cell membrane
763:
759:
755:
747:
742:
738:
734:
730:
727:
726:Venus flytrap
722:
720:
716:
712:
708:
703:
695:
690:
685:
681:
679:
675:
667:
665:
663:
659:
655:
651:
646:
644:
643:endosymbionts
640:
636:
632:
628:
627:
626:Agrobacterium
622:
618:
617:
613:
608:
606:
602:
598:
590:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
562:
560:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
533:
531:
529:
524:
516:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
490:
486:
484:
480:
476:
471:
469:
466:have a tube (
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
441:
439:
437:
433:
429:
421:
417:
413:
408:
404:
400:
397:) enters the
396:
392:
387:
385:
381:
377:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
347:Gastric juice
344:
340:
337:and into the
336:
332:
328:
324:
319:
313:
307:
301:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
264:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
203:
197:
193:
190:
187:
185:
181:
178:
175:
173:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
145:
141:
137:
126:
123:
115:
104:
101:
97:
94:
90:
87:
83:
80:
76:
73: –
72:
68:
67:Find sources:
61:
57:
51:
50:
45:This article
43:
39:
34:
33:
30:
19:
3499:
3379:Goblet cells
3224:Somatostatin
3191:Gastric acid
3181:Gastric acid
3107:Gastric acid
3008:
2928:
2924:
2914:
2889:
2886:J. Med. Chem
2885:
2878:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2817:. Retrieved
2812:
2803:
2760:
2756:
2746:
2727:
2721:
2710:. Retrieved
2700:
2675:
2669:
2663:
2626:
2622:
2612:
2601:. Retrieved
2597:
2587:
2552:
2548:
2538:
2511:
2507:
2497:
2470:
2466:
2460:
2452:
2417:
2413:
2403:
2368:
2364:
2354:
2339:
2334:
2315:
2309:
2293:
2288:
2271:
2242:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2152:(1): C1–19.
2149:
2145:
2135:
2124:. Retrieved
2093:
2079:
2068:. Retrieved
2041:
2034:
1975:
1956:
1944:
1915:gall bladder
1895:– is in the
1868:
1847:assimilation
1824:
1798:
1789:ribonuclease
1775:
1750:
1731:disaccharide
1725:
1706:
1683:triglyceride
1667:diglycerides
1660:
1641:enterokinase
1625:dipeptidases
1617:polypeptides
1613:chymotrypsin
1602:
1584:
1580:adding to it
1575:
1551:causing the
1542:
1518:gastric acid
1499:
1495:somatostatin
1474:hypothalamus
1467:
1448:
1424:
1420:surface area
1410:, and their
1348:
1340:
1260:
1253:
1246:
1213:with water,
1194:
1162:
1153:
1129:
1122:
1112:
1095:
1083:butyric acid
1060:
1026:
1000:
981:
972:canine teeth
965:
961:
935:
894:
892:
870:
851:
801:
785:
762:phagocytosis
751:
740:
737:Trophozoites
723:
699:
688:
671:
662:Agrobacteria
661:
653:
649:
647:
624:
614:
609:
604:
600:
594:
584:
580:
576:
572:
566:
556:
552:
537:
526:
509:
505:
501:
493:
472:
445:
388:
327:disaccharide
265:
256:
236:
229:blood stream
221:blood plasma
212:
211:
176:
118:
109:
99:
92:
85:
78:
66:
54:Please help
49:verification
46:
29:
3480:Peristalsis
3466:Either/both
3425:Borborygmus
3090:Chief cells
2757:J. Food Sci
2473:(1): 1–11.
2101:. pp.
1983:bicarbonate
1881:to secrete
1825:After the B
1816:haptocorrin
1742:unfermented
1679:fatty acids
1637:trypsinogen
1629:amino acids
1587:August 2011
1482:vagus nerve
1367:peristalsis
1359:mastication
1249:peristalsis
1197:vertebrates
1185:peristalsis
1140:coprophagia
1138:, practise
1075:acetic acid
942:oral mucosa
931:peristalsis
907:mastication
639:root tumors
597:conjugation
547:(MFP), and
541:ABC protein
384:amino acids
343:peristalsis
292:electrolyte
278:, contains
249:mastication
166:Identifiers
71:"Digestion"
3607:Metabolism
3596:Categories
3505:Enterocyte
3430:Defecation
3150:Swallowing
3095:Pepsinogen
2728:The Pigeon
2712:2008-12-16
2603:2008-08-20
2126:2024-03-20
2070:2024-03-20
2026:References
1883:pepsinogen
1502:distension
1449:Different
1435:anal canal
1416:microvilli
1287:Absorption
1241:defecation
1028:Herbivores
968:Carnivores
938:sublingual
911:swallowing
855:have bony
774:pathogenic
707:epithelium
635:crown gall
573:Salmonella
436:defecation
323:hydrolyzed
233:catabolism
82:newspapers
3552:Processes
3523:Accessory
3500:Digestion
3473:Processes
3408:Processes
3363:APUD cell
3309:incretins
3256:paracrine
3252:Endocrine
3217:ECL cells
3212:Histamine
3193:secretion
3143:Processes
2629:(1): e8.
2215:1873-507X
2199:: 88–96.
2166:0363-6143
1971:pathogens
1963:denatures
1801:vitamin B
1782:nucleases
1738:galactose
1538:histamine
1427:gut flora
1373:contains
1363:esophagus
1234:diffusion
1204:Ingestion
1181:intestine
1173:esophagus
1165:earthworm
1145:nutrition
1063:cellulose
1048:reticulum
1040:ruminants
1003:esophagus
996:crop milk
927:esophagus
778:lysosomes
772:in which
754:phagosome
748:Phagosome
658:virulence
585:Y. pestis
420:vitamin K
389:When the
380:proteoses
335:esophagus
227:into the
213:Digestion
112:July 2022
3288:Secretin
3155:Vomiting
3082:Exocrine
3066:GI tract
2965:26222383
2925:PLOS ONE
2906:19627091
2870:21593496
2779:18577009
2692:17113369
2655:18208324
2579:17163978
2530:16291643
2444:16153176
2395:15035043
2263:32308337
2223:26188140
2174:15591243
2121:9840795M
2091:(2000).
2065:2055854M
1989:See also
1901:pancreas
1897:duodenum
1893:Secretin
1760:fructose
1687:glycerol
1645:proteins
1633:zymogens
1605:duodenum
1545:duodenum
1514:hydrogen
1388:duodenum
1283:starches
1195:In most
1175:, crop,
1091:protozoa
1087:bacteria
1036:abomasum
1017:Abomasum
946:vascular
929:through
877:proteins
616:Rhizobia
581:Yersinia
577:Shigella
528:Bacteria
479:organism
456:secreted
403:pancreas
399:duodenum
376:peptides
367:toddlers
247:through
18:Digested
3335:L cells
3323:K cells
3293:S cells
3281:I cells
3229:D cells
3205:G cells
3200:Gastrin
2956:4519257
2933:Bibcode
2861:3127504
2819:27 June
2646:2211552
2570:1868505
2489:4168882
2435:3872966
2386:3873781
2103:373-374
2015:Erepsin
1930:Motilin
1875:Gastrin
1843:cubilin
1780:by the
1756:sucrose
1752:Sucrase
1734:lactose
1727:Lactase
1721:maltose
1717:amylase
1709:glucose
1609:trypsin
1522:gastrin
1275:stomach
1263:mammals
1226:osmosis
1177:gizzard
1169:pharynx
1136:rodents
1132:rabbits
1034:(or an
808:radulae
804:tongues
758:vacuole
713:and an
621:kingdom
610:In the
483:vesicle
475:spiders
464:Animals
460:diffuse
452:enzymes
434:during
363:infants
339:stomach
266:In the
261:enzymes
189:D004063
161:Details
96:scholar
3531:Fluids
3392:Fluids
3176:Saliva
3169:Fluids
3006:about
2963:
2953:
2904:
2868:
2858:
2777:
2734:
2690:
2653:
2643:
2577:
2567:
2528:
2487:
2442:
2432:
2393:
2383:
2346:
2322:
2300:
2279:
2261:
2251:
2221:
2213:
2172:
2164:
2119:
2109:
2063:
2053:
1491:D cell
1487:G cell
1461:, and
1379:pepsin
1279:chewed
1232:, and
1179:, and
1125:sharks
1052:omasum
1032:cecums
992:gullet
915:saliva
909:) and
895:tongue
889:Tongue
883:Tongue
865:macaws
691:) leaf
631:opines
432:rectum
416:biotin
371:rennin
359:pepsin
284:starch
272:saliva
98:
91:
84:
77:
69:
3330:GLP-1
3244:Lower
3132:Mucus
3074:Upper
2099:Mosby
1905:liver
1627:into
1431:feces
1408:villi
1392:chyme
1383:mucus
1355:bolus
1351:mouth
1236:, and
1215:acids
1211:bolus
1123:Many
1056:bolus
1044:rumen
970:have
958:Teeth
952:Teeth
923:bolus
899:mouth
873:squid
857:beaks
853:Birds
848:Beaks
756:is a
711:mouth
656:, or
498:pilus
448:fungi
428:feces
412:colon
407:liver
395:chyme
361:. In
331:bolus
325:into
288:mucus
255:. In
245:mouth
200:[
172:Latin
103:JSTOR
89:books
3538:Bile
2961:PMID
2902:PMID
2866:PMID
2821:2015
2775:PMID
2732:ISBN
2688:PMID
2651:PMID
2575:PMID
2526:PMID
2485:PMID
2440:PMID
2391:PMID
2344:ISBN
2320:ISBN
2298:ISBN
2277:ISBN
2259:OCLC
2249:ISBN
2219:PMID
2211:ISSN
2170:PMID
2162:ISSN
2107:ISBN
2051:ISBN
1787:and
1701:and
1675:bile
1623:and
1611:and
1536:and
1476:and
1439:anus
1437:and
1402:and
1396:bile
1377:and
1341:The
1219:bile
1134:and
1081:and
1065:and
984:crop
978:Crop
936:The
903:food
893:The
715:anus
700:The
595:The
454:are
418:and
365:and
357:and
217:food
184:MeSH
75:news
3318:GIP
3124:HCO
2951:PMC
2941:doi
2894:doi
2856:PMC
2848:doi
2765:doi
2680:doi
2641:PMC
2631:doi
2565:PMC
2557:doi
2516:doi
2475:doi
2430:PMC
2422:doi
2381:PMC
2373:doi
2201:doi
2197:151
2154:doi
2150:288
1582:.
1261:In
1256:gut
1163:An
1149:gut
739:of
719:gut
654:vir
650:tra
637:or
378:or
297:HCO
58:by
3598::
2959:.
2949:.
2939:.
2929:10
2927:.
2923:.
2900:.
2890:52
2888:.
2864:.
2854:.
2844:94
2842:.
2838:.
2811:.
2787:^
2773:.
2761:73
2759:.
2755:.
2686:.
2674:.
2649:.
2639:.
2625:.
2621:.
2596:.
2573:.
2563:.
2553:63
2551:.
2547:.
2524:.
2512:19
2510:.
2506:.
2483:.
2471:49
2469:.
2465:.
2438:.
2428:.
2418:59
2416:.
2412:.
2389:.
2379:.
2367:.
2363:.
2257:.
2231:^
2217:.
2209:.
2195:.
2191:.
2168:.
2160:.
2148:.
2144:.
2117:OL
2115:.
2105:.
2087:;
2061:OL
2059:.
2049:.
2047:49
1973:.
1851:12
1839:12
1831:12
1827:12
1820:12
1812:12
1803:12
1689:.
1540:.
1506:pH
1497:.
1465:.
1457:,
1441:.
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