774:(GalT) binds to the N-acetylglucosamine residues on the ZP3 and is important for binding with the sperm and activating the acrosome reaction. ZP3 is sufficient though unnecessary for sperm/egg binding. Two additional sperm receptors exist: a 250kD protein that binds to an oviduct secreted protein, and SED1, which independently binds to the zona. After the acrosome reaction, the sperm is believed to remain bound to the zona pellucida through exposed ZP2 receptors. These receptors are unknown in mice but have been identified in guinea pigs.
730:. There is a pH gradient within the micro-environment of the female reproductive tract such that the pH near the vaginal opening is lower (approximately 5) than the oviducts (approximately 8). The sperm-specific pH-sensitive calcium transport protein called CatSper increases the sperm cell permeability to calcium as it moves further into the reproductive tract. Intracellular calcium influx contributes to sperm capacitation and hyperactivation, causing a more violent and rapid non-linear motility pattern as sperm approach the oocyte. The
643:
1271:"It has been shown in the present volume that the offspring from the union of two distinct individuals, especially if their progenitors have been subjected to very different conditions, have an immense advantage in height, weight, constitutional vigour and fertility over the self-fertilised offspring from one of the same parents. And this fact is amply sufficient to account for the development of the sexual elements, that is, for the genesis of the two sexes."
1016:) practise delayed fertilisation. Among the Odonata, females may mate with multiple males, and store sperm until the eggs are laid. The male may hover above the female during egg-laying (oviposition) to prevent her from mating with other males and replacing his sperm; in some groups such as the darters, the male continues to grasp the female with his claspers during egg-laying, the pair flying around in tandem. Among social Hymenoptera,
924:, which occurs around 16 days after fertilisation, the implanted blastocyst develops three germ layers, the endoderm, the ectoderm and the mesoderm, and the genetic code of the father becomes fully involved in the development of the embryo; later twinning is impossible. Additionally, interspecies hybrids survive only until gastrulation and cannot further develop. However, some human developmental biology literature refers to the
958:
1109:. Some algae are isomorphic, where both the sporophyte (2n) and gameteophyte (n) are the same morphologically. When algae reproduction is described as oogamous, the male and female gametes are different morphologically, where there is a large non-motile egg for female gametes, and the male gamete are uniflagellate (motile). Via the process of syngamy, these will form a new zygote, regenerating the sporophyte generation again.
3781:
3264:
868:
940:
630:, they may still use internal fertilisation, as with some salamanders. Advantages of internal fertilisation include minimal waste of gametes, greater chance of individual egg fertilisation, longer period of egg protection, and selective fertilisation. Many females have the ability to store sperm for extended periods of time and can fertilise their eggs at their own desire.
669:. The acrosomal vesicles of the sperm fuse with the plasma membrane and are released. In this process, molecules bound to the acrosomal vesicle membrane, such as bindin, are exposed on the surface of the sperm. These contents digest the jelly coat and eventually the vitelline membrane. In addition to the release of acrosomal vesicles, there is explosive polymerisation of
1187:, wherein an unfertilised female gamete produces viable offspring. These offspring may be clones of the mother, or in some cases genetically differ from her but inherit only part of her DNA. Parthenogenesis occurs in many plants and animals and may be induced in others through a chemical or electrical stimulus to the egg cell. In 2004, Japanese researchers led by
476:, has endosperm that is diploid, resulting from the fusion of a sperm with one, rather than two, maternal nuclei. It is believed that early in the development of angiosperm lineages, there was a duplication in this mode of reproduction, producing seven-celled/eight-nucleate female gametophytes, and triploid endosperms with a 2:1 maternal to paternal genome ratio.
246:
1140:. If crossover occurs once, then on average (4²²)² = 309x10 genetically different zygotes are possible for every couple, not considering that crossover events can take place at most points along each chromosome. The X and Y chromosomes undergo no crossover events and are therefore excluded from the calculation. The
412:(haploid number of chromosomes) – a growing pollen tube therefore contains three separate nuclei, two sperm and one tube. The sperms are interconnected and dimorphic, the large one, in a number of plants, is also linked to the tube nucleus and the interconnected sperm and the tube nucleus form the "male germ unit".
556:
and the production of genetic variability is infrequent and thus unlikely to provide a sufficient benefit over many generations to maintain the meiotic apparatus. Consequently, one might expect self-fertilisation to be replaced in nature by an ameiotic asexual form of reproduction that would be less
411:
are secreted by the pollen tube that digest the female tissue as the tube grows down the stigma and style; the digested tissue is used as a nutrient source for the pollen tube as it grows. During pollen tube growth towards the ovary, the generative nucleus divides to produce two separate sperm nuclei
633:
Oviparous animals producing eggs with thin tertiary membranes or no membranes at all, on the other hand, use external fertilisation methods. Such animals may be more precisely termed ovuliparous. External fertilisation is advantageous in that it minimises contact (which decreases the risk of disease
520:
In the most common kind of mixed mating system, individual plants produce a single type of flower and fruits may contain self-fertilised, outcrossed or a mixture of progeny types. The transition from cross-fertilisation to self-fertilisation is the most common evolutionary transition in plants, and
384:
to be at their highest during floral stages when the ovule is the most receptive to pollen tubes, and lowest during times of development and following fertilisation. High amounts of ROS activate
Calcium ion channels in the pollen tube, causing these channels to take up Calcium ions in large amounts.
1168:
proteins forming the zygote first centrosome. This centrosome nucleates microtubules in the shape of stars called astral microtubules. The microtubules span the whole valium of the egg, allowing the egg pronucleus to use the cables to get to the male pronucleus. As the male and female pronuclei
355:
called TTS proteins that enhanced growth of pollen tubes. Pollen tubes in a sugar free pollen germination medium and a medium with purified TTS proteins both grew. However, in the TTS medium, the tubes grew at a rate 3x that of the sugar-free medium. TTS proteins were also placed on various
346:
through the micropyle (an opening in the ovule wall) and the pollen tube "bursts" into the embryo sac, releasing sperm. The growth of the pollen tube has been believed to depend on chemical cues from the pistil, however these mechanisms were poorly understood until 1995. Work done on
467:. The two central-cell maternal nuclei (polar nuclei) that contribute to the endosperm arise by mitosis from the single meiotic product that also gave rise to the egg. Therefore, maternal contribution to the genetic constitution of the triploid endosperm is double that of the embryo.
443:. This is the point when fertilisation actually occurs; pollination and fertilisation are two separate processes. The nucleus of the other sperm cell fuses with two haploid polar nuclei (contained in the central cell) in the centre of the gametophyte. The resulting cell is
2905:
Cavazza, Tommaso; Takeda, Yuko; Politi, Antonio Z.; Aushev, Magomet; Aldag, Patrick; Baker, Clara; Choudhary, Meenakshi; BuceviÄŤius, Jonas; LukinaviÄŤius, GraĹľvydas; Elder, Kay; Blayney, Martyn; Lucas-Hahn, Andrea; Niemann, Heiner; Herbert, Mary; Schuh, Melina (May 2021).
758:
cells surrounding rabbit and human oocytes. Capacitated and hyperactivated sperm respond to these gradients by changing their behaviour and moving towards the cumulus-oocyte complex. Other chemotactic signals such as formyl Met-Leu-Phe (fMLF) may also guide spermatozoa.
725:
When sperm are deposited into the anterior vagina, they are not capable of fertilisation (i.e., non-capacitated) and are characterised by slow linear motility patterns. This motility, combined with muscular contractions enables sperm transport towards the uterus and
516:
represent different strategies with differing benefits and costs. An estimated 48.7% of plant species are either dioecious or self-incompatible obligate outcrossers. It is also estimated that about 42% of flowering plants exhibit a mixed mating system in nature.
930:
and such medical literature refers to the "products of conception" as the post-implantation embryo and its surrounding membranes. The term "conception" is not usually used in scientific literature because of its variable definition and connotation.
2847:
Fishman, Emily L.; Jo, Kyoung; Nguyen, Quynh P. H.; Kong, Dong; Royfman, Rachel; Cekic, Anthony R.; Khanal, Sushil; Miller, Ann L.; Simerly, Calvin; Schatten, Gerald; Loncarek, Jadranka; Mennella, Vito; Avidor-Reiss, Tomer (December 2018).
100:
2557:
Fishman, Emily L; Jo, Kyoung; Nguyen, Quynh P. H; Kong, Dong; Royfman, Rachel; Cekic, Anthony R; Khanal, Sushil; Miller, Ann L; Simerly, Calvin; Schatten, Gerald; Loncarek, Jadranka; Mennella, Vito; Avidor-Reiss, Tomer (2018).
766:, a thick layer of extracellular matrix that surrounds the egg and is similar to the role of the vitelline membrane in sea urchins, binds the sperm. Unlike sea urchins, the sperm binds to the egg before the acrosomal reaction.
385:
This increased uptake of calcium causes the pollen tube to rupture, and release its sperm into the ovule. Pistil feeding assays in which plants were fed diphenyl iodonium chloride (DPI) suppressed ROS concentrations in
146:, which happen before the fusion of gametes, are also sometimes informally referred to as fertilisation, these are technically separate processes. The cycle of fertilisation and development of new individuals is called
1263:
2513:
Lee, C. N.; Clayton, M. K.; Bushmeyer, S. M.; First, N. L.; Ax, R. L. (1 September 1986). "Glycosaminoglycans in Ewe
Reproductive Tracts and Their Influence on Acrosome Reactions in Bovine Spermatozoa in Vitro".
1169:
approach each other, the single centrosome split into two centrosomes located in the interphase between the pronuclei. Then the centrosome via the astral microtubules polarises the genome inside the pronuclei.
360:
pollinated pistils, and pollen tubes were observed to immediately extend toward the proteins. Transgenic plants lacking the ability to produce TTS proteins had slower pollen tube growth and reduced fertility.
2955:
Kono, Tomohiro; Obata, Yayoi; Wu, Quiong; Niwa, Katsutoshi; Ono, Yukiko; Yamamoto, Yuji; Park, Eun Sung; Seo, Jeong-Sun; Ogawa, Hidehiko (2004). "Birth of parthenogenetic mice that can develop to adulthood".
431:(sometimes called an embryo sac) that is inside an ovule. After the pollen tube enters the gametophyte, the pollen tube nucleus disintegrates and the two sperm cells are released; one of the two sperm cells
375:
has been shown to depend on a signal from the female gametophyte. Specific proteins called FER protein kinases present in the ovule control the production of highly reactive derivatives of oxygen called
269:
The gametes that participate in fertilisation of plants are the sperm (male) and the egg (female) cell. Various plant groups have differing methods by which the gametes produced by the male and female
557:
costly. However the actual persistence of meiosis and self-fertilisation as a form of reproduction in long-established self-fertilising plants may be related to the immediate benefit of efficient
583:
and the appropriate egg find each other and the question of how only one sperm gets into the egg and delivers its contents. There are three steps to fertilisation that ensure species-specificity:
618:, or thick leathery shells generally reproduce via internal fertilisation so that the sperm fertilises the egg without having to pass through the thick, protective, tertiary layer of the egg.
407:. With multi-seeded fruits, multiple grains of pollen are necessary for syngamy with each ovule. The growth of the pollen tube is controlled by the vegetative (or tube) cytoplasm. Hydrolytic
2478:
Gnessi L, Fabbri A, Silvestroni L, Moretti C, Fraioli F, Pert CB, Isidori A (1986). "Evidence for the presence of specific receptors for N-formyl chemotactic peptides on human spermatozoa".
871:
Fertilisation in humans. The sperm and ovum unite through fertilisation, creating a zygote that (over the course of 8-9 days) implants in the uterine wall, where it resides for nine months.
4146:
665:
through a process called sperm activation. In another ligand/receptor interaction, an oligosaccharide component of the egg binds and activates a receptor on the sperm and causes the
789:
in the vestments around the oocyte. Additionally, heparin-like glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are released near the oocyte that promote the acrosome reaction. Fusion between the oocyte
1614:
Faure, J.E. (1999). "Double fertilization in flowering plants: origin, mechanisms and new information from in vitro fertilization". In Cresti, M.; Cai, G.; Moscatelli, A. (eds.).
1275:
In addition, it is thought by some, that a long-term advantage of out-crossing in nature is increased genetic variability that promotes adaptation or avoidance of extinction (see
859:
In such animals as rabbits, coitus induces ovulation by stimulating the release of the pituitary hormone gonadotropin; this release greatly increases the likelihood of pregnancy.
722:
during a period that extends from hours before copulation to a few days after; therefore, in most mammals, it is more common for ejaculation to precede ovulation than vice versa.
2142:
Tang C, Toomajian C, Sherman-Broyles S, Plagnol V, Guo YL, Hu TT, Clark RM, Nasrallah JB, Weigel D, Nordborg M (2007). "The evolution of selfing in
Arabidopsis thaliana".
115:
1951:
Goodwillie C, Kalisz S, Eckert CG (2005). "The evolutionary enigma of mixed mating systems in plants: Occurrence, theoretical explanations, and empirical evidence".
1209:
Autogamy which is also known as self-fertilisation, occurs in such hermaphroditic organisms as plants and flatworms; therein, two gametes from one individual fuse.
4517:
742:. Rheotaxis, thermotaxis and chemotaxis are known mechanisms that guide sperm towards the egg during the final stage of sperm migration. Spermatozoa respond (see
2419:
Teves, Maria E; Guidobaldi, Hector A; Uñates, Diego R; Sanchez, Raul; Miska, Werner; Publicover, Stephen J; Morales Garcia, Aduén A; Giojalas, Laura C (2009).
4512:
1120:
results in a random segregation of the genes that each parent contributes. Each parent organism is usually identical save for a fraction of their genes; each
3002:
4139:
186:
conceived the formation of new individuals through fusion of male and female fluids, with form and function emerging gradually, in a mode called by him as
4502:
532:. Self-fertilisation can therefore result in improved colonisation ability. In some species, self-fertilisation has persisted over many generations.
3702:
3486:
3402:
1354:
483:, about a thousand grains of pollen must be delivered and spread evenly on the three lobes of the stigma to make a normal sized and shaped fruit.
4391:
4132:
1206:, which is also known as cross-fertilisation, refers to the fertilisation of an egg cell from one individual with the male gamete of another.
949:) flying "in cop" (male ahead), enabling the male to prevent other males from mating. The eggs are fertilised as they are laid, one at a time.
3217:
2755:
2233:
2206:
1851:
1818:
1785:
1623:
1546:
1502:
2292:"In vivo oxygen, temperature and pH dynamics in the female reproductive tract and their importance in human conception: a systematic review"
1195:
of two mice by blocking certain proteins that would normally prevent the possibility; the resulting embryo normally developed into a mouse.
687:
Fusion of the plasma membranes of the sperm and egg are likely mediated by bindin. At the site of contact, fusion causes the formation of a
3817:
579:
The mechanics behind fertilisation has been studied extensively in sea urchins and mice. This research addresses the question of how the
342:
and elongates through the extracellular matrix of the style before reaching the ovary. Then near the receptacle, it breaks through the
913:
1235:: (sometimes called "permanent odd polyploidy") one genome is transmitted in the Mendelian fashion, others are transmitted clonally.
912:
commonly refers to "the process of becoming pregnant involving fertilisation or implantation or both". Its use makes it a subject of
322:, two sperm cells are released from the pollen tube, and a second fertilisation event occurs involving the second sperm cell and the
2700:
2675:
1761:
1403:
479:
In many plants, the development of the flesh of the fruit is proportional to the percentage of fertilised ovules. For example, with
4401:
3757:
3572:
3680:
570:
548:
rate in the wild of less than 0.3%; a study suggested that self-fertilisation evolved roughly a million years ago or more in
222:
521:
has occurred repeatedly in many independent lineages. About 10-15% of flowering plants are predominantly self-fertilising.
3737:
890:
1869:"Modularity of the Angiosperm Female Gametophyte and Its Bearing on the Early Evolution of Endosperm in Flowering Plants"
4376:
3752:
3552:
3535:
1046:), as in some protists, fertilisation is a two step process. First, the cytoplasms of the two gamete cells fuse (called
821:" itself upon fusing with a single sperm cell and thereby changes its cell membrane to prevent fusion with other sperm.
1908:
Igic B, Kohn JR (2006). "The distribution of plant mating systems: study bias against obligately outcrossing species".
38:
4102:
4047:
3826:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3395:
898:
841:
84:
4583:
3690:
3530:
3344:
1646:
Duan, Qiaohong; Kita, Daniel; Johnson, Eric A; Aggarwal, Mini; Gates, Laura; Wu, Hen-Ming; Cheung, Alice Y (2014).
1106:
197:
established the need of interaction between the female's ovum and male's sperm to form a zygote in frogs. In 1827,
4570:
4361:
3520:
3210:
3010:
381:
318:. The sperm are transferred from the pollen through the pollen tube to the ovule where the egg is fertilised. In
4578:
4107:
4019:
3904:
3810:
3461:
1485:
Maienschein, Jane (2017). "The First
Century of Cell Theory: From Structural Units to Complex Living Systems".
1384:
1020:
queens mate only on mating flights, in a short period lasting some days; a queen may mate with eight or more
3871:
3742:
1165:
574:
377:
2042:"Genomic Identification of Founding Haplotypes Reveals the History of the Selfing Species Capsella rubella"
654:, a type of ligand/receptor interaction. Resact is a 14 amino acid peptide purified from the jelly coat of
4411:
4092:
3991:
3658:
3653:
3449:
3444:
3388:
3318:
3303:
3285:
3280:
3071:"Simultaneous Mendelian and clonal genome transmission in a sexually reproducing, all-triploid vertebrate"
1313:
945:
607:
603:
62:
This article is about fertilisation in animals and plants. For fertilisation in humans specifically, see
4650:
4624:
4619:
4460:
4289:
4097:
4087:
3931:
3762:
3339:
3234:
3226:
1254:
1137:
771:
688:
90:"impregnate" and "impregnation" redirect here. For the process of making materials water-resistant, see
3795:
1648:"Reactive oxygen species mediate pollen tube rupture to release sperm for fertilization in Arabidopsis"
1223:: A sperm stimulates the egg to develop without fertilisation or syngamy. The sperm may enter the egg.
1707:"A floral transmitting tissue-specific glycoprotein attracts pollen tubes and stimulates their growth"
770:, a glycoprotein in the zona pellucida, is responsible for egg/sperm adhesion in humans. The receptor
684:. The sperm surface protein bindin, binds to a receptor on the vitelline membrane identified as EBR1.
4660:
4614:
3697:
3203:
2965:
2861:
2571:
2432:
2151:
2063:
1659:
1161:
703:
540:
529:
398:
187:
151:
4464:
4381:
4352:
3841:
3803:
3594:
3562:
3143:
Otto, S.P; Gerstein, A.C (2006). "Why have sex? The population genetics of sex and recombination".
1276:
1188:
1073:
fungi, fertilisation occurs in a single step with the fusion of gametes, as in animals and plants.
902:
876:
262:
226:
198:
147:
63:
3263:
138:
and initiate its development into a new individual organism or offspring. While processes such as
4655:
4550:
4340:
4302:
4159:
3707:
3685:
3670:
3168:
3051:
2989:
2539:
2401:
2175:
2053:
1968:
1933:
1508:
681:
666:
334:
Unlike animal sperm which is motile, the sperm of most seed plants is immotile and relies on the
303:
2290:
Ng, Ka Ying Bonnie; Mingels, Roel; Morgan, Hywel; Macklon, Nick; Cheong, Ying (1 January 2018).
1843:
1753:
1747:
642:
4406:
4371:
4320:
4070:
3856:
3846:
3712:
3498:
3427:
3364:
3160:
3125:
3100:
3043:
2981:
2937:
2887:
2829:
2751:
2696:
2671:
2597:
2531:
2495:
2460:
2393:
2354:
2313:
2272:
2229:
2202:
2167:
2091:
2022:
1925:
1890:
1847:
1814:
1781:
1757:
1728:
1677:
1619:
1593:
1542:
1498:
1433:
1359:
1308:
1298:
1141:
897:, the first stage of life in the development of a genetically unique organism, and initiating
853:
778:
743:
674:
74:
2223:
2040:
Brandvain, Yaniv; Slotte, Tanja; Hazzouri, Khaled M; Wright, Stephen I; Coop, Graham (2013).
1964:
1058:
cell with multiple nuclei. This cell may then divide to produce dikaryotic or heterokaryotic
59:
Union of gametes of opposite sexes during the process of sexual reproduction to form a zygote
4185:
4009:
3972:
3953:
3665:
3547:
3152:
3090:
3082:
3035:
2973:
2927:
2919:
2877:
2869:
2819:
2809:
2796:
Avidor-Reiss, Tomer; Mazur, Matthew; Fishman, Emily L.; Sindhwani, Puneet (1 October 2019).
2782:
2587:
2579:
2523:
2487:
2450:
2440:
2385:
2344:
2303:
2262:
2159:
2122:
2081:
2071:
2012:
2004:
1960:
1917:
1880:
1835:
1718:
1667:
1583:
1575:
1534:
1490:
1423:
1415:
1344:
755:
707:
534:
494:
460:
1457:
4213:
4167:
4124:
3886:
3747:
3729:
3675:
3619:
1323:
1184:
1178:
1033:
790:
786:
339:
319:
1810:
2969:
2865:
2639:
2575:
2436:
2155:
2067:
1663:
538:
is a self-fertilising species that became self-compatible 50,000 to 100,000 years ago.
4297:
4218:
4065:
3963:
3503:
3349:
3095:
3070:
2932:
2907:
2882:
2849:
2824:
2797:
2665:
2592:
2559:
2455:
2420:
2086:
2041:
2017:
1992:
1885:
1868:
1588:
1563:
1538:
1428:
1318:
1293:
1258:
1232:
1226:
818:
763:
739:
424:
2111:"Population genetic structure and outcrossing rate of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh"
1024:. She then stores the sperm for the rest of her life, perhaps for five years or more.
957:
338:
to carry it to the ovule where the sperm is released. The pollen tube penetrates the
4644:
4560:
4255:
4205:
4014:
3958:
3717:
3614:
3525:
3491:
3295:
3272:
3253:
1836:
1723:
1706:
1349:
1253:
The major benefit of cross-fertilisation is generally thought to be the avoidance of
810:
782:
746:) to the temperature gradient of ~2 °C between the oviduct and the ampulla, and
710:, many sperm move to the upper vagina (via contractions from the vagina) through the
619:
561:
of DNA damage during formation of germ cells provided by meiosis at each generation.
206:
91:
3172:
3055:
2405:
2179:
1512:
680:
The sperm binds to the egg through another ligand reaction between receptors on the
4433:
4416:
4347:
4307:
4223:
4195:
4180:
4029:
3984:
3979:
3784:
3636:
3513:
3508:
3454:
3334:
3308:
3069:
Stock, M; Ustinova, J; Betto-Colliard, C; Schartl, M; Moritz, C; Perrin, N (2011).
2993:
2770:
1972:
1702:
1529:
Birkhead, Tim R.; Montgomerie, Robert (2009). "Three centuries of sperm research".
1303:
1055:
921:
886:
867:
794:
751:
731:
580:
352:
323:
279:
163:
139:
2543:
939:
209:(1876), in Germany, described the fusion of nuclei of spermatozoa and of ova from
3026:
Stenberg, P; Saura, A (2013). "Meiosis and Its
Deviations in Polyploid Animals".
2445:
2076:
1937:
1803:
4609:
4604:
4335:
4024:
3949:
3891:
3369:
3354:
2798:"The Role of Sperm Centrioles in Human Reproduction – The Known and the Unknown"
2732:
1579:
1494:
1329:
1288:
1220:
1021:
1001:
997:
993:
509:
500:
428:
416:
371:
335:
307:
295:
283:
271:
254:
194:
155:
143:
2923:
2873:
2583:
626:
animals also use internal fertilisation. Although some organisms reproduce via
4629:
4599:
4492:
4453:
4448:
4428:
4155:
4080:
3967:
3941:
3881:
3876:
3861:
3247:
3189:
2748:
Fertilization in
Protozoa and Metazoan Animals: Cellular and Molecular Aspects
2389:
1364:
1339:
1334:
1157:
1125:
1047:
837:
747:
651:
623:
558:
525:
480:
435:
the egg cell (at the bottom of the gametophyte near the micropyle), forming a
287:
210:
67:
2814:
1402:
Siu, Karen K.; SerrĂŁo, Vitor Hugo B.; Ziyyat, Ahmed; Lee, Jeffrey E. (2021).
4555:
4545:
4522:
4469:
4366:
4356:
4267:
4240:
4228:
4190:
3913:
3624:
3599:
3589:
3577:
3313:
3242:
3129:
2615:
2527:
2308:
2291:
2267:
2250:
2163:
1248:
1153:
1063:
926:
845:
806:
802:
798:
719:
662:
611:
602:
Consideration as to whether an animal (more specifically a vertebrate) uses
452:
348:
275:
250:
230:
183:
171:
3164:
3104:
3086:
3047:
2985:
2941:
2891:
2850:"A novel atypical sperm centriole is functional during human fertilization"
2833:
2601:
2560:"A novel atypical sperm centriole is functional during human fertilization"
2464:
2397:
2358:
2317:
2276:
2171:
2095:
2026:
2008:
1929:
1894:
1681:
1597:
1437:
552:. In long-established self-fertilising plants, the masking of deleterious
265:
so that the unfertilised egg within the archegonium produces a blue colour.
17:
2535:
2499:
2491:
1732:
1419:
718:
to meet the ovum. In cases where fertilisation occurs, the female usually
4487:
4443:
4438:
4315:
4272:
4260:
4245:
4175:
4057:
4039:
4001:
3918:
3641:
3542:
2421:"Molecular Mechanism for Human Sperm Chemotaxis Mediated by Progesterone"
1838:
Double fertilization: embryo and endosperm development in flowering plant
1244:
1203:
1051:
1017:
917:
627:
615:
553:
545:
513:
504:
456:
444:
167:
3195:
3119:
2977:
2908:"Parental genome unification is highly error-prone in mammalian embryos"
2349:
2332:
2127:
2110:
4527:
4423:
3609:
3582:
3359:
3156:
1672:
1647:
1117:
1070:
1043:
989:
829:
727:
448:
436:
408:
403:
After being fertilised, the ovary starts to swell and develop into the
357:
282:
land plants, fertilisation of the sperm and egg takes place within the
245:
234:
159:
131:
80:
3039:
777:
In mammals, the binding of the spermatozoon to the GalT initiates the
99:
4537:
4327:
4277:
4250:
4075:
3866:
3851:
3631:
3604:
3437:
2616:"Zygote | Definition, Development, Example, & Facts | Britannica"
1921:
1133:
1121:
1059:
894:
849:
833:
715:
711:
699:
472:
440:
299:
291:
202:
135:
3121:
The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom
1264:
The
Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom
817:
likely mediates this fusion in mice (the binding homolog). The egg "
2373:
1780:. Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley. 2007. p. 466.
1164:. The sperm centriole, found near the male pronucleus, recruit egg
4233:
2058:
1489:. Vienna Circle Institute Yearbook. Vol. 20. pp. 43–54.
1183:
Organisms that normally reproduce sexually can also reproduce via
1129:
1039:
938:
866:
670:
420:
404:
343:
315:
311:
244:
98:
1404:"The cell biology of fertilization: Gamete attachment and fusion"
3432:
1192:
1013:
882:
822:
464:
258:
4128:
3799:
3384:
3199:
4479:
3411:
2333:"Oviduct: Roles in fertilization and early embryo development"
1086:
There are three types of fertilisation processes in protozoa:
1009:
1005:
952:
814:
767:
528:
or mates are rare, self-fertilisation offers the advantage of
1267:(pages 466-467) summed up his findings in the following way.
1124:
is therefore genetically unique. At fertilisation, parental
1326:, a type of reproduction that does not involve fertilisation
2733:"Beekeeping in Africa: Colony life and social organization"
1993:"Evolutionary consequences of self-fertilization in plants"
1136:
are possible for the non-sex chromosomes, even assuming no
3003:"The End of Males? Mouse Made to Reproduce Without Sperm"
1152:
Shortly after the sperm fuse with the egg, the two sperm
673:
to form a thin spike at the head of the sperm called the
73:"Conceive" redirects here. For the health magazine, see
3075:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1997:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
969:
614:
animals laying eggs with thick calcium shells, such as
42:
3380:
1066:, the fusion of the nuclei to form a diploid zygote.
754:
have been confirmed as the signal emanating from the
734:
spermatozoon and the oocyte meet and interact in the
2693:
2667:
The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology
1229:: One genome is eliminated to produce haploid eggs.
828:
This process ultimately leads to the formation of a
174:
nucleus by the process of vegetative fertilisation.
4592:
4569:
4536:
4501:
4478:
4390:
4288:
4204:
4166:
4056:
4038:
4000:
3940:
3927:
3900:
3834:
3728:
3561:
3418:
3327:
3294:
3271:
3233:
1217:Some relatively unusual forms of reproduction are:
914:
semantic arguments about the beginning of pregnancy
369:The rupture of the pollen tube to release sperm in
2251:"Sperm transport in the female reproductive tract"
1802:
544:is a predominantly self-fertilising plant with an
253:land plants, fertilisation takes place within the
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1618:. Berlin, Heidelberg.: Springer. pp. 79–89.
221:The evolution of fertilisation is related to the
1867:Friedman, William E; Williams, Joseph H (2003).
881:Fertilisation in humans is the union of a human
661:After finding the egg, the sperm penetrates the
1986:
1984:
1982:
389:, which in turn prevented pollen tube rupture.
326:of the ovule, which is a second female gamete.
634:transmission), and greater genetic variation.
4140:
3811:
3396:
3211:
2695:. British Wildlife Publishing. pp. 8–9.
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1480:
1478:
8:
1487:Integrated History and Philosophy of Science
1144:is only inherited from the maternal parent.
2802:Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology
1991:Wright, S. I; Kalisz, S; Slotte, T (2013).
1609:
1607:
1132:, (2²²)² = 17.6x10 chromosomally different
988:Insects in different groups, including the
825:atoms are released during this activation.
610:is often dependent on the method of birth.
26:
4147:
4133:
4125:
3937:
3818:
3804:
3796:
3403:
3389:
3381:
3218:
3204:
3196:
2195:Les stratégies de reproduction des animaux
1524:
1522:
1191:succeeded after 457 attempts to merge the
470:One primitive species of flowering plant,
290:, the male gametophyte is formed within a
3094:
2931:
2881:
2823:
2813:
2750:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2591:
2454:
2444:
2348:
2331:Li, Shuai; Winuthayanon, Wipawee (2016).
2307:
2266:
2199:Reproduction Strategies in Animal Kingdom
2126:
2085:
2075:
2057:
2016:
1884:
1749:Biology: facts & practice for A level
1722:
1671:
1587:
1427:
447:(3n). This triploid cell divides through
2372:Bahat, Anat; Eisenbach, Michael (2006).
1965:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.091704.175539
901:. Scientists discovered the dynamics of
641:
32:This is an accepted version of this page
2664:Moore, K. L.; T. V. M. Persaud (2003).
1564:"The evolution of meiosis from mitosis"
1562:Wilkins AS, Holliday R (January 2009).
1376:
1355:Symmetry breaking and cortical rotation
1213:Other variants of bisexual reproduction
1113:Fertilisation and genetic recombination
793:and sperm follows and allows the sperm
646:Acrosome reaction on a sea urchin cell.
415:Double fertilisation is the process in
28:
2746:Tarin, Juan J.; Cano, Antonio (2000).
1148:The sperm aster and zygote centrosomes
1105:Algae, like some land plants, undergo
1062:. The second step of fertilisation is
658:that attracts the migration of sperm.
380:(ROS). ROS levels have been shown via
274:come together and are fertilised. In
162:male gamete combines with two haploid
4518:Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
2731:Agriculture and Consumer Protection.
79:. For philosophical abstraction, see
7:
2378:Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology
1389:Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
848:. Embryonic implantation not in the
813:, to enter the oocyte. The protein
423:from each pollen tube fertilise two
4513:Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis
3499:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
2249:Suarez, S.S.; Pacey, A. A. (2006).
1842:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p.
1752:. Oxford University Press. p.
1705:; Wang, Hong; Wu, Hen-Ming (1995).
590:Sperm activation/acrosomal reaction
1886:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00257.x
1801:Kirk, David; Starr, Cecie (1975).
1539:10.1016/B978-0-12-372568-4.00001-X
916:, typically in the context of the
205:mammalian egg for the first time.
57:
2691:Dijkstra, Klaas-Douwe B. (2006).
2225:Advances in the Study of Behavior
3780:
3779:
3573:Evolution of sexual reproduction
3262:
3145:Biochemical Society Transactions
1809:. Del Mar, Calif.: CRM. p.
956:
836:. The zygote divides to form a
489:Self-pollination and outcrossing
419:(flowering plants) in which two
3124:. J. Murray. pp. 466–467.
3028:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
3001:Bijal P. Trivedi (2004-04-21).
1239:Benefits of cross-fertilisation
840:and, upon entering the uterus,
3681:Sexual reproduction in animals
2109:Abbott, RJ; Gomes, MF (1989).
1834:Raghavan, Valayamghat (2006).
1616:Fertilization in Higher Plants
844:in the endometrium, beginning
571:Sexual reproduction in animals
512:, or cross-fertilisation, and
1:
891:ampulla of the fallopian tube
714:and across the length of the
702:internally fertilise through
314:through a tiny pore called a
233:. One hypothesis states that
3553:Sex as a biological variable
3536:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
2446:10.1371/journal.pone.0008211
2077:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003754
1724:10.1016/0092-8674(95)90427-1
893:, producing a single celled
781:. This process releases the
66:. For soil improvement, see
4103:Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
4048:Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
3827:Human embryonic development
3250:(Histotrophic, Hemotrophic)
2720:. Harvard University Press.
2716:Waldbauer, Gilbert (1998).
2222:Naguib, Marc (2020-04-19).
1953:Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst
1580:10.1534/genetics.108.099762
1495:10.1007/978-3-319-53258-5_4
905:in the nineteenth century.
889:, usually occurring in the
785:that digests the matrix of
85:Conception (disambiguation)
4677:
4503:Reproductive endocrinology
3691:Penile-vaginal intercourse
3531:Sequential hermaphroditism
3345:Live-bearing aquarium fish
3190:Fertilisation (Conception)
2924:10.1016/j.cell.2021.04.013
2874:10.1038/s41467-018-04678-8
2670:. W. B. Saunders Company.
2584:10.1038/s41467-018-04678-8
2201:] (in French). Dunod.
1242:
1176:
1107:alternation of generations
1031:
874:
856:that can kill the mother.
568:
524:Under circumstances where
498:
492:
396:
89:
72:
61:
4571:Human reproductive system
3775:
3521:Testis-determining factor
3260:
2783:"Autogamy | biology"
2516:Journal of Animal Science
2390:10.1016/j.mce.2006.03.027
2296:Human Reproduction Update
2255:Human Reproduction Update
1778:Handbook of plant science
1082:Fertilisation in protozoa
1077:Fertilisation in protists
310:grows and penetrates the
237:originated from mitosis.
4108:Somatopleuric mesenchyme
4020:Somatopleuric mesenchyme
3829:in the first three weeks
3462:Sex-determination system
3118:Darwin, Charles (1876).
2815:10.3389/fcell.2019.00188
2337:Journal of Endocrinology
1746:Johnstone, Adam (2001).
805:that is attached to the
650:Sperm find the eggs via
565:Fertilisation in animals
120:generative fertilisation
39:latest accepted revision
2528:10.2527/jas1986.633861x
2480:J Clin Endocrinol Metab
2164:10.1126/science.1143153
1408:Journal of Cell Biology
1166:Pericentriolar material
575:Animal sexual behaviour
378:reactive oxygen species
241:Fertilisation in plants
4593:Diseases and disorders
4402:Sexual differentiation
3992:Regional specification
3445:Sexual differentiation
3286:Internal fertilization
3281:External fertilization
3087:10.1098/rspb.2011.1738
2193:Lodé, Thierry (2001).
2009:10.1098/rspb.2013.0133
1314:In vitro fertilisation
1273:
1156:form the embryo first
1101:Fertilisation in algae
1028:Fertilisation in fungi
950:
946:Sympetrum fonscolombii
872:
647:
608:external fertilisation
559:recombinational repair
530:reproductive assurance
365:Rupture of pollen tube
266:
225:, as both are part of
104:
83:. For other uses, see
4625:Premature ejaculation
4620:Hard flaccid syndrome
4290:Human sexual activity
4098:Intraembryonic coelom
3487:Temperature-dependent
3340:Gastric-brooding frog
3227:Modes of reproduction
2918:(11): 2860–2877.e22.
2854:Nature Communications
2771:Reproduction#Autogamy
2718:The Birder's Bug Book
2564:Nature Communications
2492:10.1210/jcem-63-4-841
2309:10.1093/humupd/dmx028
2268:10.1093/humupd/dmi047
1652:Nature Communications
1420:10.1083/jcb.202102146
1269:
1255:inbreeding depression
1199:Allogamy and autogamy
1138:chromosomal crossover
942:
899:embryonic development
870:
772:galactosyltransferase
645:
598:Internal vs. external
351:revealed a family of
248:
103:Sperm and ovum fusing
102:
4615:Erectile dysfunction
3309:fish (mouthbrooding)
943:Red-veined darters (
541:Arabidopsis thaliana
399:Double fertilisation
263:genetically modified
152:double fertilisation
116:spelling differences
4394:reproductive system
4382:Vaginal lubrication
4160:sexual reproduction
3703:Hormonal motivation
3676:Fungal reproduction
3595:Reproductive system
3081:(1732): 1293–1299.
3007:National Geographic
2978:10.1038/nature02402
2970:2004Natur.428..860K
2866:2018NatCo...9.2210F
2576:2018NatCo...9.2210F
2437:2009PLoSO...4.8211T
2374:"Sperm thermotaxis"
2350:10.1530/JOE-16-0302
2156:2007Sci...317.1070T
2128:10.1038/hdy.1989.56
2068:2013arXiv1307.4118B
1664:2014NatCo...5.3129D
1277:Genetic variability
1261:, in his 1876 book
903:human fertilisation
877:Human fertilisation
852:wall results in an
227:sexual reproduction
199:Karl Ernst von Baer
148:sexual reproduction
130:, is the fusion of
64:Human fertilization
29:Page version status
4392:Development of the
4303:Sexual intercourse
3708:Human reproduction
3686:Sexual intercourse
3671:Plant reproduction
3157:10.1042/BST0340519
2620:www.britannica.com
2228:. Academic Press.
2003:(1760): 20130133.
1673:10.1038/ncomms4129
968:. You can help by
951:
873:
689:fertilisation cone
682:vitelline membrane
667:acrosomal reaction
648:
593:Sperm/egg adhesion
514:self-fertilisation
356:locations of semi
330:Pollen tube growth
267:
134:to give rise to a
105:
35:
4638:
4637:
4407:Sexual dimorphism
4372:Postpartum period
4122:
4121:
4118:
4117:
3847:Oocyte activation
3793:
3792:
3713:Lordosis behavior
3428:Sexual dimorphism
3378:
3377:
3365:Pregnancy in fish
3040:10.1159/000351731
2757:978-3-540-67093-3
2235:978-0-12-820726-0
2208:978-2-10-005739-9
1853:978-3-540-27791-0
1820:978-0-394-31093-0
1787:978-0-470-05723-0
1625:978-3-642-59969-9
1548:978-0-12-372568-4
1533:. pp. 1–42.
1504:978-3-319-53257-8
1360:Cortical reaction
1309:Fetal development
1299:Conception device
1142:mitochondrial DNA
986:
985:
854:ectopic pregnancy
779:acrosome reaction
744:Sperm thermotaxis
675:acrosomal process
473:Nuphar polysepala
223:origin of meiosis
118:), also known as
76:Conceive Magazine
16:(Redirected from
4668:
4377:Mechanics of sex
4186:Follicular phase
4156:Human physiology
4149:
4142:
4135:
4126:
4010:Surface ectoderm
3973:Primitive groove
3954:Primitive streak
3938:
3820:
3813:
3806:
3797:
3783:
3782:
3743:Animal sexuality
3666:Sexual selection
3405:
3398:
3391:
3382:
3266:
3220:
3213:
3206:
3197:
3177:
3176:
3140:
3134:
3133:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3098:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3034:(2–4): 185–203.
3023:
3017:
3014:
3009:. Archived from
2997:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2935:
2902:
2896:
2895:
2885:
2844:
2838:
2837:
2827:
2817:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2779:
2773:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2595:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2458:
2448:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2352:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2311:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2270:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2150:(5841): 1070–2.
2139:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2089:
2079:
2061:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2020:
1988:
1977:
1976:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1922:10.1554/05-383.1
1905:
1899:
1898:
1888:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1841:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1808:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1726:
1699:
1686:
1685:
1675:
1643:
1630:
1629:
1611:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1526:
1517:
1516:
1482:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1454:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1431:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1381:
1345:Superfecundation
1160:and microtubule
981:
978:
960:
953:
791:plasma membranes
756:cumulus oophorus
535:Capsella rubella
495:Self-pollination
393:Flowering plants
320:flowering plants
229:, originated in
21:
4676:
4675:
4671:
4670:
4669:
4667:
4666:
4665:
4641:
4640:
4639:
4634:
4588:
4565:
4532:
4505:and infertility
4504:
4497:
4474:
4393:
4386:
4284:
4214:Spermatogenesis
4200:
4168:Menstrual cycle
4162:
4153:
4123:
4114:
4052:
4034:
3996:
3929:
3923:
3902:
3896:
3887:Inner cell mass
3830:
3824:
3794:
3789:
3771:
3758:Differentiation
3748:Human sexuality
3738:Plant sexuality
3724:
3620:Spermatogenesis
3564:
3557:
3420:
3414:
3409:
3379:
3374:
3323:
3290:
3267:
3258:
3229:
3224:
3186:
3181:
3180:
3142:
3141:
3137:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3000:
2964:(6985): 860–4.
2954:
2953:
2949:
2904:
2903:
2899:
2846:
2845:
2841:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2781:
2780:
2776:
2769:
2765:
2758:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2678:
2663:
2662:
2658:
2648:
2646:
2644:Merriam-Webster
2638:
2637:
2633:
2624:
2622:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2556:
2555:
2551:
2512:
2511:
2507:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2418:
2417:
2413:
2371:
2370:
2366:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2052:(9): e1003754.
2039:
2038:
2034:
1990:
1989:
1980:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1916:(5): 1098–103.
1907:
1906:
1902:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1764:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1703:Cheung, Alice Y
1701:
1700:
1689:
1645:
1644:
1633:
1626:
1613:
1612:
1605:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1528:
1527:
1520:
1505:
1484:
1483:
1476:
1466:
1464:
1462:Merriam-Webster
1458:"Fertilization"
1456:
1455:
1451:
1442:
1440:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1383:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1324:Parthenogenesis
1285:
1251:
1243:Main articles:
1241:
1215:
1201:
1185:parthenogenesis
1181:
1179:Parthenogenesis
1175:
1173:Parthenogenesis
1150:
1115:
1103:
1084:
1079:
1050:), producing a
1036:
1034:Mating in fungi
1030:
982:
976:
973:
966:needs expansion
937:
879:
865:
801:, and atypical
787:hyaluronic acid
706:. After a male
697:
640:
600:
577:
567:
507:
497:
491:
401:
395:
367:
332:
243:
219:
180:
95:
88:
71:
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4674:
4672:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4643:
4642:
4636:
4635:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4596:
4594:
4590:
4589:
4587:
4586:
4581:
4575:
4573:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4542:
4540:
4534:
4533:
4531:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4509:
4507:
4499:
4498:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4484:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4472:
4467:
4458:
4457:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4398:
4396:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4350:
4345:
4344:
4343:
4338:
4330:
4325:
4324:
4323:
4318:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4298:Sexual arousal
4294:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4282:
4281:
4280:
4275:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4238:
4237:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4219:spermatogonium
4210:
4208:
4202:
4201:
4199:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4172:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4154:
4152:
4151:
4144:
4137:
4129:
4120:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4090:
4085:
4084:
4083:
4078:
4068:
4066:Axial mesoderm
4062:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4044:
4042:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4006:
4004:
3998:
3997:
3995:
3994:
3989:
3988:
3987:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3970:
3964:Primitive node
3961:
3946:
3944:
3935:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3921:
3916:
3910:
3908:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3838:
3836:
3832:
3831:
3825:
3823:
3822:
3815:
3808:
3800:
3791:
3790:
3788:
3787:
3776:
3773:
3772:
3770:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3740:
3734:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3722:
3721:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3694:
3693:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3639:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3622:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3580:
3569:
3567:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3523:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3511:
3504:Sex chromosome
3501:
3496:
3495:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3435:
3424:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3410:
3408:
3407:
3400:
3393:
3385:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3350:Male pregnancy
3347:
3342:
3337:
3331:
3329:
3328:Related topics
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3300:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3277:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3245:
3239:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3215:
3208:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3185:
3184:External links
3182:
3179:
3178:
3135:
3110:
3061:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3013:on 2004-04-23.
2947:
2897:
2839:
2788:
2774:
2763:
2756:
2738:
2723:
2708:
2701:
2683:
2676:
2656:
2631:
2607:
2549:
2522:(3): 861–867.
2505:
2486:(4): 841–846.
2470:
2411:
2384:(1–2): 115–9.
2364:
2323:
2282:
2241:
2234:
2214:
2207:
2185:
2134:
2121:(3): 411–418.
2101:
2032:
1978:
1943:
1900:
1859:
1852:
1826:
1819:
1793:
1786:
1769:
1762:
1738:
1687:
1631:
1624:
1603:
1554:
1547:
1518:
1503:
1474:
1449:
1394:
1385:"impregnation"
1375:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1321:
1319:Kaguya (mouse)
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1294:Conception cap
1291:
1284:
1281:
1259:Charles Darwin
1240:
1237:
1233:Canina meiosis
1227:Hybridogenesis
1214:
1211:
1200:
1197:
1177:Main article:
1174:
1171:
1149:
1146:
1114:
1111:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1056:heterokaryotic
1032:Main article:
1029:
1026:
984:
983:
963:
961:
936:
933:
875:Main article:
864:
861:
832:cell called a
809:, but not the
797:, the typical
764:zona pellucida
740:fallopian tube
696:
693:
639:
636:
599:
596:
595:
594:
591:
588:
566:
563:
493:Main article:
490:
487:
451:and forms the
397:Main article:
394:
391:
366:
363:
349:tobacco plants
331:
328:
242:
239:
218:
215:
182:In antiquity,
179:
176:
58:
56:
47:26 August 2024
36:
30:
27:
25:
24:
23:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4673:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4595:
4591:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4562:
4561:Breastfeeding
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4543:
4541:
4539:
4535:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4506:
4500:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4477:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4462:
4459:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4422:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4395:
4389:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4354:
4353:Fertilization
4351:
4349:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4291:
4287:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4270:
4269:
4266:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4206:Gametogenesis
4203:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4150:
4145:
4143:
4138:
4136:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4095:
4094:
4093:Lateral plate
4091:
4089:
4086:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4073:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4059:
4055:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4041:
4037:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4015:Neuroectoderm
4013:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4003:
3999:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3981:
3978:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3959:Primitive pit
3957:
3956:
3955:
3951:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3933:
3926:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3899:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3842:Fertilization
3840:
3839:
3837:
3833:
3828:
3821:
3816:
3814:
3809:
3807:
3802:
3801:
3798:
3786:
3778:
3777:
3774:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3731:
3727:
3719:
3718:Pelvic thrust
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3649:Fertilization
3647:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3630:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3615:Gametogenesis
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3560:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3548:parasexuality
3546:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3526:Hermaphrodite
3524:
3522:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3493:
3492:Haplodiploidy
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3463:
3460:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3417:
3413:
3406:
3401:
3399:
3394:
3392:
3387:
3386:
3383:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3297:
3296:Parental care
3293:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3273:Fertilization
3270:
3265:
3255:
3254:Ovoviviparity
3252:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3221:
3216:
3214:
3209:
3207:
3202:
3201:
3198:
3191:
3188:
3187:
3183:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3151:(4): 519–22.
3150:
3146:
3139:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3122:
3114:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3062:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3022:
3019:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2951:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2901:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2843:
2840:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2789:
2784:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2767:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2739:
2734:
2727:
2724:
2719:
2712:
2709:
2704:
2702:0-9531399-4-8
2698:
2694:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2677:0-7216-6974-3
2673:
2669:
2668:
2660:
2657:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2632:
2621:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2553:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2509:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2431:(12): e8211.
2430:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2412:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2343:(1): R1–R26.
2342:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2324:
2319:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2286:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2242:
2237:
2231:
2227:
2226:
2218:
2215:
2210:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2135:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2046:PLOS Genetics
2043:
2036:
2033:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1947:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1904:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1879:(2): 216–30.
1878:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1860:
1855:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1830:
1827:
1822:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1806:
1805:Biology today
1797:
1794:
1789:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1765:
1763:0-19-914766-3
1759:
1755:
1751:
1750:
1742:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1717:(3): 383–93.
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1550:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1531:Sperm Biology
1525:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1463:
1459:
1453:
1450:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1350:Superfetation
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1250:
1246:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1189:Tomohiro Kono
1186:
1180:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1100:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1081:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1035:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
980:
977:February 2015
971:
967:
964:This section
962:
959:
955:
954:
948:
947:
941:
934:
932:
929:
928:
923:
920:debate. Upon
919:
915:
911:
906:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
878:
869:
862:
860:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
826:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
783:hyaluronidase
780:
775:
773:
769:
765:
760:
757:
753:
750:gradients of
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
694:
692:
690:
685:
683:
678:
676:
672:
668:
664:
659:
657:
656:A. punctulata
653:
644:
637:
635:
631:
629:
625:
621:
620:Ovoviviparous
617:
613:
609:
605:
597:
592:
589:
586:
585:
584:
582:
576:
572:
564:
562:
560:
555:
551:
547:
543:
542:
537:
536:
531:
527:
522:
518:
515:
511:
506:
502:
496:
488:
486:
484:
482:
477:
475:
474:
468:
466:
463:, inside the
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
413:
410:
406:
400:
392:
390:
388:
383:
379:
374:
373:
364:
362:
359:
354:
353:glycoproteins
350:
345:
341:
337:
329:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
294:grain. After
293:
289:
285:
281:
280:pteridophytic
277:
273:
264:
260:
256:
252:
247:
240:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
216:
214:
212:
208:
207:Oscar Hertwig
204:
200:
196:
191:
189:
185:
177:
175:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
112:fertilization
109:
108:Fertilisation
101:
97:
93:
92:waterproofing
86:
82:
78:
77:
69:
65:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
4651:Reproduction
4465:Paternal age
4461:Maternal age
4434:Tanner scale
4417:Virilization
4412:Feminization
4362:Implantation
4348:Insemination
4332:Ejaculation
4308:Masturbation
4224:spermatocyte
4196:Luteal phase
4181:Menstruation
4088:Intermediate
4030:Neural crest
3985:Gastrulation
3648:
3637:spermatozoon
3565:reproduction
3514:Y chromosome
3509:X chromosome
3455:Virilization
3450:Feminization
3335:Adelphophagy
3148:
3144:
3138:
3120:
3113:
3078:
3074:
3064:
3031:
3027:
3021:
3011:the original
3006:
2961:
2957:
2950:
2915:
2911:
2900:
2857:
2853:
2842:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2777:
2766:
2747:
2741:
2726:
2717:
2711:
2692:
2686:
2666:
2659:
2647:. Retrieved
2643:
2640:"Conception"
2634:
2623:. Retrieved
2619:
2610:
2567:
2563:
2552:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2428:
2424:
2414:
2381:
2377:
2367:
2340:
2336:
2326:
2302:(1): 15–34.
2299:
2295:
2285:
2261:(1): 23–37.
2258:
2254:
2244:
2224:
2217:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2118:
2114:
2104:
2049:
2045:
2035:
2000:
1996:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1913:
1909:
1903:
1876:
1872:
1862:
1837:
1829:
1804:
1796:
1777:
1772:
1748:
1741:
1714:
1710:
1655:
1651:
1615:
1571:
1567:
1557:
1530:
1486:
1465:. Retrieved
1461:
1452:
1441:. Retrieved
1411:
1407:
1397:
1388:
1379:
1304:Female sperm
1274:
1270:
1262:
1252:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1216:
1208:
1202:
1182:
1151:
1128:combine. In
1116:
1104:
1096:gamontogamy.
1085:
1068:
1037:
987:
974:
970:adding to it
965:
944:
925:
922:gastrulation
909:
907:
880:
858:
827:
811:mitochondria
776:
761:
752:progesterone
735:
724:
698:
686:
679:
660:
655:
649:
632:
601:
578:
549:
546:out-crossing
539:
533:
523:
519:
508:
485:
478:
471:
469:
432:
427:in a female
414:
402:
386:
370:
368:
333:
324:central cell
272:gametophytes
268:
220:
192:
181:
164:polar nuclei
140:insemination
128:impregnation
127:
123:
119:
111:
107:
106:
96:
75:
46:
37:This is the
31:
4661:Pollination
4610:Dyspareunia
4605:Dysorgasmia
4551:Development
4025:Neurulation
3950:Archenteron
3942:Germ layers
3892:Trophoblast
3370:Trophic egg
3355:Matrotrophy
2860:(1): 2210.
2649:January 27,
2570:(1): 2210.
1574:(1): 3–12.
1330:Pollination
1289:Cell fusion
1221:Gynogenesis
1126:chromosomes
1090:gametogamy;
1002:Hymenoptera
998:damselflies
994:dragonflies
748:chemotactic
732:capacitated
638:Sea urchins
550:A. thaliana
526:pollinators
510:Outcrossing
501:Cleistogamy
429:gametophyte
417:angiosperms
387:Arabidopsis
372:Arabidopsis
336:pollen tube
308:pollen tube
296:pollination
288:seed plants
284:archegonium
255:archegonium
201:observed a
195:Spallanzani
156:angiosperms
144:pollination
18:Fecundation
4645:Categories
4630:Vaginismus
4600:Anorgasmia
4454:Adrenarche
4449:Spermarche
4429:Gonadarche
4081:Somitomere
3968:Blastopore
3932:Trilaminar
3882:Blastocyst
3877:Blastocoel
3872:Cavitation
3862:Blastomere
3698:Copulation
3419:Biological
3248:Viviparity
2625:2023-01-14
1443:2023-01-14
1371:References
1365:Polyspermy
1340:Pronucleus
1335:Pre-embryo
1158:centrosome
1154:centrioles
1052:dikaryotic
1048:plasmogamy
1000:) and the
910:conception
838:blastocyst
708:ejaculates
704:copulation
663:jelly coat
652:chemotaxis
624:viviparous
587:Chemotaxis
569:See also:
499:See also:
481:watermelon
433:fertilises
304:germinates
276:bryophytes
231:eukaryotes
211:sea urchin
188:epigenetic
166:to form a
68:Fertilizer
4656:Fertility
4556:Lactation
4546:Thelarche
4523:Andrology
4470:Menopause
4367:Pregnancy
4357:Fertility
4312:Erection
4268:Germ cell
4241:Oogenesis
4229:spermatid
4191:Ovulation
3914:Hypoblast
3905:Bilaminar
3753:Mechanics
3730:Sexuality
3625:Oogenesis
3600:Sex organ
3590:Germ cell
3578:Anisogamy
3243:Oviparity
2059:1307.4118
1959:: 47–79.
1910:Evolution
1873:Evolution
1249:Heterosis
1093:autogamy;
1064:karyogamy
927:conceptus
908:The term
846:pregnancy
819:activates
807:flagellum
803:centriole
799:centriole
612:Oviparous
554:mutations
453:endosperm
316:micropyle
261:has been
251:bryophyte
217:Evolution
193:In 1784,
184:Aristotle
172:endosperm
150:. During
4493:Vivipary
4463: /
4444:Menarche
4439:Pubarche
4321:Clitoral
4273:gonocyte
4246:oogonium
4176:Menarche
4071:Paraxial
4058:Mesoderm
4040:Endoderm
4002:Ectoderm
3980:Gastrula
3919:Epiblast
3857:Cleavage
3785:Category
3763:Activity
3659:Internal
3654:External
3543:Intersex
3173:14542950
3165:16856849
3130:57556547
3105:21993502
3056:19955975
3048:23796636
2986:15103378
2942:33964210
2892:29880810
2834:31632960
2602:29880810
2465:19997608
2425:PLOS ONE
2406:22094855
2398:16672171
2359:27875265
2318:29077897
2277:16272225
2180:45853624
2172:17656687
2115:Heredity
2096:24068948
2027:23595268
1930:16817548
1895:12683519
1682:24451849
1658:: 3129.
1598:19139151
1568:Genetics
1513:89731001
1467:July 10,
1438:34459848
1283:See also
1245:Allogamy
1204:Allogamy
1044:chytrids
1042:(except
1038:In many
1018:honeybee
918:abortion
842:implants
728:oviducts
720:ovulates
628:amplexus
616:chickens
604:internal
505:Autogamy
457:nutrient
445:triploid
306:, and a
170:primary
168:triploid
43:reviewed
4528:Hormone
4424:Puberty
3928:Week 3
3901:Week 2
3610:Meiosis
3583:Isogamy
3360:Oophagy
3319:mammals
3096:3282369
2994:4353479
2966:Bibcode
2933:8162515
2883:5992222
2862:Bibcode
2825:6781795
2808:: 188.
2593:5992222
2572:Bibcode
2536:3759713
2500:3018025
2456:2782141
2433:Bibcode
2152:Bibcode
2144:Science
2087:3772084
2064:Bibcode
2018:3652455
1973:3755371
1733:7634328
1660:Bibcode
1589:2621177
1429:8406655
1134:zygotes
1118:Meiosis
1071:chytrid
990:Odonata
935:Insects
850:uterine
830:diploid
795:nucleus
738:of the
736:ampulla
700:Mammals
695:Mammals
449:mitosis
437:diploid
409:enzymes
358:in vivo
257:. This
249:In the
235:meiosis
203:therian
178:History
160:haploid
132:gametes
124:syngamy
81:Concept
4584:Female
4538:Breast
4341:Female
4328:Orgasm
4316:Penile
4278:gamete
4251:oocyte
4076:Somite
3867:Morula
3852:Zygote
3835:Week 1
3632:Gamete
3605:Mating
3563:Sexual
3438:Female
3314:humans
3171:
3163:
3128:
3103:
3093:
3054:
3046:
2992:
2984:
2958:Nature
2940:
2930:
2890:
2880:
2832:
2822:
2754:
2735:. FAO.
2699:
2674:
2600:
2590:
2544:853558
2542:
2534:
2498:
2463:
2453:
2404:
2396:
2357:
2316:
2275:
2232:
2205:
2178:
2170:
2094:
2084:
2025:
2015:
1971:
1936:
1928:
1893:
1850:
1817:
1784:
1760:
1731:
1680:
1622:
1596:
1586:
1545:
1511:
1501:
1436:
1426:
1414:(10).
1130:humans
1122:gamete
1060:hyphae
1022:drones
1012:, and
895:zygote
863:Humans
834:zygote
716:uterus
712:cervix
461:tissue
459:-rich
441:zygote
340:stigma
302:grain
300:pollen
298:, the
292:pollen
286:. In
158:, the
136:zygote
4256:ootid
4234:sperm
3421:terms
3304:birds
3235:Modes
3192:video
3169:S2CID
3052:S2CID
2990:S2CID
2540:S2CID
2402:S2CID
2197:[
2176:S2CID
2054:arXiv
1969:S2CID
1938:40964
1934:S2CID
1509:S2CID
1162:aster
1040:fungi
1014:wasps
887:sperm
671:actin
581:sperm
439:(2n)
425:cells
421:sperm
405:fruit
344:ovule
312:ovule
114:(see
4579:Male
4488:Ovum
4336:Male
4261:ovum
3642:ovum
3433:Male
3161:PMID
3126:OCLC
3101:PMID
3044:PMID
2982:PMID
2938:PMID
2912:Cell
2888:PMID
2830:PMID
2752:ISBN
2697:ISBN
2672:ISBN
2651:2019
2598:PMID
2532:PMID
2496:PMID
2461:PMID
2394:PMID
2355:PMID
2314:PMID
2273:PMID
2230:ISBN
2203:ISBN
2168:PMID
2092:PMID
2023:PMID
1926:PMID
1891:PMID
1848:ISBN
1815:ISBN
1782:ISBN
1758:ISBN
1729:PMID
1711:Cell
1678:PMID
1620:ISBN
1594:PMID
1543:ISBN
1499:ISBN
1469:2018
1434:PMID
1247:and
1010:bees
1006:ants
996:and
885:and
823:Zinc
762:The
622:and
573:and
503:and
465:seed
455:, a
278:and
259:moss
126:and
4480:Egg
4158:of
3412:Sex
3153:doi
3091:PMC
3083:doi
3079:279
3036:doi
3032:140
2974:doi
2962:428
2928:PMC
2920:doi
2916:184
2878:PMC
2870:doi
2820:PMC
2810:doi
2588:PMC
2580:doi
2524:doi
2488:doi
2451:PMC
2441:doi
2386:doi
2382:252
2345:doi
2341:232
2304:doi
2263:doi
2160:doi
2148:317
2123:doi
2082:PMC
2072:doi
2013:PMC
2005:doi
2001:280
1961:doi
1918:doi
1881:doi
1719:doi
1668:doi
1584:PMC
1576:doi
1572:181
1535:doi
1491:doi
1424:PMC
1416:doi
1412:220
1279:).
1193:ova
1069:In
1054:or
972:.
883:egg
815:CD9
768:ZP3
606:or
382:GFP
154:in
142:or
110:or
45:on
4647::
4355:/
3482:ZO
3477:XO
3472:ZW
3467:XY
3167:.
3159:.
3149:34
3147:.
3099:.
3089:.
3077:.
3073:.
3050:.
3042:.
3030:.
3005:.
2988:.
2980:.
2972:.
2960:.
2936:.
2926:.
2914:.
2910:.
2886:.
2876:.
2868:.
2856:.
2852:.
2828:.
2818:.
2804:.
2800:.
2642:.
2618:.
2596:.
2586:.
2578:.
2566:.
2562:.
2538:.
2530:.
2520:63
2518:.
2494:.
2484:63
2482:.
2459:.
2449:.
2439:.
2427:.
2423:.
2400:.
2392:.
2380:.
2376:.
2353:.
2339:.
2335:.
2312:.
2300:24
2298:.
2294:.
2271:.
2259:12
2257:.
2253:.
2174:.
2166:.
2158:.
2146:.
2119:62
2117:.
2113:.
2090:.
2080:.
2070:.
2062:.
2048:.
2044:.
2021:.
2011:.
1999:.
1995:.
1981:^
1967:.
1957:36
1955:.
1932:.
1924:.
1914:60
1912:.
1889:.
1877:57
1875:.
1871:.
1846:.
1844:12
1813:.
1811:93
1756:.
1754:95
1727:.
1715:82
1713:.
1709:.
1690:^
1676:.
1666:.
1654:.
1650:.
1634:^
1606:^
1592:.
1582:.
1570:.
1566:.
1541:.
1521:^
1507:.
1497:.
1477:^
1460:.
1432:.
1422:.
1410:.
1406:.
1387:.
1257:.
1008:,
691:.
677:.
213:.
190:.
122:,
41:,
4148:e
4141:t
4134:v
3966:/
3952:/
3934:)
3930:(
3907:)
3903:(
3819:e
3812:t
3805:v
3404:e
3397:t
3390:v
3219:e
3212:t
3205:v
3175:.
3155::
3132:.
3107:.
3085::
3058:.
3038::
2996:.
2976::
2968::
2944:.
2922::
2894:.
2872::
2864::
2858:9
2836:.
2812::
2806:7
2785:.
2760:.
2705:.
2680:.
2653:.
2628:.
2604:.
2582::
2574::
2568:9
2546:.
2526::
2502:.
2490::
2467:.
2443::
2435::
2429:4
2408:.
2388::
2361:.
2347::
2320:.
2306::
2279:.
2265::
2238:.
2211:.
2182:.
2162::
2154::
2131:.
2125::
2098:.
2074::
2066::
2056::
2050:9
2029:.
2007::
1975:.
1963::
1940:.
1920::
1897:.
1883::
1856:.
1823:.
1790:.
1766:.
1735:.
1721::
1684:.
1670::
1662::
1656:5
1628:.
1600:.
1578::
1551:.
1537::
1515:.
1493::
1471:.
1446:.
1418::
1391:.
1004:(
992:(
979:)
975:(
94:.
87:.
70:.
49:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
