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moisture as it is exposed to dry air. On the other hand, a moderately high wind allows the plant to cool its leaves more easily when exposed to full sunlight. Plants are not entirely passive in their interaction with wind. Plants can make their leaves less vulnerable to changes in wind speed, by coating their leaves in fine hairs (
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damaged or uprooted by wind. This has been a major selective pressure acting over terrestrial plants. Nowadays, it is one of the major threatening for agriculture and forestry even in temperate zones. It is worse for agriculture in hurricane-prone regions, such as the banana-growing
Windward Islands in the Caribbean.
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have shown that photosynthetic efficiency does indeed increase. Plant growth rates also increase, by an average of 17% for above-ground tissue and 30% for below-ground tissue. However, detrimental impacts of global warming, such as increased instances of heat and drought stress, mean that the overall
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Waterlogging reduces the supply of oxygen to the roots and can kill a plant within days. Plants cannot avoid waterlogging, but many species overcome the lack of oxygen in the soil by transporting oxygen to the root from tissues that are not submerged. Species that are tolerant of waterlogging develop
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results in shorter, stockier plants with strengthened stems, as well as to an improved anchorage. It was once believed that this occurs mostly in very windy areas. But it has been found that it happens even in areas with moderate winds, so that wind-induced signal were found to be a major ecological
391:
to allow the diffusion of oxygen from the shoot to the root. Roots that are not killed outright may also switch to less oxygen-hungry forms of cellular respiration. Species that are frequently submerged have evolved more elaborate mechanisms that maintain root oxygen levels, such as the aerial roots
114:
Plant ecophysiology is concerned largely with two topics: mechanisms (how plants sense and respond to environmental change) and scaling or integration (how the responses to highly variable conditions—for example, gradients from full sunlight to 95% shade within tree canopies—are coordinated with one
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Wind can damage most of the organs of the plants. Leaf abrasion (due to the rubbing of leaves and branches or to the effect of airborne particles such as sand) and leaf of branch breakage are rather common phenomena, that plants have to accommodate. In the more extreme cases, plants can be mortally
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and in effect insulates the leaf from the environment, providing an atmosphere rich in moisture and less prone to convective heating or cooling. As wind speed increases, the leaf environment becomes more closely linked to the surrounding environment. It may become difficult for the plant to retain
508:. This would be expected to increase the efficiency of photosynthesis and possibly increase the overall rate of plant growth. This possibility has attracted considerable interest in recent years, as an increased rate of plant growth could absorb some of the excess CO
316:
plants found in the uplands of New
Zealand are said to resemble 'vegetable sheep' as they form tight cushion-like clumps to insulate the most vulnerable plant parts and shield them from cooling winds. The same principle has been applied in agriculture by using
289:. Plants can reduce light absorption using reflective leaf hairs, scales, and waxes. These features are so common in warm dry regions that these habitats can be seen to form a 'silvery landscape' as the light scatters off the canopies. Some species, such as
920:
diagram, which formed the basis for much of Rahn's future work. Rahn's research into applications of this diagram led to the development of aerospace medicine and advancements in hyperbaric breathing and high-altitude respiration. Rahn later joined the
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Plants can sense the wind through the deformation of its tissues. This signal leads to inhibits the elongation and stimulates the radial expansion of their shoots, while increasing the development of their root system. This syndrome of responses known as
335:
Too much or too little water can damage plants. If there is too little water then tissues will dehydrate and the plant may die. If the soil becomes waterlogged then the soil will become anoxic (low in oxygen), which can kill the roots of the plant.
525:
effect is likely to be a reduction in plant productivity. Reduced plant productivity would be expected to accelerate the rate of global warming. Overall, these observations point to the importance of avoiding further increases in atmospheric CO
265:
and become a gel in cold conditions or to become leaky in hot conditions. This can affect the movement of compounds across the membrane. To prevent these changes, plants can change the composition of their membranes. In cold conditions, more
620:
Trees have a particularly well-developed capacity to reinforce their trunks when exposed to wind. From the practical side, this realisation prompted arboriculturalists in the UK in the 1960s to move away from the practice of staking young
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in 1956 as the
Lawrence D. Bell Professor and Chairman of the Department of Physiology. As Chairman, Rahn surrounded himself with outstanding faculty and made the University an international research center in environmental physiology.
171:
has a positive slope representing the efficiency of light use, and is called quantum efficiency; the x-intercept is the light intensity at which biochemical assimilation (gross assimilation) balances leaf respiration so that the net
484:
2404:. Definitions and Opinions by: G. A. Bartholomew, A. F. Bennett, W. D. Billings, B. F. Chabot, D. M. Gates, B. Heinrich, R. B. Huey, D. H. Janzen, J. R. King, P. A. McClure, B. K. McNab, P. C. Miller, P. S. Nobel, B. R. Strain.
195:
Excess light occurs at the top of canopies and on open ground when cloud cover is low and the sun's zenith angle is low, typically this occurs in the tropics and at high altitudes. Excess light incident on a leaf can result in
482:
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However, for many terminally overwatered houseplants, the initial symptoms of waterlogging can resemble those due to drought. This is particularly true for flood-sensitive plants that show drooping of their leaves due to
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In both types of temperature-related stress, it is important to remain well-hydrated. Hydration reduces cardiovascular strain, enhances the ability of energy processes to occur, and reduces feelings of exhaustion.
603:) to break up the airflow and increase the boundary layer. In fact, leaf and canopy dimensions are often finely controlled to manipulate the boundary layer depending on the prevailing environmental conditions.
167:). The shape is typically described by a non-rectangular hyperbola. Three quantities of the light response curve are particularly useful in characterising a plant's response to light intensities. The inclined
483:
641:
occurs in natural systems, the only solution is to ensure that there is an adequate stock of seeds or seedlings to quickly take the place of the mature plants that have been lost- although, in many cases, a
379:. As well as closing their stomata, most plants can also respond to drought by altering their water potential (osmotic adjustment) and increasing root growth. Plants that are adapted to dry environments (
187:
As with most abiotic factors, light intensity (irradiance) can be both suboptimal and excessive. Suboptimal light (shade) typically occurs at the base of a plant canopy or in an understory environment.
358:). In irrigated fields, the fact that plants close their stomata in response to drying of the roots can be exploited to 'trick' plants into using less water without reducing yields (see
134:
that aid in acclimating to changing conditions. It is hypothesized that this large number of genes can be partly explained by plant species' need to live in a wider range of conditions.
1496:"What have we learned from 15 years of free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE)? A meta-analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and plant production to rising CO2"
204:. Plants adapted to high light environments have a range of adaptations to avoid or dissipate the excess light energy, as well as mechanisms that reduce the amount of injury caused.
1538:
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability : Working Group II Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
821:
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In very dry soil, plants close their stomata to reduce transpiration and prevent water loss. The closing of the stomata is often mediated by chemical signals from the root (i.e.,
594:
Wind influences the way leaves regulate moisture, heat, and carbon dioxide. When no wind is present, a layer of still air builds up around each leaf. This is known as the
180:; and a horizontal asymptote representing the maximum assimilation rate. Sometimes after reaching the maximum assimilation declines for processes collectively known as
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of the root cells. When soil water content is low, plants can alter their water potential to maintain a flow of water into the roots and up to the leaves (
1996:
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are unable to move away and therefore must endure the adverse conditions or perish (animals go places, plants grow places). Plants are therefore
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is the food of plants, i.e. the form of energy that plants use to build themselves and reproduce. The organs harvesting light in plants are
2356:
Spicer, J. I., and K. J. Gaston. 1999. Physiological diversity and its ecological implications. Blackwell
Science, Oxford, U.K. x + 241 pp.
1250:
Farrell, A. D.; Gilliland, T. J. (2011). "Yield and quality of forage maize grown under marginal climatic conditions in
Northern Ireland".
722:, and detects changes in surrounding blood to make decisions of whether to stimulate internal heat production or to stimulate evaporation.
1438:
2155:
756:, circulatory adaptations (that provide an efficient transfer of heat to the epidermis), and increased blood flow to the extremities.
300:
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896:(1912–1990) was an early leader in the field of environmental physiology. Starting out in the field of zoology with a Ph.D. from
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plants have a range of adaptations to help them survive the altered quantity and quality of light typical of shade environments.
1327:
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1330:. Plant Physiology Online, A Companion to Plant Physiology, Fifth Edition by Lincoln Taiz and Eduardo Zeiger. Archived from
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Plants can avoid overheating by minimising the amount of sunlight absorbed and by enhancing the cooling effects of wind and
1814:
Jaffe, M. J. (1 June 1973). "Thigmomorphogenesis: The response of plant growth and development to mechanical stimulation".
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666:. Environmental effects on human physiology are numerous; one of the most carefully studied effects is the alterations in
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1734:"Wind effects on juvenile trees: a review with special reference to toppling of radiata pine growing in New Zealand"
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Gardiner, Barry; Berry, Peter; Moulia, Bruno (2016). "Review: Wind impacts on plant growth, mechanics and damage".
1038:: "I proposed long ago to call this special part of biology œcology (the science of home-relations) or bionomy." "
2859:
659:
559:) and of energy (heat) between the plant and the atmosphere by renewing the air at the contact with the leaves (
383:) have a range of more specialized mechanisms to maintain water and/or protect tissues when desiccation occurs.
347:). This remarkable mechanism allows plants to lift water as high as 120 m by harnessing the gradient created by
122:
are able to escape unfavourable and changing environmental factors such as heat, cold, drought or floods, while
207:
Light intensity is also an important component in determining the temperature of plant organs (energy budget).
177:
109:
2016:
Płoszczyca, Kamila; Czuba, Miłosz; Chalimoniuk, Małgorzata; Gajda, Robert; Baranowski, Marcin (15 June 2021).
1140:"Lighting from Top and Side Enhances Photosynthesis and Plant Performance by Improving Light Usage Efficiency"
2018:"Red Blood Cell 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate Decreases in Response to a 30 km Time Trial Under Hypoxia in Cyclists"
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protects itself against damage by warming the incoming air to 80-90 degrees
Fahrenheit before it reaches the
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another), and how their collective effect on plant growth and gas exchange can be understood on this basis.
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There are two main types of stresses that can be experienced due to extreme environmental temperatures:
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The hypothalamus plays an important role in thermoregulation. It connects to thermal receptors in the
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To achieve this, the body alters three main things to achieve a constant, normal body temperature:
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gain and water loss is central to plant productivity. The trade-off is all the more critical as
293:, can move their leaves throughout the day so that they are always orientated to avoid the sun (
163:. The response of photosynthesis to light is called light response curve of net photosynthesis (
1092:
362:). The use of this technique was largely developed by Dr Peter Dry and colleagues in Australia
249:
increases. Metabolic imbalances associated with temperature extremes result in the build-up of
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767:. This means that not even the most frigid of temperatures can damage the respiratory tract.
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886:(1915–2007) was also an important contributor to this specific scientific field as well as
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2001:
1287:"Effect of long-term drought and waterlogging stress on photosynthetic pigments in potato"
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from 1947 to 1989, and almost 1,200 individuals can trace their academic lineages to him.
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also pose serious physiological challenges on the body. Some of these effects are reduced
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1997:"We mustn't abandon the Windward Islands' farmers | Renwick Rose and Nick Mathiason"
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The ability of plants to access water depends on the structure of their roots and on the
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to insulate the growing points of crops in cool climates in order to boost plant growth.
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878:(1919–2006) was a founder of animal physiological ecology. He served on the faculty at
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is vital for plant growth, as it is the substrate for photosynthesis. Plants take in CO
189:
160:
147:
2098:"History of Ecological Sciences, Part 64: History of Physiological Ecology of Animals"
1894:
1562:
Long, S. P.; Ort, D. R. (2010). "More than taking the heat: Crops and global change".
1413:
1285:
Orsák, Matyáš; Kotíková, Zora; Hnilička, František; Lachman, Jaromír (25 April 2023).
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225:. These protect them from the damaging effects of ice formation and falling rates of
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It is sensed as a signal driving a wind-acclimation syndrome by the plant known as
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are also affected by changes in temperature and can cause the membrane to lose its
216:
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1346:
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2750:
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1732:
Moore, J. R.; Tombleson, J. D.; Turner, J. A.; van der Colff, M. (1 July 2008).
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stage will be needed before the ecosystem can be restored to its former state.
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If drought continues, the plant tissues will dehydrate, resulting in a loss of
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570:, leading to modified growth and development and eventually to wind hardening.
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Infrared image showing the importance of transpiration in keeping leaves cool.
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77:
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can damage the plant (leaf abrasion, wind ruptures in branches and stems and
2654:
2208:
Vertebrate ecophysiology: an introduction to its principles and applications
1631:
1606:
1347:"Hormonal changes induced by partial rootzone drying of irrigated grapevine"
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1982:
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There is one part of the body fully equipped to deal with cold stress. The
16:
Study of adaptation of an organism's physiology to environmental conditions
1465:"Effects of Rising Atmospheric Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide on Plants"
2813:
1156:
859:
Environmental factors can play a huge role in the human body's fight for
753:
425:
401:
393:
242:
164:
73:
2391:
2254:
Physiological ecology: how animals process energy, nutrients, and toxins
1326:
George Koch; Stephen
Sillett; Gregg Jennings; Stephen Davis (May 2006).
752:. Cold stress is physiologically combated by shivering, accumulation of
1835:
990:
764:
437:
376:
312:
306:
Plants can avoid the full impact of low temperatures by altering their
222:
66:
2432:
2122:
1775:"Leaves in the lowest and highest winds: temperature, force and shape"
2375:
2360:
Tracy, C. R.; J. S. Turner (1982). "What is physiological ecology?".
2317:. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. xxvii + 576 pp.
719:
675:
448:
in the leaf. Some plants overcome this difficulty by concentrating CO
226:
119:
2212:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. xi + 287 pp.
1138:
Yang, Jingli; Song, Jinnan; Jeong, Byoung Ryong (23 February 2022).
1439:"Crassulacean Acid Metabolism - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
1091:
Zhang, Man; Ming, Yu; Wang, Hong-Bin; Jin, Hong-Lei (13 May 2024).
221:
In response to extremes of temperature, plants can produce various
2600:
2567:
2256:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. xv + 741 pp.
2074:
779:
Extreme temperatures are not the only obstacles that humans face.
679:
478:
276:
152:
123:
53:
159:
and the process through which light is converted into biomass is
2313:
The physiological ecology of vertebrates: a view from energetics
1949:"Plant growth forms: an ecological and evolutionary perspective"
879:
156:
131:
2436:
432:
enters the stomata, moisture escapes. This trade-off between CO
1050:"Radiation-Use Efficiency Under Different Climatic Conditions"
1663:"How Climate Change Will Affect Plants – State of the Planet"
836:
synthesis, enhanced circulation, and increased levels of the
46:
36:
26:
444:, is efficient only when there is a high concentration of CO
2335:
Physiological ecology of animals: an evolutionary approach
237:
at high temperatures. As temperatures fall, production of
1605:
Lobell, D. B.; Schlenker, W.; Costa-Roberts, J. (2011).
516:. Extensive experiments growing plants under elevated CO
555:
It affects the exchanges of mass (water evaporation, CO
270:
are placed in the membrane and in hot conditions, more
80:
to environmental conditions. It is closely related to
1607:"Climate Trends and Global Crop Production Since 1980"
1328:"How Water Climbs to the Top of a 112 Meter-Tall Tree"
1054:
Changing
Climate and Resource Use Efficiency in Plants
736:
Heat stress is physiologically combated in four ways:
2338:. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p.
791:
910:
A Graphical
Analysis of the Respiratory Gas Exchange
2784:
2741:
2653:
2599:
2562:
2521:
2498:
2470:
1387:"The Impact of Flooding Stress on Plants and Crops"
1093:"Strategies for adaptation to high light in plants"
2310:
2205:
815:
2233:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.
2151:"The academic genealogy of George A. Bartholomew"
2102:The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America
1873:Ennos, A (1997). "Wind as an ecological factor".
863:. However, humans have found ways to adapt, both
551:Wind has three very different effects on plants.
299:). Knowledge of these mechanisms has been key to
1916:Grace, J. (1988). "3. Plant response to wind".
245:increases. As temperatures rise, production of
229:catalysis at low temperatures, and from enzyme
900:(1933), Rahn began teaching physiology at the
2448:
2363:Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America
904:in 1941. It is there that he partnered with
428:pores on their leaves. At the same time as CO
8:
2252:Karasov, W. H.; C. Martinez del Rio (2007).
1200:Nature's Palette: The Science of Plant Color
912:in 1955. This paper included the landmark O
690:must remain at consistent, balanced levels.
387:specialised roots near the soil surface and
1541:. Cambridge University Press. p. 214.
1144:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2455:
2441:
2433:
1947:Rowe, Nick; Speck, Thomas (1 April 2005).
2178:
2168:
2121:
2051:
2033:
1964:
1918:Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment
1790:
1749:
1630:
1511:
1362:
1302:
1173:
1155:
1122:
1104:
805:
799:
798:
796:
790:
674:. This is necessary because in order for
476:whenever photosynthesis is taking place.
472:and must open their stomata to take in CO
1345:Stoll, M.; Loveys, B.; Dry, P. (2000).
1027:
2091:
2089:
1494:Ainsworth, E. A.; Long, S. P. (2004).
816:{\displaystyle P_{{\mathrm {O} }_{2}}}
1684:
1682:
1680:
1418:A Guide to the Mangroves of Singapore
1412:Ng, Peter K.L.; Sivasothi, N (2001).
488:Plant Productivity in a Warming World
176:exchange of the leaf is zero, called
7:
96:is sometimes employed as a synonym.
2156:Integrative and Comparative Biology
662:can have major influences on human
2230:Evolutionary physiological ecology
2096:Egerton, Frank N. (October 2019).
1414:"How plants cope in the mangroves"
1062:10.1016/B978-0-12-816209-5.00002-7
800:
301:breeding for heat stress tolerance
14:
1875:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
844:, which promotes off-loading of O
522:Free-Air Concentration Enrichment
2204:Bradshaw, Sidney Donald (2003).
2149:Bennett, A. F.; C. Lowe (2005).
1966:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01309.x
1792:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02854.x
1564:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
1513:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01224.x
1272:10.1111/j.1365-2494.2010.00778.x
996:Phylogenetic comparative methods
964:
950:
936:
826:acid-base content in body fluids
130:and have an impressive array of
72:that studies the response of an
2332:Sibly, R. M.; P. Calow (1986).
1203:. University of Chicago Press.
440:, the enzyme used to capture CO
345:Soil plant atmosphere continuum
1711:10.1016/j.plantsci.2016.01.006
1351:Journal of Experimental Botany
682:to flow, and for various body
217:Plant adaptations to wildfires
1:
2275:. New York: Springer-Verlag.
1895:10.1016/s0169-5347(96)10066-5
1056:, Elsevier, pp. 51–109,
1048:Bhattacharya, Amitav (2019),
625:to offer artificial support.
464:. However, most species used
106:Plant perception (physiology)
1934:10.1016/0167-8809(88)90008-4
462:Crassulacean acid metabolism
253:, which can be countered by
2292:Physiological plant ecology
2273:Plant physiological ecology
1535:Martin Lewis Parry (2007).
1291:Plant, Soil and Environment
714:The rate of heat production
670:in the body due to outside
590:Exchange of mass and energy
2891:
2294:(4th ed.). Springer.
1469:Nature Education Knowledge
1364:10.1093/jexbot/51.350.1627
1106:10.1007/s42994-024-00164-6
581:and toppling in trees and
540:
452:within their leaves using
364:
328:
214:
141:
103:
47:
37:
27:
2425:Resources in your library
2035:10.3389/fphys.2021.670977
1584:10.1016/j.pbi.2010.04.008
824:, the rebalancing of the
1475:(10). www.nature.com. 21
1463:Taub, Daniel R. (2010).
1252:Grass and Forage Science
303:in agricultural plants.
178:light compensation point
110:Plant stress measurement
59:environmental physiology
45:, "nature, origin"; and
2756:Ecological anthropology
2022:Frontiers in Physiology
1751:10.1093/forestry/cpn023
1632:10.1126/science.1204531
986:Evolutionary physiology
902:University of Rochester
898:University of Rochester
512:and reduce the rate of
404:(rather than wilting).
360:partial rootzone drying
268:unsaturated fatty acids
251:reactive oxygen species
86:evolutionary physiology
2766:Ecological engineering
981:Comparative physiology
888:comparative physiology
842:2,3 diphosphoglycerate
817:
531:runaway climate change
504:and the combustion of
489:
367:Nominative determinism
291:Macroptilium purpureum
282:
128:phenotypically plastic
82:comparative physiology
2309:McNab, B. K. (2002).
1443:www.sciencedirect.com
1334:on 14 September 2013.
1304:10.17221/415/2022-pse
1011:Theodore Garland, Jr.
923:University at Buffalo
876:George A. Bartholomew
818:
702:Heat transfer to the
492:The concentration of
487:
365:Further information:
280:
272:saturated fatty acids
104:Further information:
63:physiological ecology
2845:Subfields of ecology
2761:Ecological economics
2688:Evolutionary ecology
2655:Ecological phenomena
2485:Quantitative ecology
2290:Larcher, W. (2001).
2271:Lambers, H. (1998).
2180:10.1093/icb/45.2.231
1157:10.3390/ijms23052448
884:Knut Schmidt-Nielsen
789:
529:rather than risking
2865:Ecology terminology
2807:Restoration ecology
2797:Glossary of ecology
2743:Interdisciplinarity
2490:Theoretical ecology
2464:Branches of ecology
2114:2019BuESA.100E1616E
2005:. 23 December 2010.
1926:1988AgEE...22...71G
1887:1997TEcoE..12..108E
1828:1973Plant.114..143J
1703:2016PlnSc.245...94G
1623:2011Sci...333..616L
1576:2010COPB...13..240L
1264:2011GForS..66..214F
1036:The Wonders of Life
614:thigmomorphogenesis
568:thigmomorphogenesis
375:that is visible as
247:heat shock proteins
239:antifreeze proteins
2792:History of ecology
2698:Functional ecology
2663:Behavioral ecology
2542:Population ecology
2227:Calow, P. (1987).
1836:10.1007/bf00387472
1773:Vogel, S. (2009).
1357:(350): 1627–1634.
1229:. Springer. 2005.
1197:David Lee (2010).
972:Environment portal
813:
761:respiratory system
637:When this type of
490:
283:
144:Photomorphogenesis
2855:Animal physiology
2832:
2831:
2771:Political ecology
2713:Molecular ecology
2708:Landscape ecology
2576:Microbial ecology
2552:Ecosystem ecology
2547:Community ecology
2411:Library resources
2349:978-0-632-01494-1
2324:978-0-8014-3913-1
2301:978-3-540-43516-7
2282:978-0-387-98326-4
2263:978-0-691-07453-5
2244:978-0-521-32058-0
2219:978-0-521-81797-4
2123:10.1002/bes2.1616
1665:. 27 January 2022
1617:(6042): 616–620.
1548:978-0-521-88010-7
1236:978-3-540-20833-4
1210:978-0-226-47105-1
1071:978-0-12-816209-5
500:is rising due to
498:in the atmosphere
485:
351:from the leaves.
35:, "house(hold)";
2882:
2860:Plant physiology
2668:Chemical ecology
2640:Tropical ecology
2457:
2450:
2443:
2434:
2403:
2376:10.2307/20166334
2353:
2328:
2316:
2305:
2286:
2267:
2248:
2223:
2211:
2200:
2182:
2172:
2136:
2135:
2125:
2093:
2084:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2055:
2037:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1968:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1920:. 22–23: 71–88.
1913:
1907:
1906:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1794:
1770:
1764:
1763:
1753:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1686:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1634:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1515:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1389:. Archived from
1383:
1377:
1376:
1366:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1306:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1247:
1241:
1240:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1177:
1159:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1108:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1078:
1045:
1039:
1032:
1001:Plant physiology
974:
969:
968:
960:
955:
954:
946:
941:
940:
939:
822:
820:
819:
814:
812:
811:
810:
809:
804:
803:
694:Thermoregulation
668:thermoregulation
543:wind pollination
486:
296:paraheliotropism
263:fluid properties
235:photorespiration
202:photodestruction
50:
49:
40:
39:
30:
29:
2890:
2889:
2885:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2819:Natural history
2802:Applied ecology
2780:
2776:Systems ecology
2737:
2733:Thermal ecology
2728:Spatial ecology
2703:Genetic ecology
2673:Disease ecology
2649:
2605:biogeographical
2595:
2558:
2517:
2494:
2466:
2461:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2359:
2350:
2331:
2325:
2308:
2302:
2289:
2283:
2270:
2264:
2251:
2245:
2226:
2220:
2203:
2170:10.1.1.589.3158
2148:
2144:
2142:Further reading
2139:
2095:
2094:
2087:
2080:7 July 2012 at
2073:
2069:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2002:TheGuardian.com
1995:
1994:
1990:
1953:New Phytologist
1946:
1945:
1941:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1779:New Phytologist
1772:
1771:
1767:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1688:
1687:
1678:
1668:
1666:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1500:New Phytologist
1493:
1492:
1488:
1478:
1476:
1462:
1461:
1457:
1447:
1445:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1422:
1420:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1396:
1394:
1385:
1384:
1380:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1249:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1211:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1047:
1046:
1042:
1034:Ernst Haeckel,
1033:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1006:Raymond B. Huey
970:
963:
956:
949:
942:
937:
935:
932:
919:
915:
906:Wallace O. Fenn
873:
865:physiologically
854:hypoxic tissues
847:
797:
792:
787:
786:
777:
696:
660:The environment
657:
652:
631:
609:
592:
558:
549:
539:
528:
519:
511:
497:
479:
475:
470:carbon fixation
469:
458:carbon fixation
457:
451:
447:
443:
435:
431:
423:
419:
414:
411:
373:turgor pressure
369:
341:water potential
333:
331:Moisture stress
327:
310:. For example,
219:
213:
198:photoinhibition
182:photoinhibition
175:
150:
140:
118:In many cases,
112:
102:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2888:
2886:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2870:Animal ecology
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2837:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2799:
2794:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2747:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2723:Social ecology
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2630:Forest ecology
2627:
2625:Desert ecology
2622:
2621:
2620:
2618:Arctic ecology
2609:
2607:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2586:Insect ecology
2583:
2578:
2572:
2570:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2534:
2528:
2526:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2504:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2476:
2474:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2445:
2437:
2428:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2370:(4): 340–347.
2357:
2354:
2348:
2329:
2323:
2306:
2300:
2287:
2281:
2268:
2262:
2249:
2243:
2224:
2218:
2201:
2163:(2): 231–233.
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2085:
2067:
2008:
1988:
1939:
1908:
1881:(3): 108–111.
1865:
1822:(2): 143–157.
1806:
1765:
1744:(3): 377–387.
1724:
1676:
1654:
1597:
1554:
1547:
1527:
1506:(2): 351–371.
1486:
1455:
1430:
1404:
1378:
1337:
1318:
1297:(4): 152–160.
1277:
1242:
1235:
1216:
1209:
1189:
1130:
1083:
1070:
1040:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
977:
976:
975:
961:
958:Biology portal
947:
944:Ecology portal
931:
928:
917:
913:
872:
869:
867:and tangibly.
845:
808:
802:
795:
781:High altitudes
776:
773:
716:
715:
712:
706:
695:
692:
656:
653:
651:
648:
630:
627:
608:
605:
596:boundary layer
591:
588:
587:
586:
571:
564:
556:
547:seed dispersal
538:
535:
526:
517:
514:global warming
509:
495:
473:
467:
455:
449:
445:
441:
433:
429:
421:
417:
413:
409:
406:
326:
323:
274:are inserted.
259:Cell membranes
233:and increased
212:
209:
190:Shade tolerant
173:
161:photosynthesis
148:Photoperiodism
139:
136:
101:
98:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2887:
2876:
2875:Plant ecology
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2683:Ecotoxicology
2681:
2679:
2678:Ecophysiology
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2645:Urban ecology
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2613:Polar ecology
2611:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2592:
2591:Human ecology
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2581:Plant ecology
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2500:Spatial scale
2497:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2480:Field ecology
2478:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2453:
2451:
2446:
2444:
2439:
2438:
2435:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2416:Ecophysiology
2412:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2358:
2355:
2351:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2315:
2314:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2259:
2255:
2250:
2246:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2225:
2221:
2215:
2210:
2209:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2082:archive.today
2079:
2076:
2071:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2009:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1912:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1810:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1691:Plant Science
1685:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1550:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1531:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1456:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1431:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1405:
1393:on 3 May 2013
1392:
1388:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1281:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1246:
1243:
1238:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1226:Plant Ecology
1220:
1217:
1212:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1193:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1131:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1087:
1084:
1073:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1041:
1037:
1031:
1028:
1022:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
978:
973:
967:
962:
959:
953:
948:
945:
934:
929:
927:
924:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
889:
885:
881:
877:
870:
868:
866:
862:
857:
855:
851:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
806:
793:
782:
774:
772:
768:
766:
762:
757:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
734:
732:
728:
723:
721:
713:
711:
707:
705:
701:
700:
699:
693:
691:
689:
685:
681:
678:to function,
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
654:
649:
647:
645:
640:
635:
628:
626:
624:
623:amenity trees
618:
615:
606:
604:
602:
597:
589:
584:
580:
576:
572:
569:
565:
562:
554:
553:
552:
548:
544:
536:
534:
532:
523:
515:
507:
503:
502:deforestation
499:
477:
471:
463:
459:
439:
427:
412:concentration
407:
405:
403:
397:
395:
390:
384:
382:
378:
374:
368:
363:
361:
357:
356:abscisic acid
352:
350:
349:transpiration
346:
342:
337:
332:
324:
322:
320:
319:plastic mulch
315:
314:
309:
304:
302:
298:
297:
292:
288:
287:transpiration
279:
275:
273:
269:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
218:
210:
208:
205:
203:
199:
193:
191:
185:
183:
179:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
149:
145:
137:
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
116:
111:
107:
99:
97:
95:
91:
90:Ernst Haeckel
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
68:
64:
60:
56:
55:
44:
34:
25:
21:
20:Ecophysiology
2824:Biogeography
2718:Paleoecology
2693:Fire ecology
2677:
2635:Soil ecology
2523:Organisation
2513:Macroecology
2508:Microecology
2415:
2367:
2361:
2334:
2312:
2291:
2272:
2253:
2229:
2207:
2160:
2154:
2105:
2101:
2075:BartGen Tree
2070:
2025:
2021:
2011:
2000:
1991:
1959:(1): 61–72.
1956:
1952:
1942:
1917:
1911:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1819:
1815:
1809:
1785:(1): 13–26.
1782:
1778:
1768:
1741:
1737:
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1669:2 September
1448:1 September
1150:(5): 2448.
1077:1 September
908:to publish
861:homeostasis
750:evaporation
731:cold stress
727:heat stress
710:evaporation
688:temperature
639:disturbance
629:Wind damage
607:Acclimation
255:antioxidant
211:Temperature
92:'s coinage
2850:Physiology
2839:Categories
2537:Synecology
2532:Autecology
2028:: 670977.
1697:: 94–118.
1479:8 February
1258:(2): 214.
1023:References
871:Scientists
850:hemoglobin
840:byproduct
838:glycolysis
830:hemoglobin
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742:conduction
664:physiology
585:in crops).
579:windthrows
575:drag force
561:convection
541:See also:
389:aerenchyma
381:Xerophytes
329:See also:
215:See also:
142:See also:
78:physiology
70:discipline
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2384:0012-9623
2189:1540-7063
2165:CiteSeerX
2132:0012-9623
2044:1664-042X
1975:1469-8137
1844:0032-0935
1760:0015-752X
1313:1214-1178
1166:1422-0067
1115:2662-1738
785:arterial
738:radiation
704:epidermis
601:trichomes
396:forests.
257:systems.
243:dehydrins
169:asymptote
2814:Ecosophy
2564:Taxonomy
2525:or scope
2400:86354445
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2197:21676766
2078:Archived
2062:34211402
1983:15760351
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1423:19 April
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617:factor.
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