1775:
770:
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1240:
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1599:
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1761:
47:
55:
363:
692:
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292:
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231:; and instruments were developed to measure the Earth's shape, density and gravity field, as well as the components of the water cycle. In the 20th century, geophysical methods were developed for remote exploration of the solid Earth and the ocean, and geophysics played an essential role in the development of the theory of plate tectonics.
1648:
in 132 AD. This instrument was designed to drop a bronze ball from the mouth of a dragon into the mouth of a toad. By looking at which of eight toads had the ball, one could determine the direction of the earthquake. It was 1571 years before the first design for a seismoscope was published in Europe,
1547:
location. Signal processing involves the correction of time-series data for unwanted noise or errors introduced by the measurement platform, such as aircraft vibrations in gravity data. It also involves the reduction of sources of noise, such as diurnal corrections in magnetic data. In seismic data,
1358:
map variations in Earth's gravity field by making measurements of the distance between the two satellites using GPS and a microwave ranging system. Gravity variations detected by GRACE include those caused by changes in ocean currents; runoff and ground water depletion; melting ice sheets and
1516:
methods in order to gather the data. The remote sensing platforms used in exploration geophysics are not perfect and need adjustments done on them in order to accurately account for the effects that the platform itself may have on the collected data. For example, when gathering
449:
1185:
The seismic model of the Earth does not by itself determine the composition of the layers. For a complete model of the Earth, mineral physics is needed to interpret seismic velocities in terms of composition. The mineral properties are temperature-dependent, so the
1617:
as for navigation on land. It was not until good steel needles could be forged that compasses were used for navigation at sea; before that, they could not retain their magnetism long enough to be useful. The first mention of a compass in Europe was in 1190 AD.
1428:
Since geophysics is concerned with the shape of the Earth, and by extension the mapping of features around and in the planet, geophysical measurements include high accuracy GPS measurements. These measurements are processed to increase their accuracy through
1317:, combines astronomical coordinates and the local gravity vector to get geodetic coordinates. This method only provides the position in two coordinates and is more difficult to use than GPS. However, it is useful for measuring motions of the Earth such as
1467:
is a branch of applied geophysics that involves the development and utilization of different seismic or electromagnetic methods which the aim of investigating different energy, mineral and water resources. This is done through the uses of various
315:
The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun gives rise to two high tides and two low tides every lunar day, or every 24 hours and 50 minutes. Therefore, there is a gap of 12 hours and 25 minutes between every high tide and between every low tide.
475:. If the waves come from a localized source such as an earthquake or explosion, measurements at more than one location can be used to locate the source. The locations of earthquakes provide information on plate tectonics and mantle convection.
486:
can provide a wealth of information on the structure of the earth up to several kilometers deep and are used to increase our understanding of the geology as well as to explore for oil and gas. Changes in the travel direction, called
278:
and how they relate to the Earth and its surroundings. Geophysicists also investigate the physical processes and properties of the Earth, its fluid layers, and magnetic field along with the near-Earth environment in the
1449:
such as the first-vertical derivative. Many geophysics companies have designed in-house geophysics programs that pre-date ArcGIS and GeoSoft in order to meet the visualization requirements of a geophysical dataset.
1337:
deployed either on the surface or in helicopter flyovers. Since the 1960s, the Earth's gravity field has been measured by analyzing the motion of satellites. Sea level can also be measured by satellites using
1146:
in the outer core. This indicates that the outer core is liquid, because liquids cannot support shear. The outer core is liquid, and the motion of this highly conductive fluid generates the Earth's field.
1332:
Gravity measurements became part of geodesy because they were needed to related measurements at the surface of the Earth to the reference coordinate system. Gravity measurements on land can be made using
347:
is one definition of the shape of the Earth. The geoid would be the global mean sea level if the oceans were in equilibrium and could be extended through the continents (such as with very narrow canals).
1521:
data (aircraft gathered magnetic data) using a conventional fixed-wing aircraft- the platform has to be adjusted to account for the electromagnetic currents that it may generate as it passes through
254:
data are used to analyze potential petroleum reservoirs and mineral deposits, locate groundwater, find archaeological relics, determine the thickness of glaciers and soils, and assess sites for
482:
from controlled sources provides information on the region that the waves travel through. If the density or composition of the rock changes, waves are reflected. Reflections recorded using
1135:
for a sphere of constant density). However, some of the density increase is compression under the enormous pressures inside the Earth. The effect of pressure can be calculated using the
2861:
1105:
is combined with the Earth's mass and moment of inertia to infer models of the Earth's interior – its composition, density, temperature, pressure. For example, the Earth's mean
565:
and motion of conducting bodies (such as seawater) across the Earth's permanent magnetic field. The distribution of telluric current density can be used to detect variations in
2091:
1724:
had gained so much success, that it resulted in changing the main objective of physics in that era to unravel natures fundamental forces, and their characterizations in laws.
1139:. The conclusion is that pressure alone cannot account for the increase in density. Instead, we know that the Earth's core is composed of an alloy of iron and other minerals.
1525:. There are also corrections related to changes in measured potential field intensity as the Earth rotates, as the Earth orbits the Sun, and as the moon orbits the Earth.
219:
Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate discipline in the 19th century, its origins date back to ancient times. The first magnetic compasses were made from
6058:
2479:
1286:
Geophysical measurements are generally at a particular time and place. Accurate measurements of position, along with earth deformation and gravity, are the province of
1221:
The mantle acts as a solid for seismic waves, but under high pressures and temperatures, it deforms so that over millions of years it acts like a liquid. This makes
1154:
Reconstruction of seismic reflections in the deep interior indicates some major discontinuities in seismic velocities that demarcate the major zones of the Earth:
6335:
4874:
1692:
1267:, hundreds of Earth radii downstream. Inside the magnetosphere, there are relatively dense regions of solar wind particles called the Van Allen radiation belts.
1043:
shape- which is a result of the centrifugal forces the planet generates due to its constant motion. These forces cause the planets diameter to bulge towards the
4644:
1788:
1299:
5992:
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3913:
684:
and has long been used for navigation. It originates in the fluid motions of the outer core. The magnetic field in the upper atmosphere gives rise to the
3020:
3852:
1683:' when it was pivoted on a horizontal axis. HIs findings led to the deduction that compasses point north due to the Earth itself being a giant magnet.
827:
can be used to map the concentration and distribution of radioisotopes near the Earth's surface, which is useful for mapping lithology and alteration.
719:, contain 184 polarity intervals in the last 83 million years, with change in frequency over time, with the most recent brief complete reversal of the
3235:
5171:
1721:
4996:
1351:
739:) and their signature can be seen as parallel linear magnetic anomaly stripes on the seafloor. These stripes provide quantitative information on
1433:
processing. Once the geophysical measurements have been processed and inverted, the interpreted results are plotted using GIS. Programs such as
1263:
towards the Sun. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles, streams out and around the terrestrial magnetic field, and continues behind the
223:, while more modern magnetic compasses played an important role in the history of navigation. The first seismic instrument was built in 132 AD.
4842:
635:
or the Earth's core. In the core, they probably have little observable effect on the Earth's magnetic field, but slower waves such as magnetic
1774:
623:
In the highly conductive liquid iron of the outer core, magnetic fields are generated by electric currents through electromagnetic induction.
6051:
3832:
3736:
3690:
3628:
3531:
3383:
3220:
3072:
2959:
2297:
128:
and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. Geophysicists, who usually study geophysics,
5997:
3620:
3466:
Pollack, Henry N.; Hurter, Suzanne J.; Johnson, Jeffrey R. (1993). "Heat flow from the Earth's interior: Analysis of the global data set".
463:
are vibrations that travel through the Earth's interior or along its surface. The entire Earth can also oscillate in forms that are called
1794:
2397:
3297:
655:
1586:
in 1834. However, many geophysical phenomena – such as the Earth's magnetic field and earthquakes – have been investigated since the
4637:
4165:
3807:
3782:
3759:
3713:
3605:
3456:
3433:
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3274:
3251:
3100:
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1326:
1290:. While geodesy and geophysics are separate fields, the two are so closely connected that many scientific organizations such as the
1203:
1055:(large ice sheets melting causing the Earth's crust to the rebound due to the release of the pressure), geological features such as
574:
6298:
1552:
which result in the final interpretation of the geophysical data into a geological interpretation of the geophysical measurements
6286:
6044:
999:
of water makes electrical and electromagnetic methods useful for tracking groundwater flow. Physical properties of water such as
3881:
5727:
5445:
5021:
3906:
3086:
1991:
Runcorn, S.K, (editor-in-chief), 1967, International dictionary of geophysics:. Pergamon, Oxford, 2 volumes, 1,728 pp., 730 fig
1179:
883:
and determines the basic circulation patterns of storms. In the ocean, they drive large-scale circulation patterns as well as
6262:
5556:
4790:
3375:
1391:
819:
cover several orders of magnitude, so radioactive decay can be used to accurately date both recent events and events in past
736:
319:
Gravitational forces make rocks press down on deeper rocks, increasing their density as the depth increases. Measurements of
1367:
Satellites in space have made it possible to collect data from not only the visible light region, but in other areas of the
1136:
180:
and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations and pure scientists use a broader definition that includes the
6330:
6144:
3138:
3115:
1309:(GPS). A three-dimensional position is calculated using messages from four or more visible satellites and referred to the
640:
593:
3374:. A new translation by I Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, preceded by "A Guide to Newton's Principia" by I Bernard Cohen.
5164:
4630:
3234:. In Geophysics Study Committee; Geophysics Research Forum; Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Resources;
2926:
711:, but at random intervals averaging 440,000 to a million years or so, the polarity of the Earth's field reverses. These
542:
over most of the Earth and back upwards through thunderstorms. The flow is manifested by lightning below the clouds and
6267:
6165:
5898:
5820:
4989:
4927:
4236:
3541:
Richards, M. A.; Duncan, R. A.; Courtillot, V. E. (1989). "Flood
Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails".
1662:
996:
972:
951:
Water is a very complex substance and its unique properties are essential for life. Its physical properties shape the
769:
274:. To provide a more clear idea on what constitutes geophysics, this section describes phenomena that are studied in
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3212:
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948:
of rocks is affected by temperature and pressure, and in turn, determines the rates at which tectonic plates move.
836:
647:
320:
185:
6111:
5830:
5137:
5016:
4203:
4035:
3967:
3862:
Commission on
Geophysical Risk and Sustainability (GeoRisk), International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)
1918:
1522:
1306:
667:
613:
558:
255:
228:
209:
149:
59:
407:
5632:
4864:
3032:
1549:
1368:
597:
243:
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5305:
5300:
4030:
3110:
1378:
Measuring the changes in acceleration experienced by spacecraft as they orbit has allowed fine details of the
530:
per meter. Relative to the solid Earth, the ionization of the planet's atmosphere is a result of the galactic
3849:
2371:
916:
The physical properties of minerals must be understood to infer the composition of the Earth's interior from
6325:
6067:
5157:
5113:
3987:
3082:
2978:
2229:
1675:') and artificially magnetized iron. His experiments lead to observations involving a small compass needle (
1485:
617:
324:
193:
3861:
6247:
6149:
4982:
4948:
4810:
3824:
3243:
1829:
1626:
1464:
609:
566:
511:
247:
157:
4131:
1679:) which replicated magnetic behaviours when subjected to a spherical magnet, along with it experiencing '
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1811:
1805:
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1387:
976:
868:
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712:
585:
550:
507:
503:
483:
153:
1239:
1159:
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136:
at the graduate level, complete investigations across a wide range of scientific disciplines. The term
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4912:
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3477:
3318:
3177:
2692:
1882:
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925:
899:
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728:
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570:
63:
31:
4610:
3639:
1613:
The magnetic compass existed in China back as far as the fourth century BC. It was used as much for
266:
Geophysics is a highly interdisciplinary subject, and geophysicists contribute to every area of the
6320:
6091:
6086:
5903:
5860:
5694:
5637:
5488:
5480:
5438:
5411:
5034:
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4746:
4741:
4726:
4701:
4678:
4654:
4560:
4524:
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4241:
4193:
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2750:
1705:
1518:
1442:
941:
921:
744:
732:
671:
628:
492:
357:
141:
5120:
3063:. Fragments collected and translated, with commentary and additional material by Duane W. Roller.
1039:
Contrary to popular belief, the earth is not entirely spherical but instead generally exhibits an
6170:
6101:
5772:
5237:
5199:
5194:
5084:
4943:
4820:
4815:
4768:
4514:
4453:
4405:
4331:
4292:
4223:
4198:
4188:
3962:
3576:
3362:
3342:
3195:
2970:
2708:
2680:
2661:
2608:
1900:
1732:
1567:
1441:
were built to meet these needs and include many geophysical functions that are built-in, such as
1211:
1191:
1080:
933:
875:. The rotation of the Earth has profound effects on the Earth's fluid dynamics, often due to the
824:
805:
774:
764:
740:
685:
543:
488:
403:
367:
271:
251:
38:
6175:
1548:
electromagnetic data, and gravity data, processing continues after error corrections to include
864:. The mantle flow drives plate tectonics and the flow in the Earth's core drives the geodynamo.
3231:
1566:
Geophysics emerged as a separate discipline only in the 19th century, from the intersection of
891:
at the ocean surface. In the Earth's core, the circulation of the molten iron is structured by
569:
of underground structures. Geophysicists can also provide the electric current themselves (see
6134:
6002:
5984:
5888:
5855:
4958:
4907:
4852:
4832:
4718:
4504:
4458:
4420:
4107:
4102:
4055:
3828:
3803:
3793:
3778:
3774:
3755:
3732:
3709:
3686:
3660:
3624:
3601:
3568:
3543:
3527:
3506:
3452:
3429:
3402:
3379:
3334:
3309:
3293:
3270:
3247:
3216:
3096:
3068:
3005:
2982:
2955:
2505:
2293:
2169:
1823:
1766:
1760:
1534:
1206:(PREM). Some parts of this model have been updated by recent findings in mineral physics (see
1118:
781:
562:
431:
415:
399:
391:
371:
235:
121:
54:
2405:
1382:
of the planets to be mapped. For example, in the 1970s, the gravity field disturbances above
6231:
6200:
6139:
5915:
5782:
5767:
5644:
5624:
5566:
5470:
5465:
5399:
5325:
5315:
5247:
5232:
4897:
4837:
4763:
4598:
4519:
4489:
4415:
4400:
4310:
4151:
4060:
4050:
3677:
3560:
3497:
Renne, P.R.; Ludwig, K.R.; Karner, D.B. (2000). "Progress and challenges in geochronology".
3485:
3326:
3185:
2742:
2700:
2653:
1890:
1713:
1661:
The 17th century had major milestones that marked the beginning of modern science. In 1600,
1583:
1505:
1430:
1399:
1106:
1068:
704:
651:
601:
554:
419:
306:
300:
75:
2975:
Mathematical geophysics: an introduction to rotating fluids and the Navier-Stokes equations
1496:. These equipment are often used in conjunction with different geophysical methods such as
852:, flows like a fluid over long time intervals. This flow is reflected in phenomena such as
703:, but it changes over time (a phenomenon called geomagnetic secular variation). Mostly the
6252:
5910:
5893:
5850:
5840:
5732:
5320:
5290:
5079:
4917:
4827:
4773:
4673:
4539:
4341:
4315:
4262:
4020:
3982:
3856:
3705:
3523:
3425:
3041:
1717:
1587:
1339:
1322:
1222:
1207:
1167:
1142:
Reconstructions of seismic waves in the deep interior of the Earth show that there are no
1102:
1064:
1048:
984:
911:
876:
708:
336:
328:
239:
169:
117:
46:
2743:
1731:, an instrument capable of keeping a continuous record of seismic activity, was built by
1218:, and the boundaries between layers of the mantle are consistent with phase transitions.
3556:
3481:
3322:
3181:
2696:
1886:
6180:
6025:
5943:
5933:
5797:
5792:
5551:
5541:
5431:
5387:
5295:
5267:
5262:
5257:
4847:
4802:
4780:
4668:
4586:
4534:
4468:
4430:
4425:
4377:
4257:
4025:
4002:
3992:
3972:
3590:
3398:
3289:
1780:
1493:
1469:
1459:
1372:
1314:
1252:
1060:
929:
892:
841:
752:
724:
720:
675:
624:
553:, a potential that arises in the ground because of human-made or natural disturbances.
267:
133:
2534:
1259:
mapped out the gross dimensions of the Earth's magnetic field, which extends about 10
1085:
6314:
5953:
5883:
5835:
5802:
5674:
5664:
5654:
5614:
5609:
5310:
5272:
5005:
4565:
4346:
4282:
4231:
4040:
3751:
3597:
3418:
3199:
2712:
2681:"Common roots of modern seismology and of earth tide research. A historical overview"
2665:
2404:. Department of Agriculture and Food, Government of Western Australia. Archived from
1839:
1407:
1379:
1234:
1199:
888:
820:
809:
785:
695:
Earth's dipole axis (pink line) is tilted away from the rotational axis (blue line).
632:
523:
423:
395:
375:
205:
145:
3346:
2948:
Earthquake
Engineering: From Engineering Seismology to Performance-Based Engineering
1982:
Gutenberg, B., 1929, Lehrbuch der
Geophysik. Leipzig. Berlin (Gebruder Borntraeger).
1904:
1802: – Scientific study of the Earth's spheres and their natural integrated systems
534:
penetrating it, which leaves it with a net positive charge. A current of about 1800
50:
Age of the sea floor. Much of the dating information comes from magnetic anomalies.
6257:
6007:
5958:
5948:
5938:
5878:
5659:
5513:
5503:
5089:
5074:
4882:
4581:
4448:
4372:
4305:
4300:
4267:
4213:
4065:
3580:
3232:"Telluric currents: the natural environment and interactions with man-made systems"
1869:
Müller, R. Dietmar; Sdrolias, Maria; Gaina, Carmen; Roest, Walter R. (April 2008).
1687:
1680:
1622:
1411:
1403:
1395:
1255:
is strong enough, its interaction with the solar wind forms a magnetosphere. Early
980:
884:
880:
861:
479:
468:
464:
460:
453:
362:
340:
280:
224:
3818:
2138:
1671:(1600) where he conducted series of experiments on both natural magnets (called
1598:
327:
at the Earth's surface and above it can be used to look for mineral deposits (see
3564:
3330:
2806:
452:
Illustration of the deformations of a block by body waves and surface waves (see
6096:
5755:
5561:
5498:
5361:
5225:
5215:
5094:
5069:
4529:
4395:
4351:
4336:
3957:
3656:
2738:
1844:
1817:
1728:
1709:
1641:
1540:
1383:
1334:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1163:
1117:), implying that the deeper material is denser. This is also implied by its low
992:
988:
964:
956:
952:
872:
636:
531:
502:. Understanding their mechanisms, which depend on the type of earthquake (e.g.,
499:
472:
411:
181:
165:
3146:
815:
Unstable isotopes decay at predictable rates, and the decay rates of different
526:, there is always a downward electric field near the surface that averages 120
5845:
5787:
5589:
5508:
5252:
5059:
4892:
4509:
4484:
4463:
4367:
4272:
3997:
3286:
The
Magnetic Field of the Earth: Paleomagnetism, the Core, and the Deep Mantle
2704:
2657:
1870:
1742:
1667:
1645:
1607:
1603:
1509:
1501:
1446:
1244:
1202:. The main model for the radial structure of the interior of the Earth is the
1195:
1098:
1023:
1007:
968:
917:
681:
539:
443:
332:
310:
201:
189:
3307:
Muller, Paul; Sjogren, William (1968). "Mascons: lunar mass concentrations".
2930:
6205:
5777:
5722:
5707:
5679:
5649:
5576:
5518:
5346:
5242:
5064:
4753:
4622:
4555:
4410:
4277:
2951:
2504:
US Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
1697:
1676:
1672:
1634:
1614:
1575:
1513:
1497:
1473:
1371:. The planets can be characterized by their force fields: gravity and their
1355:
1215:
1040:
1011:
945:
849:
793:
605:
387:
383:
220:
197:
177:
3572:
3510:
3338:
1418:
Global positioning systems (GPS) and geographical information systems (GIS)
1113:) is far higher than the typical specific gravity of rocks at the surface (
691:
549:
A variety of electric methods are used in geophysical survey. Some measure
394:. The main sources of heat are: primordial heat due to Earth's cooling and
335:). The surface gravitational field provides information on the dynamics of
291:
6036:
3850:
A reference manual for near-surface geophysics techniques and applications
3615:
Sadava, David; Heller, H. Craig; Hillis, David M.; Berenbaum, May (2009).
1871:"Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world's ocean crust"
3871:
3190:
3163:
1895:
1696:
which was pivotal in the development of modern scientific fields such as
1630:
1489:
1477:
1318:
1187:
1056:
1000:
944:
make flow possible, although over short times the rocks are brittle. The
937:
853:
789:
596:
is believed to be caused by high-energy electrons that get caught in the
3284:
Merrill, Ronald T.; McElhinny, Michael W.; McFadden, Phillip L. (1998).
1051:. Earth's shape is constantly changing, and different factors including
5870:
5747:
5717:
5533:
5523:
5366:
5351:
5180:
5049:
5044:
4387:
4174:
4086:
2139:"Seismic wave | Earth's Interior Structure & Movement | Britannica"
1849:
1834:
1701:
1640:
Perhaps the earliest contribution to seismology was the invention of a
1571:
1438:
1287:
1281:
1143:
1044:
1019:
1015:
960:
816:
801:
797:
510:), can lead to better estimates of earthquake risk and improvements in
295:
A map of deviations in gravity from a perfectly smooth, idealized Earth
275:
129:
17:
3489:
3046:(Technical report). National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. TR 80-003
788:, powering the geodynamo and plate tectonics. The main heat-producing
5737:
5604:
5584:
4857:
2842:(Winter 2008 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1434:
1310:
848:, ocean, mantle and core. Even the mantle, though it has an enormous
700:
646:
Electromagnetic methods that are used for geophysical survey include
535:
3723:
Telford, William Murray; Geldart, L. P.; Sheriff, Robert E. (1990).
2891:
898:
Waves and other phenomena in the magnetosphere can be modeled using
3121:
1712:, as well as explained different geophysical phenomena such as the
1325:. Relative positions of two or more points can be determined using
448:
5925:
5702:
5684:
5669:
5454:
2290:
Electromagnetic seabed logging : a new tool for geoscientists
1597:
1343:
1238:
1090:
1084:
768:
690:
447:
398:
in the planets upper crust. There is also some contributions from
361:
344:
290:
173:
161:
125:
53:
45:
1925:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 29 December 2003
5974:
5594:
5330:
4974:
4070:
3640:"Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core"
1481:
1347:
879:. In the atmosphere, it gives rise to large-scale patterns like
808:, the primary method for establishing an absolute time scale in
527:
213:
6040:
5427:
5153:
4978:
4626:
4147:
3895:
3702:
An introduction to seismology, earthquakes, and earth structure
3354:
National
Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Geodesy (1985).
924:
and other sources of information. Mineral physicists study the
471:. Ground motions from waves or normal modes are measured using
2000:
Geophysics, 1970, Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Vol.10, p. 202-202
1423:
680:
The Earth's magnetic field protects the Earth from the deadly
84:
3891:
2977:. Oxford lecture series in mathematics and its applications.
2910:
3866:
3657:"Cloud Physics: Collision/Coalescence; The Bergeron Process"
3372:
The
Principia, Mathematical principles of natural philosophy
1625:
of Cyrene deduced that the Earth was round and measured the
1578:, meteorology, and physics. The first known use of the word
1305:
Absolute positions are most frequently determined using the
940:
of rocks, or their ability to flow. Deformation of rocks by
3876:
2535:
National
Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Geodesy 1985
2440:
1814: – Topics in the physics of the Earth and its vicinity
1190:
must also be determined. This requires physical theory for
87:
5149:
4143:
1375:, which are studied through geophysics and space physics.
81:
1089:
Seismic velocities and boundaries in the interior of the
102:
96:
5423:
2276:
1390:, which led to the discovery of concentrations of mass,
588:
occur in the ionosphere and magnetosphere as well as in
538:
flows in the global circuit. It flows downward from the
140:
classically refers to solid earth applications: Earth's
3867:
Study of the Earth's Deep Interior, a Committee of IUGG
3520:
An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics
3447:. Cambridge Topics in Mineral Physics & Chemistry.
3207:
Kivelson, Margaret G.; Russell, Christopher T. (1995).
2836:"Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica"
2168:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
406:, although there are two thermal boundary layers – the
3886:
2545:
1151:, however, is solid because of the enormous pressure.
3164:"Ion-aerosol-cloud processes in the lower atmosphere"
3088:
The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics
2052:
227:
applied his theory of mechanics to the tides and the
108:
105:
99:
93:
78:
2126:
751:
to construct geologic time scales. In addition, the
557:
flow in Earth and the oceans. They have two causes:
6240:
6219:
6193:
6158:
6127:
6120:
6074:
5983:
5967:
5924:
5869:
5811:
5746:
5693:
5623:
5575:
5532:
5479:
5339:
5281:
5208:
5187:
4936:
4873:
4801:
4717:
4689:
4661:
4548:
4477:
4439:
4386:
4360:
4324:
4291:
4250:
4222:
4181:
4079:
4011:
3950:
3929:
3445:
Introduction to the Physics of the Earth's Interior
3230:Lanzerotti, Louis J.; Gregori, Giovanni P. (1986).
2998:
Dynamic Earth: Plates, Plumes and Mantle Convection
1606:'s seismoscope, possibly the first contribution to
743:, a part of plate tectonics. They are the basis of
270:, while some geophysicists conduct research in the
90:
3792:Turcotte, Donald Lawson; Schubert, Gerald (2002).
3676:
3589:
3417:
991:, and groundwater flow includes phenomena such as
3683:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics
3288:. International Geophysics Series. Vol. 63.
2359:
2256:
1003:have a large effect on its motion in the oceans.
755:can be used to measure the motion of continents.
747:, which correlates magnetic reversals with other
418:. Some heat is carried up from the bottom of the
386:generates the Earth's magnetic field through the
234:Geophysics is applied to societal needs, such as
3111:"GRACE: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment"
3025:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
2337:
2202:
1826: – Science of planets and planetary systems
867:Geophysical fluid dynamics is a primary tool in
823:. Radiometric mapping using ground and airborne
616:waves may also be generated by earthquakes (see
426:. The heat flow at the Earth's surface is about
2946:Bozorgnia, Yousef; Bertero, Vitelmo V. (2004).
2315:
2216:
1629:with great precision. He developed a system of
1539:Geophysical measurements are often recorded as
1178:layer. Between the crust and the mantle is the
975:involve a complex mixture of processes such as
2644:Schröder, W. (2010). "History of geophysics".
2326:
2191:
1704:. In it, Newton both laid the foundations for
1022:, freshwater ice, snow, and frozen ground (or
6052:
5439:
5165:
4990:
4638:
4159:
3907:
2578:
1942:
1940:
1789:International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
1300:International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
522:Although we mainly notice electricity during
212:; and analogous problems associated with the
8:
3393:Opdyke, Neil D.; Channell, James T. (1996).
3139:"Web resources in the history of geophysics"
3021:"The Early History of Seismometry (to 1900)"
2763:
2632:
928:properties of minerals; their high-pressure
2789:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2425:
2423:
2311:
2309:
2212:
2210:
1716:(the orbit of whole star patterns along an
699:The Earth's field is roughly like a tilted
402:. Heat is mostly carried to the surface by
6124:
6059:
6045:
6037:
5446:
5432:
5424:
5172:
5158:
5150:
4997:
4983:
4975:
4645:
4631:
4623:
4166:
4152:
4144:
3914:
3900:
3892:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
773:Example of a radioactive decay chain (see
120:concerned with the physical processes and
3189:
3137:Hardy, Shaun J.; Goodman, Roy E. (2005).
2860:Institute of Physics (18 February 2024).
2064:
2062:
2060:
1894:
1445:, and the calculation of the measurement
963:. Its thermodynamic properties determine
283:, which includes other planetary bodies.
3700:Stein, Seth; Wysession, Michael (2003).
3685:(3rd ed.). Society of Exploration.
3162:Harrison, R. G.; Carslaw, K. S. (2003).
2785:
2783:
2596:
2451:
2429:
2378:. Commonwealth of Australia. 15 May 2014
2187:
2185:
1243:Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The
1170:. The mantle itself is divided into the
1071:can further distort the planet's shape.
382:The Earth is cooling, and the resulting
2969:Chemin, Jean-Yves; Desjardins, Benoit;
2840:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2646:Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica Hungarica
2506:"What is glacial isostatic adjustment?"
2348:
2028:
1946:
1861:
1352:Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
62:in a period of normal polarity between
4843:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
2829:
2827:
2801:
2799:
2797:
2774:
2725:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2277:Merrill, McElhinny & McFadden 1998
2115:
2079:
2068:
1956:
1954:
1820: – Study of dynamics of the Earth
784:accounts for about 80% of the Earth's
723:occurring 41,000 years ago during the
6336:Applied and interdisciplinary physics
2556:
2474:
2472:
2470:
561:by the time-varying, external-origin
27:Physics of the Earth and its vicinity
7:
6293:
5998:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
5406:
5132:
4126:
3887:Society of Exploration Geophysicists
3638:Sanders, Robert (10 December 2003).
3019:Dewey, James; Byerly, Perry (1969).
2009:
1960:
1875:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1174:, transition zone, lower mantle and
804:. Radioactive elements are used for
658:and electromagnetic seabed logging.
4605:
2567:
2462:
2053:Telford, Geldart & Sheriff 1990
1971:
1919:"Earth's Inconstant Magnetic Field"
1214:. The mantle is mainly composed of
3240:The Earth's electrical environment
2127:Pollack, Hurter & Johnson 1993
1342:, contributing to a more accurate
987:. Some precipitated water becomes
656:surface nuclear magnetic resonance
430:, and it is a potential source of
414:– in which heat is transported by
25:
1795:Sociedade Brasileira de Geofísica
1327:very-long-baseline interferometry
1204:preliminary reference Earth model
955:and are an essential part of the
575:electrical resistivity tomography
6292:
6281:
6280:
6021:
6020:
5405:
5394:
5393:
5381:
5131:
5119:
5108:
5107:
4604:
4593:
4592:
4580:
4212:
4125:
4114:
4113:
4101:
3040:Defense Mapping Agency (1984) .
1773:
1759:
1745:
1101:, heat flow at the surface, and
1006:The many phases of ice form the
967:and the thermal gradient in the
168:and their surface expression in
74:
5728:Human impact on the environment
4964:Timeline of physics discoveries
3882:Career crate: Seismic processor
2360:Renne, Ludwig & Karner 2000
1582:was in German ("Geophysik") by
733:magnetostratigraphy correlation
717:Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale
5557:Climate variability and change
3376:University of California Press
1311:1980 Geodetic Reference System
737:natural remanent magnetization
469:free oscillations of the Earth
1:
5993:Evolution of the Solar System
3356:Geodesy: a look to the future
3209:Introduction to Space Physics
3116:University of Texas at Austin
2927:"AGUs Cryosphere Focus Group"
2862:"Precession of the equinoxes"
2838:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
2613:Jackson School of Geosciences
2257:Lanzerotti & Gregori 1986
2230:"Earth's electric atmosphere"
1665:release a publication titled
1198:and the heat contribution of
729:geomagnetic reversal recorded
641:geomagnetic secular variation
5733:Evolutionary history of life
3617:Life: The Science of Biology
3592:Introduction to Oceanography
3565:10.1126/science.246.4926.103
3331:10.1126/science.161.3842.680
3031:(1): 183–227. Archived from
2996:Davies, Geoffrey F. (2001).
2973:; Grenier, Emmanuel (2006).
2749:. Berlin: Springer. p.
2338:Turcotte & Schubert 2002
2203:Bozorgnia & Bertero 2004
1808: – Famous geophysicists
1657:Beginnings of modern science
844:occur in the magnetosphere,
390:and plate tectonics through
6268:Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
6166:Upper-atmospheric lightning
5326:Precession of the equinoxes
4928:Quantum information science
4237:Geological history of Earth
4061:Precession of the equinoxes
3675:Sheriff, Robert E. (1991).
3443:Poirier, Jean-Paul (2000).
2546:Defense Mapping Agency 1984
2402:Natural Resource Management
2398:"Interpreting radiometrics"
2316:Kivelson & Russell 1995
2228:Nicoll, Keri (April 2016).
2217:Harrison & Carslaw 2003
1363:Satellites and space probes
731:in volcanic rocks, through
493:deep structure of the Earth
491:, can be used to infer the
374:. The thin red columns are
58:Computer simulation of the
6352:
4759:Classical electromagnetism
4210:
3978:Geophysical fluid dynamics
3800:Cambridge University Press
3729:Cambridge University Press
3518:Reynolds, John M. (2011).
3449:Cambridge University Press
3420:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
3267:Cambridge University Press
3263:Fundamentals of Geophysics
3213:Cambridge University Press
3143:American Geophysical Union
3093:Cambridge University Press
3065:Princeton University Press
3002:Cambridge University Press
2888:American Geophysical Union
2327:Opdyke & Channell 1996
2288:Stéphane, Sainson (2017).
2192:Stein & Wysession 2003
2166:Introduction to seismology
2164:Shearer, Peter M. (2009).
1722:Newton's theory of gravity
1690:published his work titled
1594:Ancient and classical eras
1559:
1532:
1457:
1421:
1354:(GRACE), wherein two twin
1296:Canadian Geophysical Union
1292:American Geophysical Union
1279:
1247:flows from left to right.
1232:
1078:
1035:Size and form of the Earth
936:at high pressure; and the
909:
837:Geophysical fluid dynamics
834:
762:
665:
648:transient electromagnetics
612:may be generated by both.
441:
355:
321:gravitational acceleration
304:
298:
36:
29:
6276:
6016:
5461:
5375:
5103:
5030:
5012:
4574:
4251:Composition and structure
4204:Index of geology articles
4095:
3877:USGS Geomagnetism Program
3416:Pedlosky, Joseph (1987).
3236:National Research Council
3118:Center for Space Research
3061:Eratosthenes' "Geography"
2705:10.1016/j.jog.2009.09.032
2658:10.1556/AGeod.45.2010.2.9
2579:Muller & Sjogren 1968
1714:precession of the equinox
1644:by the prolific inventor
1307:global positioning system
1180:Mohorovičić discontinuity
1137:Adams–Williamson equation
1093:sampled by seismic waves
1075:Structure of the interior
1053:glacial isostatic rebound
559:electromagnetic induction
256:environmental remediation
229:precession of the equinox
210:solar-terrestrial physics
6003:Location in the Universe
5934:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
5633:List of sovereign states
4865:Condensed matter physics
3872:Union Commissions (IUGG)
3855:18 February 2021 at the
3817:Verhoogen, John (1980).
3261:Lowrie, William (2004).
2807:"Review of "De Magnete""
2745:The Forgotten Revolution
2633:Hardy & Goodman 2005
1550:computational geophysics
1369:electromagnetic spectrum
598:Van Allen radiation belt
244:environmental protection
184:including snow and ice;
37:Not to be confused with
6068:Atmospheric electricity
3988:Near-surface geophysics
3820:Energetics of the Earth
3746:Temple, Robert (2006).
3655:Sirvatka, Paul (2003).
2979:Oxford University Press
2790:Dewey & Byerly 1969
1651:Jean de la Hautefeuille
1010:and come in forms like
618:seismo-electromagnetics
325:gravitational potential
6248:Georg Wilhelm Richmann
6227:Electrodynamic tethers
6112:Earth's magnetic field
4949:Nobel Prize in Physics
4811:Relativistic mechanics
4036:Earth's magnetic field
3825:National Academy Press
3370:Newton, Isaac (1999).
3244:National Academy Press
3120:. 2011. Archived from
3043:Geodesy for the Layman
2929:. 2011. Archived from
2834:Smith, George (2008),
2685:Journal of Geodynamics
2092:"What is "Heat Flow"?"
1830:Geological Engineering
1653:. It was never built.
1627:circumference of Earth
1610:
1523:Earth's magnetic field
1492:sensing equipment and
1465:Exploration geophysics
1386:were measured through
1248:
1210:) and supplemented by
1094:
938:rheological properties
778:
753:magnetization in rocks
727:. Geologists observed
696:
668:Earth's magnetic field
567:electrical resistivity
512:earthquake engineering
457:
379:
296:
248:exploration geophysics
188:of the oceans and the
154:electromagnetic fields
66:
60:Earth's magnetic field
51:
6211:Equatorial electrojet
6107:Atmospheric chemistry
5713:Biogeochemical cycles
5638:dependent territories
5306:Earth's gravity field
5301:Earth's energy budget
5040:Environmental science
4954:Philosophy of physics
4500:Environmental geology
4108:Geophysics portal
4031:Earth's energy budget
3469:Reviews of Geophysics
3395:Magnetic Stratigraphy
3169:Reviews of Geophysics
3059:Eratosthenes (2010).
2510:oceanservice.noaa.gov
2484:oceanservice.noaa.gov
2480:"Is the Earth round?"
1812:Outline of geophysics
1806:List of geophysicists
1753:Earth sciences portal
1601:
1562:History of geophysics
1422:Further information:
1242:
1088:
932:, melting points and
869:physical oceanography
772:
763:Further information:
713:geomagnetic reversals
694:
666:Further information:
639:may be one source of
586:Electromagnetic waves
581:Electromagnetic waves
551:spontaneous potential
484:Reflection Seismology
451:
365:
305:Further information:
294:
57:
49:
30:For the journal, see
6331:Subfields of geology
6097:Atmospheric dynamics
5761:Computer cartography
5494:Prebiotic atmosphere
5221:Computer cartography
4913:Mathematical physics
4459:Planetary geophysics
3246:. pp. 232–258.
3191:10.1029/2002RG000114
3035:on 23 November 2011.
2609:"Energy Geosciences"
2376:Geoscience Australia
1896:10.1029/2007GC001743
1800:Earth system science
1200:radioactive elements
1030:Regions of the Earth
971:. The many types of
900:magnetohydrodynamics
858:post-glacial rebound
715:, analyzed within a
571:induced polarization
408:core–mantle boundary
172:, the generation of
32:Geophysics (journal)
6092:Atmospheric physics
6087:Atmospheric science
5904:Geologic time scale
5625:Culture and society
5489:Atmosphere of Earth
5340:Related disciplines
5035:Atmospheric science
4888:Atmospheric physics
4727:Classical mechanics
4655:branches of physics
4561:Petroleum geologist
4525:Forensic geophysics
4495:Engineering geology
4242:Timeline of geology
4194:Glossary of geology
4080:Related disciplines
4046:Geothermal gradient
3748:The Genius of China
3588:Ross, D.A. (1995).
3557:1989Sci...246..103R
3482:1993RvGeo..31..267P
3424:(Second ed.).
3323:1968Sci...161..680M
3182:2003RvGeo..41.1012H
2971:Gallagher, Isabelle
2933:on 16 November 2011
2697:2009JGeo...48..241V
1887:2008GGG.....9.4006M
1706:classical mechanics
1472:platforms such as;
1443:upward continuation
1047:and results in the
922:geothermal gradient
800:, uranium-235, and
745:magnetostratigraphy
725:last glacial period
672:Aeromagnetic survey
629:magnetohydrodynamic
498:Earthquakes pose a
358:Geothermal gradient
343:surface called the
216:and other planets.
122:physical properties
6135:Radio atmospherics
6102:Atmospheric dynamo
5899:Geological history
5773:Geodetic astronomy
5388:Geodesy portal
5238:Geodetic astronomy
5085:Physical geography
4944:History of physics
4587:Geology portal
4515:Geologic modelling
4454:Geophysical survey
4406:Geodetic astronomy
4332:Structural geology
4293:Historical geology
4224:History of geology
4199:History of geology
4189:Outline of geology
3963:Geophysical survey
3769:Torge, W. (2001).
3725:Applied geophysics
3642:. UC Berkeley News
3363:National Academies
3124:on 1 December 2009
2777:, pp. 177–181
2728:, pp. 162–166
2679:Varga, P. (2009).
2441:Sadava et al. 2009
2143:www.britannica.com
2012:, pp. 236–242
1611:
1568:physical geography
1313:. An alternative,
1249:
1212:seismic tomography
1192:thermal conduction
1149:Earth's inner core
1095:
1081:Structure of Earth
934:equations of state
825:gamma spectrometry
806:radiometric dating
779:
775:Radiometric dating
765:Radiometric dating
741:seafloor spreading
697:
590:Earth's outer core
458:
404:thermal convection
380:
368:thermal convection
297:
272:planetary sciences
262:Physical phenomena
252:geophysical survey
158:internal structure
116:) is a subject of
67:
52:
39:Physical geography
6308:
6307:
6189:
6188:
6159:Optical emissions
6128:ELF/VLF emissions
6034:
6033:
5985:Planetary science
5968:Natural satellite
5889:Extremes on Earth
5856:Signal processing
5421:
5420:
5147:
5146:
4972:
4971:
4959:Physics education
4908:Materials science
4875:Interdisciplinary
4833:Quantum mechanics
4620:
4619:
4505:Planetary geology
4421:Planetary geodesy
4141:
4140:
4056:Mantle convection
3834:978-0-309-03076-2
3775:Walter de Gruyter
3738:978-0-521-33938-4
3692:978-1-56080-018-7
3661:College of DuPage
3630:978-1-4292-1962-4
3551:(4926): 103–107.
3533:978-0-471-48535-3
3490:10.1029/93RG01249
3385:978-0-520-08816-0
3317:(3842): 680–684.
3222:978-0-521-45714-9
3074:978-0-691-14267-8
2961:978-0-8493-1439-1
2811:pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov
2764:Eratosthenes 2010
2299:978-3-319-45355-2
2145:. 12 January 2024
1824:Planetary science
1767:Geophysics portal
1621:In circa 240 BC,
1535:Signal processing
1529:Signal processing
1494:seismic receivers
1315:optical astronomy
1119:moment of inertia
1069:natural disasters
782:Radioactive decay
563:geomagnetic field
555:Telluric currents
400:phase transitions
392:mantle convection
236:mineral resources
16:(Redirected from
6343:
6296:
6295:
6284:
6283:
6232:Magnetotellurics
6201:Solar irradiance
6125:
6121:Electromagnetism
6061:
6054:
6047:
6038:
6024:
6023:
5916:History of Earth
5567:Paleoclimatology
5448:
5441:
5434:
5425:
5409:
5408:
5397:
5396:
5386:
5385:
5384:
5316:Gravity of Earth
5248:Gravity of Earth
5174:
5167:
5160:
5151:
5135:
5134:
5123:
5111:
5110:
4999:
4992:
4985:
4976:
4898:Chemical physics
4838:Particle physics
4764:Classical optics
4647:
4640:
4633:
4624:
4608:
4607:
4596:
4595:
4585:
4584:
4520:Forensic geology
4490:Economic geology
4416:Gravity of Earth
4311:Paleoclimatology
4216:
4168:
4161:
4154:
4145:
4129:
4128:
4117:
4116:
4106:
4105:
4051:Gravity of Earth
3916:
3909:
3902:
3893:
3838:
3813:
3798:(2nd ed.).
3788:
3773:(3rd ed.).
3765:
3742:
3719:
3696:
3680:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3634:
3611:
3595:
3584:
3537:
3514:
3499:Science Progress
3493:
3462:
3439:
3423:
3412:
3389:
3366:
3360:
3350:
3303:
3280:
3257:
3226:
3203:
3193:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3149:on 27 April 2013
3145:. Archived from
3133:
3131:
3129:
3106:
3078:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3036:
3015:
2992:
2965:
2942:
2940:
2938:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2831:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2803:
2792:
2787:
2778:
2772:
2766:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2748:
2735:
2729:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2691:(3–5): 241–246.
2676:
2670:
2669:
2641:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2605:
2599:
2594:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2565:
2559:
2554:
2548:
2543:
2537:
2532:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2490:
2476:
2465:
2460:
2454:
2449:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2427:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2408:on 21 March 2012
2394:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2368:
2362:
2357:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2335:
2329:
2324:
2318:
2313:
2304:
2303:
2285:
2279:
2274:
2259:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2234:
2225:
2219:
2214:
2205:
2200:
2194:
2189:
2180:
2179:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2135:
2129:
2124:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2088:
2082:
2077:
2071:
2066:
2055:
2050:
2031:
2026:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1974:
1969:
1963:
1958:
1949:
1944:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1898:
1866:
1783:
1778:
1777:
1769:
1764:
1763:
1755:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1431:differential GPS
1302:encompass both.
1134:
1127:
1116:
1112:
1107:specific gravity
705:geomagnetic pole
652:magnetotellurics
604:are produced by
429:
307:Physical geodesy
301:Gravity of Earth
238:, mitigation of
132:, or one of the
115:
114:
111:
110:
107:
104:
101:
98:
95:
92:
89:
86:
83:
80:
21:
6351:
6350:
6346:
6345:
6344:
6342:
6341:
6340:
6311:
6310:
6309:
6304:
6272:
6253:Egon Schweidler
6236:
6215:
6185:
6176:St. Elmo's fire
6154:
6116:
6070:
6065:
6035:
6030:
6012:
5979:
5963:
5920:
5911:Geologic record
5865:
5851:Plate tectonics
5841:Mineral physics
5821:Earth structure
5807:
5742:
5689:
5619:
5571:
5528:
5475:
5457:
5452:
5422:
5417:
5382:
5380:
5371:
5335:
5321:Plate tectonics
5296:Coriolis effect
5291:Chandler wobble
5283:
5277:
5204:
5183:
5178:
5148:
5143:
5099:
5080:Paleogeoscience
5026:
5008:
5003:
4973:
4968:
4932:
4918:Medical physics
4869:
4828:Nuclear physics
4797:
4791:Non-equilibrium
4713:
4685:
4657:
4651:
4621:
4616:
4579:
4570:
4544:
4540:Mineral physics
4473:
4435:
4382:
4356:
4342:Plate tectonics
4320:
4316:Palaeogeography
4287:
4263:Crystallography
4246:
4218:
4217:
4208:
4177:
4172:
4142:
4137:
4100:
4091:
4075:
4026:Coriolis effect
4021:Chandler wobble
4013:
4007:
3983:Mineral physics
3946:
3925:
3920:
3857:Wayback Machine
3846:
3841:
3835:
3816:
3810:
3791:
3785:
3768:
3762:
3745:
3739:
3722:
3716:
3706:Wiley-Blackwell
3699:
3693:
3674:
3665:
3663:
3654:
3645:
3643:
3637:
3631:
3614:
3608:
3587:
3540:
3534:
3524:Wiley-Blackwell
3517:
3496:
3465:
3459:
3442:
3436:
3426:Springer-Verlag
3415:
3409:
3392:
3386:
3369:
3358:
3353:
3306:
3300:
3283:
3277:
3260:
3254:
3229:
3223:
3206:
3161:
3152:
3150:
3136:
3127:
3125:
3109:
3103:
3081:
3075:
3058:
3049:
3047:
3039:
3018:
3012:
2995:
2989:
2968:
2962:
2945:
2936:
2934:
2925:
2916:
2914:
2909:
2900:
2898:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2876:
2866:
2864:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2845:
2843:
2833:
2832:
2825:
2815:
2813:
2805:
2804:
2795:
2788:
2781:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2758:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2724:
2720:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2631:
2627:
2617:
2615:
2607:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2584:
2577:
2573:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2551:
2544:
2540:
2533:
2524:
2514:
2512:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2488:
2486:
2478:
2477:
2468:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2421:
2411:
2409:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2381:
2379:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2307:
2300:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2262:
2255:
2251:
2241:
2239:
2232:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2208:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2183:
2176:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2148:
2146:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2110:
2100:
2098:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2058:
2051:
2034:
2027:
2016:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1938:
1928:
1926:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1758:
1751:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1663:William Gilbert
1659:
1596:
1564:
1558:
1537:
1531:
1506:electromagnetic
1462:
1456:
1426:
1420:
1373:magnetic fields
1365:
1340:radar altimetry
1323:Chandler wobble
1284:
1278:
1273:
1237:
1231:
1223:plate tectonics
1208:post-perovskite
1133:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1103:mineral physics
1083:
1077:
1049:ellipsoid shape
1037:
1032:
985:supersaturation
914:
912:Mineral physics
908:
906:Mineral physics
877:Coriolis effect
839:
833:
767:
761:
709:geographic pole
707:stays near the
678:
664:
614:Electromagnetic
583:
520:
446:
440:
427:
360:
354:
337:tectonic plates
329:gravity anomaly
313:
303:
289:
264:
240:natural hazards
170:plate tectonics
150:magnetic fields
118:natural science
77:
73:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6349:
6347:
6339:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6326:Earth sciences
6323:
6313:
6312:
6306:
6305:
6303:
6302:
6290:
6277:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6270:
6265:
6263:George Simpson
6260:
6255:
6250:
6244:
6242:
6238:
6237:
6235:
6234:
6229:
6223:
6221:
6217:
6216:
6214:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6197:
6195:
6191:
6190:
6187:
6186:
6184:
6183:
6181:Ball lightning
6178:
6173:
6168:
6162:
6160:
6156:
6155:
6153:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6137:
6131:
6129:
6122:
6118:
6117:
6115:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6078:
6076:
6072:
6071:
6066:
6064:
6063:
6056:
6049:
6041:
6032:
6031:
6029:
6028:
6017:
6014:
6013:
6011:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5989:
5987:
5981:
5980:
5978:
5977:
5971:
5969:
5965:
5964:
5962:
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5944:Atlantic Ocean
5941:
5936:
5930:
5928:
5922:
5921:
5919:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5907:
5906:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5875:
5873:
5867:
5866:
5864:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5826:Fluid dynamics
5823:
5817:
5815:
5809:
5808:
5806:
5805:
5800:
5798:Geopositioning
5795:
5793:Remote Sensing
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5764:
5763:
5752:
5750:
5744:
5743:
5741:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5699:
5697:
5691:
5690:
5688:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5641:
5640:
5629:
5627:
5621:
5620:
5618:
5617:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5581:
5579:
5573:
5572:
5570:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5552:Climate change
5549:
5547:Energy balance
5544:
5542:Climate system
5538:
5536:
5530:
5529:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5485:
5483:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5473:
5468:
5462:
5459:
5458:
5453:
5451:
5450:
5443:
5436:
5428:
5419:
5418:
5416:
5415:
5403:
5391:
5376:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5369:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5349:
5343:
5341:
5337:
5336:
5334:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5287:
5285:
5279:
5278:
5276:
5275:
5270:
5268:Geopositioning
5265:
5263:Remote Sensing
5260:
5258:Photogrammetry
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5229:
5228:
5223:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5205:
5203:
5202:
5197:
5191:
5189:
5185:
5184:
5179:
5177:
5176:
5169:
5162:
5154:
5145:
5144:
5142:
5141:
5129:
5117:
5104:
5101:
5100:
5098:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5031:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5024:
5019:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5004:
5002:
5001:
4994:
4987:
4979:
4970:
4969:
4967:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4940:
4938:
4934:
4933:
4931:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4879:
4877:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4867:
4862:
4861:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4824:
4823:
4818:
4807:
4805:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4795:
4794:
4793:
4788:
4781:Thermodynamics
4778:
4777:
4776:
4771:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4723:
4721:
4715:
4714:
4712:
4711:
4710:
4709:
4699:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4671:
4665:
4663:
4659:
4658:
4652:
4650:
4649:
4642:
4635:
4627:
4618:
4617:
4615:
4614:
4602:
4590:
4575:
4572:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4552:
4550:
4546:
4545:
4543:
4542:
4537:
4535:Mining geology
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4481:
4479:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4471:
4469:Tectonophysics
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4445:
4443:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4433:
4431:Geopositioning
4428:
4426:Remote sensing
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4392:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4380:
4378:Marine geology
4375:
4370:
4364:
4362:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4328:
4326:
4322:
4321:
4319:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4297:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4258:Cosmochemistry
4254:
4252:
4248:
4247:
4245:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4228:
4226:
4220:
4219:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4185:
4183:
4179:
4178:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4163:
4156:
4148:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4135:
4123:
4111:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4089:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4017:
4015:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4005:
4003:Tectonophysics
4000:
3995:
3993:Paleomagnetism
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3973:Geomathematics
3970:
3965:
3960:
3954:
3952:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3944:
3939:
3933:
3931:
3927:
3926:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3911:
3904:
3896:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3845:
3844:External links
3842:
3840:
3839:
3833:
3814:
3808:
3789:
3783:
3766:
3760:
3743:
3737:
3720:
3714:
3697:
3691:
3672:
3652:
3635:
3629:
3612:
3606:
3585:
3538:
3532:
3515:
3494:
3476:(3): 267–280.
3463:
3457:
3440:
3434:
3413:
3407:
3399:Academic Press
3390:
3384:
3367:
3351:
3304:
3299:978-0124912458
3298:
3290:Academic Press
3281:
3275:
3258:
3252:
3227:
3221:
3204:
3159:
3134:
3107:
3101:
3091:(2 ed.).
3083:Fowler, C.M.R.
3079:
3073:
3056:
3037:
3016:
3010:
2993:
2987:
2966:
2960:
2943:
2923:
2907:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2852:
2823:
2793:
2779:
2767:
2756:
2730:
2718:
2671:
2652:(2): 253–261.
2636:
2625:
2600:
2582:
2571:
2560:
2549:
2538:
2522:
2496:
2466:
2455:
2444:
2433:
2419:
2389:
2372:"Radiometrics"
2363:
2352:
2341:
2330:
2319:
2305:
2298:
2280:
2260:
2249:
2220:
2206:
2195:
2181:
2174:
2156:
2130:
2119:
2108:
2083:
2072:
2056:
2032:
2014:
2002:
1993:
1984:
1975:
1964:
1950:
1936:
1910:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1792:
1785:
1784:
1781:Physics portal
1770:
1756:
1740:
1737:
1658:
1655:
1595:
1592:
1560:Main article:
1557:
1554:
1533:Main article:
1530:
1527:
1470:remote sensing
1460:Remote sensing
1458:Main article:
1455:
1454:Remote sensing
1452:
1419:
1416:
1394:, beneath the
1388:lunar orbiters
1380:gravity fields
1364:
1361:
1280:Main article:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1253:magnetic field
1251:If a planet's
1233:Main article:
1230:
1227:
1131:
1128:, compared to
1124:
1097:Evidence from
1079:Main article:
1076:
1073:
1067:dynamics, and
1065:tectonic plate
1061:ocean trenches
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
930:phase diagrams
910:Main article:
907:
904:
893:Taylor columns
835:Main article:
832:
831:Fluid dynamics
829:
760:
757:
749:stratigraphies
721:Laschamp event
676:Paleomagnetism
663:
660:
582:
579:
519:
516:
500:risk to humans
442:Main article:
439:
436:
372:Earth's mantle
356:Main article:
353:
350:
299:Main article:
288:
285:
268:Earth sciences
263:
260:
186:fluid dynamics
134:Earth sciences
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6348:
6337:
6334:
6332:
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6279:
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6275:
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6230:
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5990:
5988:
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5970:
5966:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5954:Pacific Ocean
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
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5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5927:
5923:
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5909:
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5902:
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5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5884:Earth science
5882:
5880:
5877:
5876:
5874:
5872:
5868:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5836:Magnetosphere
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5818:
5816:
5814:
5810:
5804:
5803:Virtual globe
5801:
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5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5768:Earth's orbit
5766:
5762:
5759:
5758:
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5754:
5753:
5751:
5749:
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5706:
5704:
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5698:
5696:
5692:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5675:World history
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5665:World economy
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5639:
5636:
5635:
5634:
5631:
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5626:
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5616:
5615:South America
5613:
5611:
5610:North America
5608:
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5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
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5588:
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5392:
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5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
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5342:
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5309:
5307:
5304:
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5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5280:
5274:
5273:Virtual globe
5271:
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5266:
5264:
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5259:
5256:
5254:
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5246:
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5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5233:Earth's orbit
5231:
5227:
5224:
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5214:
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5211:
5207:
5201:
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5038:
5036:
5033:
5032:
5029:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5011:
5007:
5006:Earth science
5000:
4995:
4993:
4988:
4986:
4981:
4980:
4977:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4935:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4923:Ocean physics
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4876:
4872:
4866:
4863:
4859:
4858:Modern optics
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4845:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
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4800:
4792:
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4784:
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4779:
4775:
4772:
4770:
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4766:
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4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4748:
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4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4728:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4720:
4716:
4708:
4707:Computational
4705:
4704:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4680:
4677:
4676:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4666:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4648:
4643:
4641:
4636:
4634:
4629:
4628:
4625:
4613:
4612:
4603:
4601:
4600:
4591:
4589:
4588:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4573:
4567:
4566:Volcanologist
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4547:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
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4513:
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4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
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4488:
4486:
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4476:
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4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
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4450:
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4444:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4401:Earth's orbit
4399:
4397:
4394:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4385:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4359:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4347:Geomorphology
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4325:Dynamic Earth
4323:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4294:
4290:
4284:
4283:Sedimentology
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4255:
4253:
4249:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4232:Geochronology
4230:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
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4184:
4180:
4176:
4169:
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4162:
4157:
4155:
4150:
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4146:
4134:
4133:
4124:
4122:
4121:
4112:
4110:
4109:
4104:
4098:
4097:
4094:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4078:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3942:Geophysicists
3940:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3917:
3912:
3910:
3905:
3903:
3898:
3897:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3854:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3843:
3836:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3821:
3815:
3811:
3809:0-521-66624-4
3805:
3801:
3797:
3796:
3790:
3786:
3784:0-89925-680-5
3780:
3776:
3772:
3767:
3763:
3761:0-671-62028-2
3757:
3753:
3752:Andre Deutsch
3749:
3744:
3740:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3715:0-86542-078-5
3711:
3707:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3688:
3684:
3679:
3673:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3613:
3609:
3607:0-13-491408-2
3603:
3599:
3598:HarperCollins
3594:
3593:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3545:
3539:
3535:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3470:
3464:
3460:
3458:0-521-66313-X
3454:
3450:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3435:0-387-96387-1
3431:
3427:
3422:
3421:
3414:
3410:
3408:0-12-527470-X
3404:
3400:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3364:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3305:
3301:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3278:
3276:0-521-46164-2
3272:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3253:0-309-03680-1
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3135:
3123:
3119:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3102:0-521-89307-0
3098:
3094:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3045:
3044:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3011:0-521-59067-1
3007:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2990:
2988:0-19-857133-X
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2944:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2912:
2908:
2897:
2893:
2892:"Our Science"
2889:
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2879:
2863:
2856:
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2841:
2837:
2830:
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2698:
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2647:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2629:
2626:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2597:Reynolds 2011
2593:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2553:
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2547:
2542:
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2536:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2452:Sirvatka 2003
2448:
2445:
2442:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2430:Pedlosky 1987
2426:
2424:
2420:
2407:
2403:
2399:
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2377:
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2364:
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2306:
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2295:
2291:
2284:
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2265:
2261:
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2250:
2238:
2231:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2213:
2211:
2207:
2204:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2175:9780521708425
2171:
2167:
2160:
2157:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2112:
2109:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2054:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2030:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1988:
1985:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1924:
1920:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1881:(4): Q04006.
1880:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1862:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1840:Space physics
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1776:
1771:
1768:
1762:
1757:
1754:
1743:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1718:ecliptic axis
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1682:
1681:magnetic dips
1678:
1674:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1616:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1584:Julius Fröbel
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1563:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1546:
1542:
1536:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1425:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1350:launched the
1349:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1275:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1265:magnetic tail
1262:
1258:
1254:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1235:Magnetosphere
1229:Magnetosphere
1228:
1226:
1224:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1150:
1145:
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1138:
1120:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1034:
1029:
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1017:
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1009:
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970:
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935:
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903:
901:
896:
894:
890:
889:Ekman spirals
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
865:
863:
862:mantle plumes
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
842:Fluid motions
838:
830:
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826:
822:
821:geologic eras
818:
813:
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810:geochronology
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803:
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787:
786:internal heat
783:
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759:Radioactivity
758:
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633:magnetosphere
631:waves in the
630:
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480:seismic waves
478:Recording of
476:
474:
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461:Seismic waves
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450:
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435:
433:
425:
424:mantle plumes
421:
417:
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393:
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376:mantle plumes
373:
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206:magnetosphere
203:
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147:
146:gravitational
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6258:Nikola Tesla
6220:Applications
6081:
6008:Solar System
5959:Oceanography
5949:Indian Ocean
5939:Arctic Ocean
5879:Age of Earth
5831:Geomagnetism
5812:
5514:Thermosphere
5504:Stratosphere
5410:
5398:
5379:
5356:
5136:
5124:
5112:
5090:Soil science
5075:Oceanography
5054:
4902:
4883:Astrophysics
4697:Experimental
4609:
4597:
4578:
4478:Applications
4449:Geomagnetism
4440:
4373:Hydrogeology
4306:Paleontology
4301:Stratigraphy
4268:Geochemistry
4130:
4118:
4099:
4066:Seismic wave
3968:Geomagnetism
3922:
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3770:
3747:
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3682:
3678:"Geophysics"
3664:. Retrieved
3644:. Retrieved
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3128:30 September
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3087:
3060:
3050:30 September
3048:. Retrieved
3042:
3033:the original
3028:
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2997:
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2947:
2937:30 September
2935:. Retrieved
2931:the original
2917:30 September
2915:. Retrieved
2911:"About IUGG"
2901:30 September
2899:. Retrieved
2895:
2865:. Retrieved
2855:
2844:, retrieved
2839:
2814:. Retrieved
2810:
2770:
2759:
2744:
2739:Russo, Lucio
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2406:the original
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2380:. Retrieved
2375:
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2349:Sanders 2003
2344:
2333:
2322:
2292:. Springer.
2289:
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2252:
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2236:
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2029:Poirier 2000
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1947:Sheriff 1991
1927:. Retrieved
1923:science@nasa
1922:
1913:
1878:
1874:
1864:
1733:James Forbes
1726:
1691:
1688:Isaac Newton
1685:
1666:
1660:
1639:
1623:Eratosthenes
1620:
1612:
1579:
1565:
1538:
1519:aeromagnetic
1463:
1427:
1377:
1366:
1331:
1304:
1285:
1257:space probes
1250:
1220:
1184:
1175:
1172:upper mantle
1153:
1141:
1096:
1038:
1005:
997:conductivity
995:, while the
981:supercooling
950:
915:
897:
885:Kelvin waves
881:Rossby waves
866:
840:
814:
794:potassium-40
780:
698:
679:
645:
637:Rossby waves
625:Alfvén waves
622:
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548:
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497:
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473:seismographs
465:normal modes
459:
454:seismic wave
381:
341:geopotential
318:
314:
281:Solar System
265:
233:
225:Isaac Newton
218:
156: ; its
137:
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5756:Cartography
5695:Environment
5562:Climatology
5499:Troposphere
5362:Mathematics
5226:Web mapping
5216:Cartography
5095:Volcanology
5070:Meteorology
4786:Statistical
4702:Theoretical
4679:Engineering
4549:Occupations
4530:Meteoritics
4396:Cartography
4352:Volcanology
4337:Geodynamics
3958:Geodynamics
3795:Geodynamics
3646:28 February
3505:: 107–121.
3176:(3): 1012.
2867:18 February
2846:18 February
2816:18 February
2775:Temple 2006
2726:Temple 2006
2618:18 February
2515:18 February
2489:18 February
2242:18 February
2237:metlink.org
2149:18 February
2116:Fowler 2005
2101:18 February
2096:www.smu.edu
2080:Davies 2001
2069:Lowrie 2004
1929:13 November
1845:Geosciences
1818:Geodynamics
1729:seismometer
1710:gravitation
1673:'loadstones
1642:seismoscope
1602:Replica of
1588:ancient era
1541:time-series
1510:radiometric
1400:Serenitatis
1384:lunar maria
1346:. In 2002,
1335:gravimeters
1261:Earth radii
1164:lithosphere
993:percolation
989:groundwater
977:coalescence
965:evaporation
957:water cycle
953:hydrosphere
873:meteorology
802:thorium-232
798:uranium-238
594:Dawn chorus
532:cosmic rays
518:Electricity
412:lithosphere
366:A model of
194:electricity
182:water cycle
162:composition
6321:Geophysics
6315:Categories
6082:Geophysics
5861:Tomography
5846:Seismology
5813:Geophysics
5788:Navigation
5680:Time zones
5645:In culture
5590:Antarctica
5577:Continents
5509:Mesosphere
5481:Atmosphere
5357:Geophysics
5253:Navigation
5200:Geodesists
5060:Glaciology
5055:Geophysics
4903:Geophysics
4893:Biophysics
4737:Analytical
4690:Approaches
4510:Geobiology
4485:Biogeology
4464:Seismology
4441:Geophysics
4368:Glaciology
4273:Mineralogy
3998:Seismology
3923:Geophysics
3361:(Report).
2880:References
2557:Torge 2001
1727:The first
1668:De Magnete
1646:Zhang Heng
1608:seismology
1604:Zhang Heng
1580:geophysics
1502:gravimetry
1474:satellites
1447:derivative
1359:glaciers.
1356:satellites
1245:solar wind
1225:possible.
1196:convection
1162:, mantle,
1160:outer core
1156:inner core
1099:seismology
1024:permafrost
1012:ice sheets
1008:cryosphere
969:atmosphere
918:seismology
846:atmosphere
682:solar wind
540:ionosphere
508:deep focus
504:intraplate
489:refraction
444:Seismology
438:Vibrations
432:geothermal
428:4.2 × 10 W
416:conduction
333:gravimetry
311:Gravimetry
221:lodestones
202:ionosphere
190:atmosphere
138:geophysics
70:Geophysics
6206:Lightning
6140:Whistlers
5778:Geomatics
5723:Ecosystem
5708:Biosphere
5670:Etymology
5650:Earth Day
5600:Australia
5519:Exosphere
5347:Astronomy
5311:Geodynamo
5284:phenomena
5282:Physical
5243:Geomatics
5209:Subfields
5065:Hydrology
4853:Molecular
4754:Acoustics
4747:Continuum
4742:Celestial
4732:Newtonian
4719:Classical
4662:Divisions
4556:Geologist
4411:Geomatics
4278:Petrology
4182:Overviews
4041:Geodynamo
4014:phenomena
4012:Physical
3951:Subfields
3666:31 August
3621:Macmillan
3200:123305218
2952:CRC Press
2896:About AGU
2713:129513373
2666:122239663
2010:Ross 1995
1961:IUGG 2011
1735:in 1844.
1698:astronomy
1693:Principia
1677:versorium
1635:longitude
1615:feng shui
1576:astronomy
1514:barometry
1216:silicates
1057:mountains
1041:ellipsoid
946:viscosity
850:viscosity
662:Magnetism
608:strikes.
606:lightning
602:Whistlers
388:geodynamo
384:heat flow
352:Heat flow
198:magnetism
178:volcanism
64:reversals
6287:Category
6026:Category
5400:Category
5188:Overview
5114:Category
4120:Category
3930:Overview
3853:Archived
3573:17837768
3511:10800377
3347:40110502
3339:17801458
3238:(eds.).
3085:(2005).
2890:(2011).
2741:(2004).
2568:CSR 2011
2463:CFG 2011
1972:AGU 2011
1905:15960331
1739:See also
1686:In 1687
1631:latitude
1498:magnetic
1490:borehole
1478:aircraft
1414:basins.
1408:Nectaris
1319:nutation
1298:and the
1188:geotherm
1016:glaciers
1001:salinity
854:isostasy
817:isotopes
790:isotopes
434:energy.
410:and the
166:dynamics
6299:Commons
6194:Sources
6171:Sprites
6075:General
5871:Geology
5783:Gravity
5748:Geodesy
5718:Ecology
5534:Climate
5524:Weather
5471:History
5466:Outline
5412:Commons
5367:Physics
5352:Geology
5195:History
5181:Geodesy
5138:Commons
5050:Geology
5045:Geodesy
5017:Outline
4937:Related
4821:General
4816:Special
4674:Applied
4611:Geology
4599:Geology
4388:Geodesy
4175:Geology
4132:Commons
4087:Geodesy
3937:Outline
3771:Geodesy
3581:9147772
3553:Bibcode
3544:Science
3478:Bibcode
3319:Bibcode
3310:Science
3178:Bibcode
2693:Bibcode
2412:23 June
2382:23 June
1883:Bibcode
1850:Geodesy
1835:Physics
1702:physics
1572:geology
1556:History
1439:Geosoft
1412:Humorum
1404:Crisium
1396:Imbrium
1392:mascons
1288:geodesy
1282:Geodesy
1276:Geodesy
1271:Methods
1144:S-waves
1115:2.7–3.3
1045:Equator
1020:sea ice
961:climate
926:elastic
686:auroras
546:above.
544:sprites
536:amperes
370:in the
287:Gravity
276:physics
200:in the
130:physics
124:of the
18:Geophys
6241:People
6145:Chorus
5926:Oceans
5894:Future
5738:Nature
5660:Symbol
5605:Europe
5585:Africa
5126:Portal
4848:Atomic
4803:Modern
4653:Major
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3806:
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2958:
2913:. 2011
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2172:
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1791:(IUGG)
1486:drones
1435:ArcGIS
1294:, the
920:, the
701:dipole
674:, and
420:mantle
339:. The
246:. In
174:magmas
164:; its
152:, and
144:; its
5703:Biome
5685:World
5455:Earth
5022:Index
4361:Water
3577:S2CID
3359:(PDF)
3343:S2CID
3196:S2CID
2753:–277.
2709:S2CID
2662:S2CID
2233:(PDF)
1901:S2CID
1856:Notes
1543:with
1482:boats
1344:geoid
1168:crust
1123:0.33
1111:5.515
1091:Earth
942:creep
735:(see
528:volts
345:geoid
142:shape
126:Earth
6150:Hiss
5975:Moon
5655:Flag
5595:Asia
5331:Tide
4774:Wave
4669:Pure
4071:Tide
3829:ISBN
3804:ISBN
3779:ISBN
3756:ISBN
3733:ISBN
3710:ISBN
3687:ISBN
3668:2011
3648:2007
3625:ISBN
3602:ISBN
3569:PMID
3528:ISBN
3507:PMID
3453:ISBN
3430:ISBN
3403:ISBN
3380:ISBN
3335:PMID
3294:ISBN
3271:ISBN
3248:ISBN
3217:ISBN
3155:2011
3130:2011
3097:ISBN
3069:ISBN
3052:2011
3006:ISBN
2983:ISBN
2956:ISBN
2939:2011
2919:2011
2903:2011
2869:2024
2848:2024
2818:2024
2620:2024
2517:2024
2491:2024
2414:2014
2384:2014
2294:ISBN
2244:2024
2170:ISBN
2151:2024
2103:2024
1931:2018
1708:and
1700:and
1633:and
1437:and
1410:and
1348:NASA
1321:and
1194:and
1166:and
1130:0.4
983:and
959:and
887:and
871:and
860:and
792:are
627:are
610:Hiss
573:and
331:and
323:and
309:and
242:and
214:Moon
208:and
204:and
196:and
160:and
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3561:doi
3549:246
3486:doi
3327:doi
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3186:doi
2751:273
2701:doi
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