995:
1121:
1237:
five-month improvement in overall survival compared to temozolomide therapy alone, representing the first large trial in a decade to show a survival improvement in this setting. Despite these results, the efficacy of this approach remains controversial among medical experts. However, increasing understanding of the mechanistic basis through which alternating electric field therapy exerts anti-cancer effects and results from ongoing phase-III clinical trials in extracranial cancers may help facilitate increased clinical acceptance to treat glioblastoma in the future.
326:
cancer. Despite countless efforts to develop new therapies for GBM over the years, the median survival rate of GBM patients worldwide is 8 months; radiation and chemotherapy standard-of-care treatment beginning shortly after diagnosis improve the median survival length to around 14 months and a five-year survival rate of 5–10%. The five-year survival rate for individuals with any form of primary malignant brain tumor is 20%. Even when all detectable traces of the tumor are removed through surgery, most patients with GBM experience recurrence of their cancer.
1150:
1011:
1164:. A pivotal clinical trial carried out in the early 1970s showed that among 303 GBM patients randomized to radiation or best medical therapy, those who received radiation had a median survival more than double those who did not. Subsequent clinical research has attempted to build on the backbone of surgery followed by radiation. Whole-brain radiotherapy does not improve when compared to the more precise and targeted three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy. A total radiation dose of 60–65 Gy has been found to be optimal for treatment.
1043:
899:
1464:. PPT refers to polyetherimide, PEG and trans-activator of transcription, and TRAIL is the human tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-induced ligand) for effective gene delivery and tracking, with positive results. This is a TRAIL ligand that has been encoded to induce apoptosis of cancer cells, more specifically glioblastomas. Although this study was still in clinical trials in 2017, it has shown diagnostic and therapeutic functionalities, and will open great interest for clinical applications in stem-cell-based therapy.
42:
911:
1137:. GBM cells are widely infiltrative through the brain at diagnosis, and despite a "total resection" of all obvious tumor, most people with GBM later develop recurrent tumors either near the original site or at more distant locations within the brain. Other modalities, typically radiation and chemotherapy, are used after surgery in an effort to suppress and slow recurrent disease through damaging the DNA of rapidly proliferative GBM cells.
994:
795:) have been found in glioblastomas. Their presence, coupled with the glioblastoma's diffuse nature results in difficulty in removing them completely by surgery, and is therefore believed to be the possible cause behind resistance to conventional treatments, and the high recurrence rate. Glioblastoma cancer stem cells share some resemblance with neural progenitor cells, both expressing the surface receptor
891:
1290:
temozolomide chemotherapy and better KPSs. A recent study confirms that younger age is associated with a much better prognosis, with a small fraction of patients under 40 years of age achieving a population-based cure. Cure is thought to occur when a person's risk of death returns to that of the normal population, and in GBM, this is thought to occur after 10 years.
1513:
951:) and have not progressed from a lower-grade glioma, as in high-grade astrocytomas Glioblastomas have a worse prognosis and different tumor biology, and may have a different response to therapy, which makes this a critical evaluation to determine patient prognosis and therapy. Astrocytomas carry a mutation in
1236:
is an FDA-approved therapy for newly diagnosed and recurrent glioblastoma. In 2015, initial results from a phase-III randomized clinical trial of alternating electric field therapy plus temozolomide in newly diagnosed glioblastoma reported a three-month improvement in progression-free survival, and a
325:
Tumors of the central nervous system are the 10th leading cause of death worldwide, with up to 90% being brain tumors. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is derived from astrocytes and accounts for 49% of all malignant central nervous system tumors, making it the most common form of central nervous system
1483:
is an emerging novel treatment that is under investigation both at preclinical and clinical stages. Several viruses including herpes simplex virus, adenovirus, poliovirus, and reovirus are currently being tested in phases I and II of clinical trials for glioblastoma therapy and have shown to improve
1459:
has been explored as a method to treat glioblastoma, and while animal models and early-phase clinical trials have been successful, as of 2017, all gene-therapy drugs that had been tested in phase-III clinical trials for glioblastoma had failed. Scientists have developed the core–shell nanostructured
1289:
Long-term benefits have also been associated with those patients who receive surgery, radiotherapy, and temozolomide chemotherapy. However, much remains unknown about why some patients survive longer with glioblastoma. Age under 50 is linked to longer survival in GBM, as is 98%+ resection and use of
1195:
Most studies show no benefit from the addition of chemotherapy. However, a large clinical trial of 575 participants randomized to standard radiation versus radiation plus temozolomide chemotherapy showed that the group receiving temozolomide survived a median of 14.6 months as opposed to 12.1 months
1132:
The greater the extent of tumor removal, the better. In retrospective analyses, removal of 98% or more of the tumor has been associated with a significantly longer healthier time than if less than 98% of the tumor is removed. The chances of near-complete initial removal of the tumor may be increased
536:
published the first standard classification in 1979 and has been doing so since. The 2007 WHO Classification of Tumors of the
Central Nervous System was the last classification mainly based on microscopy features. The new 2016 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System was a paradigm
881:
GBM is characterized by abnormal vessels that present disrupted morphology and functionality. The high permeability and poor perfusion of the vasculature result in a disorganized blood flow within the tumor and can lead to increased hypoxia, which in turn facilitates cancer progression by promoting
1216:
found that the overall benefit of anti-angiogenic therapies was unclear. In elderly people with newly diagnosed glioblastoma who are reasonably fit, concurrent and adjuvant chemoradiotherapy gives the best overall survival but is associated with a greater risk of haematological adverse events than
938:
with tumor resection and pathologic confirmation. Because the tumor grade is based upon the most malignant portion of the tumor, biopsy or subtotal tumor resection can result in undergrading of the lesion. Imaging of tumor blood flow using perfusion MRI and measuring tumor metabolite concentration
540:
In 2021, the fifth edition of the WHO Classification of Tumors of the
Central Nervous System was released. This update eliminated the classification of secondary glioblastoma and reclassified those tumors as Astrocytoma, IDH mutant, grade 4. Only tumors that are IDH wild type are now classified as
317:
Despite maximum treatment, the cancer almost always recurs. The typical duration of survival following diagnosis is 10–13 months, with fewer than 5–10% of people surviving longer than five years. Without treatment, survival is typically three months. It is the most common cancer that begins within
1471:
therapy is a two step approach which includes the delivery of a foreign enzyme-gene to the cancer cells followed by activation with an pro-drug causing toxicities in the cancer-cells which induces cell death. This approach have had success in animal models and small clinical studied but could not
468:
GBMs usually form in the cerebral white matter, grow quickly, and can become very large before producing symptoms. Since the function of glial cells in the brain is to support neurons, they have the ability to divide, to enlarge, and to extend cellular projections along neurons and blood vessels.
1140:
Between 60-85% of glioblastoma patients report cancer-related cognitive impairments following surgery, which refers to problems with executive functioning, verbal fluency, attention, speed of processing. These symptoms may be managed with cognitive behavioral therapy, physical exercise, yoga and
987:
R132H suffices for the classification as IDH-wild-type glioblastoma. In all other instances of diffuse gliomas, a lack of IDH1 R132H immunopositivity should be followed by IDH1 and IDH2 DNA sequencing to detect or exclude the presence of non-canonical mutations. IDH-wild-type diffuse astrocytic
1091:
Historically, around 90% of patients with glioblastoma underwent anticonvulsant treatment, although only an estimated 40% of patients required this treatment. Neurosurgeons have recommended that anticonvulsants not be administered prophylactically, and should wait until a seizure occurs before
1245:
The most common length of survival following diagnosis is 10 to 13 months (although recent research points to a median survival rate of 15 months), with fewer than 1–3% of people surviving longer than five years. In the United States between 2012 and 2016 five-year survival was 6.8%. Without
1128:
Surgery is the first stage of treatment of glioblastoma. An average GBM tumor contains 10 cells, which is on average reduced to 10 cells after surgery (a reduction of 99%). Benefits of surgery include resection for a pathological diagnosis, alleviation of symptoms related to mass effect, and
2210:
Stupp R, Hegi ME, Mason WP, van den Bent MJ, Taphoorn MJ, Janzer RC, et al. (May 2009). "Effects of radiotherapy with concomitant and adjuvant temozolomide versus radiotherapy alone on survival in glioblastoma in a randomised phase III study: 5-year analysis of the EORTC-NCIC trial".
848:
O movement through osmosis, which aids glioblastoma cells in changing cellular volume very rapidly. This is helpful in their extremely aggressive invasive behavior because quick adaptations in cellular volume can facilitate movement through the sinuous extracellular matrix of the brain.
346:, changes to personality, mood or concentration, and localized neurological problems. The kinds of symptoms produced depend more on the location of the tumor than on its pathological properties. The tumor can start producing symptoms quickly, but occasionally is an
5594:
The use of anti-angiogenic therapy does not significantly improve overall survival in newly diagnosed people with glioblastoma. Thus, there is insufficient evidence to support the use of anti-angiogenic therapy for people with newly diagnosed glioblastoma at this
1003:
of glioblastoma, showing high grade astrocytoma features of marked nuclear pleomorphism, multiple mitoses (one at white arrow) and multinucleated cells (one at black arrow), with cells having a patternless arrangement in a pink fibrillary background on H&E
1010:
5267:
Fulton DS, Urtasun RC, Scott-Brown I, Johnson ES, Mielke B, Curry B, et al. (September 1992). "Increasing radiation dose intensity using hyperfractionation in patients with malignant glioma. Final report of a prospective phase I-II dose response study".
1171:, which are highly resistant to radiotherapy. Various approaches to chemotherapy radiosensitizers have been pursued, with limited success as of 2016. As of 2010, newer research approaches included preclinical and clinical investigations into the use of an
1492:
Direct nose-to-brain drug delivery is being explored as a means to achieve higher, and hopefully more effective, drug concentrations in the brain. A clinical phase-I/II study with glioblastoma patients in Brazil investigated the natural compound
734:, a "suicide" DNA repair enzyme. Methylation impairs DNA transcription and expression of the MGMT gene. Since the MGMT enzyme can repair only one DNA alkylation due to its suicide repair mechanism, reserve capacity is low and methylation of the
5365:
Stupp R, Mason WP, van den Bent MJ, Weller M, Fisher B, Taphoorn MJ, et al. (European
Organisation for Research Treatment of Cancer Brain Tumor Radiotherapy Groups, National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group) (March 2005).
803:
can also be used as a cancer stem cell marker in a subset of glioblastoma tumour cells. Glioblastoma cancer stem cells appear to exhibit enhanced resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy mediated, at least in part, by up-regulation of the
7075:
7060:
978:
expression compared with IDH-mutant lower grade astrocytomas. In patients aged over 55 years with a histologically typical glioblastoma, without a pre-existing lower grade glioma, with a non-midline tumor location and with retained nuclear
943:
may add diagnostic value to standard MRI in select cases by showing increased relative cerebral blood volume and increased choline peak, respectively, but pathology remains the gold standard for diagnosis and molecular characterization.
971:
mutations are a useful tool to distinguish glioblastomas from astrocytomas, since histopathologically they are similar and the distinction without molecular biomarkers is unreliable. IDH-wildtype glioblastomas usually have lower
4593:
4792:
Stummer W, Pichlmeier U, Meinel T, Wiestler OD, Zanella F, Reulen HJ (May 2006). "Fluorescence-guided surgery with 5-aminolevulinic acid for resection of malignant glioma: a randomised controlled multicentre phase III trial".
1415:. It occurs more commonly in males than females. Although the median age at diagnosis is 64, in 2014, the broad category of brain cancers was second only to leukemia in people in the United States under 20 years of age.
988:
gliomas without microvascular proliferation or necrosis should be tested for EGFR amplification, TERT promoter mutation and a +7/–10 cytogenetic signature as molecular characteristics of IDH-wild-type glioblastomas.
3759:
Molenaar RJ, Radivoyevitch T, Maciejewski JP, van
Noorden CJ, Bleeker FE (December 2014). "The driver and passenger effects of isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and 2 mutations in oncogenesis and survival prolongation".
4756:
Lacroix M, Abi-Said D, Fourney DR, Gokaslan ZL, Shi W, DeMonte F, et al. (August 2001). "A multivariate analysis of 416 patients with glioblastoma multiforme: prognosis, extent of resection, and survival".
1033:
There are no known methods to prevent glioblastoma. It is the case for most gliomas, unlike for some other forms of cancer, that they happen without previous warning and there are no known ways to prevent them.
5196:
Walker MD, Alexander E, Hunt WE, MacCarty CS, Mahaley MS, Mealey J, et al. (September 1978). "Evaluation of BCNU and/or radiotherapy in the treatment of anaplastic gliomas. A cooperative clinical trial".
715:
Initial analyses of gene expression had revealed a fourth neural subtype. However, further analyses revealed that this subtype is non-tumor specific and is potential contamination caused by the normal cells.
7658:
7558:
7276:
7217:
358:
The cause of most cases is unclear. The best known risk factor is exposure to ionizing radiation, and CT scan radiation is an important cause. About 5% develop from certain hereditary syndromes.
6232:
Martinez R, Schackert G, Yaya-Tur R, Rojas-Marcos I, Herman JG, Esteller M (May 2007). "Frequent hypermethylation of the DNA repair gene MGMT in long-term survivors of glioblastoma multiforme".
5511:
Dall'oglio S, D'Amico A, Pioli F, Gabbani M, Pasini F, Passarin MG, et al. (December 2008). "Dose-intensity temozolomide after concurrent chemoradiotherapy in operated high-grade gliomas".
1472:
show survival benefit in larger clinical studies. Using new more efficient delivery vectors and suicide gene-prodrug systems could improve the clinical benefit from these types of therapies.
6921:
Peterson A, Bansal A, Hofman F, Chen TC, Zada G (February 2014). "A systematic review of inhaled intranasal therapy for central nervous system neoplasms: an emerging therapeutic option".
6689:
Wu SQ, Yang CX, Yan XP (March 2017). "A Dual-Functional
Persistently Luminescent Nanocomposite Enables Engineering of Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Homing and Gene Therapy of Glioblastoma".
4579:
1111:, can reduce peritumoral edema (through rearrangement of the blood–brain barrier), diminishing mass effect and lowering intracranial pressure, with a decrease in headache or drowsiness.
322:, which is benign in most cases. About 3 in 100,000 people develop the disease per year. The average age at diagnosis is 64, and the disease occurs more commonly in males than females.
6878:
Pardeshi CV, Belgamwar VS (July 2013). "Direct nose to brain drug delivery via integrated nerve pathways bypassing the blood-brain barrier: an excellent platform for brain targeting".
861:, usually microRNA, was under investigation in tissue culture, pathology specimens, and preclinical animal models of glioblastoma. Additionally, experimental observations suggest that
5232:
Showalter TN, Andrel J, Andrews DW, Curran WJ, Daskalakis C, Werner-Wasik M (November 2007). "Multifocal glioblastoma multiforme: prognostic factors and patterns of progression".
2375:
Visser O, Ardanaz E, Botta L, Sant M, Tavilla A, Minicozzi P (October 2015). "Survival of adults with primary malignant brain tumours in Europe; Results of the EUROCARE-5 study".
7090:
3906:"Stem cell-related "self-renewal" signature and high epidermal growth factor receptor expression associated with resistance to concomitant chemoradiotherapy in glioblastoma"
5468:
Chamberlain MC, Glantz MJ, Chalmers L, Van Horn A, Sloan AE (March 2007). "Early necrosis following concurrent
Temodar and radiotherapy in patients with glioblastoma".
3836:
Furnari FB, Fenton T, Bachoo RM, Mukasa A, Stommel JM, Stegh A, et al. (November 2007). "Malignant astrocytic glioma: genetics, biology, and paths to treatment".
738:
greatly affects DNA-repair capacity. MGMT methylation is associated with an improved response to treatment with DNA-damaging chemotherapeutics, such as temozolomide.
1286:. Patients with a methylated MGMT promoter have longer survival than those with an unmethylated MGMT promoter, due in part to increased sensitivity to temozolomide.
7189:
1404:
About three per 100,000 people develop the disease a year, although regional frequency may be much higher. The frequency in
England doubled between 1995 and 2015.
314:
may be used to help reduce swelling and decrease symptoms. Surgical removal (decompression) of the tumor is linked to increased survival, but only by some months.
844:. By upregulating these ion channels, glioblastoma tumor cells are hypothesized to facilitate increased ion movement over the cell membrane, thereby increasing H
5351:
for "Safety and
Efficacy Study of Trans Sodium Crocetinate (TSC) With Concomitant Radiation Therapy and Temozolomide in Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma (GBM)" at
764:) are all recognized by transmembrane proteins called RTKs. Additionally, they can function as receptors for hormones, cytokines, and other signaling pathways.
7521:
5311:
Sheehan JP, Shaffrey ME, Gupta B, Larner J, Rich JN, Park DM (October 2010). "Improving the radiosensitivity of radioresistant and hypoxic glioblastoma".
6275:
5415:
Mason WP, Mirimanoff RO, Stupp R (2006). "Radiotherapy with
Concurrent and Adjuvant Temozolomide: A New Standard of Care for Glioblastoma Multiforme".
5715:
2974:
Hardell L, Carlberg M, Hansson Mild K (August 2009). "Epidemiological evidence for an association between use of wireless phones and tumor diseases".
3988:
Brown DV, Stylli SS, Kaye AH, Mantamadiotis T (2019). "Multilayered
Heterogeneity of Glioblastoma Stem Cells: Biological and Clinical Significance".
1196:
for the group receiving radiation alone. This treatment regimen is now standard for most cases of glioblastoma where the person is not enrolled in a
469:
Once cancerous, these cells are predisposed to spread along existing paths in the brain, typically along white-matter tracts, blood vessels and the
433:, such as from cell phones and electrical wiring within homes, have been studied as risk factors. As of 2015, they had not been shown to cause GBM.
3569:"Integrated genomic analysis identifies clinically relevant subtypes of glioblastoma characterized by abnormalities in PDGFRA, IDH1, EGFR, and NF1"
1926:
Tan AC, Ashley DM, LĂłpez GY, Malinzak M, Friedman HS, Khasraw M (July 2020). "Management of glioblastoma: State of the art and future directions".
7642:
7566:
7490:
1265:
940:
731:
689:
1204:
promoter methylation. High doses of temozolomide in high-grade gliomas yield low toxicity, but the results are comparable to the standard doses.
1160:
Subsequent to surgery, radiotherapy becomes the mainstay of treatment for people with glioblastoma. It is typically performed along with giving
2544:
Smoll NR, Brady Z, Scurrah K, Mathews JD (June 2016). "Exposure to ionizing radiation and brain cancer incidence: The Life Span Study cohort".
505:
is extremely unusual. About 50% of GBMs occupy more than one lobe of a hemisphere or are bilateral. Tumors of this type usually arise from the
2896:
Huncharek M, Kupelnick B, Wheeler L (2003). "Dietary cured meat and the risk of adult glioma: a meta-analysis of nine observational studies".
918:
When viewed with MRI, glioblastomas often appear as ring-enhancing lesions. The appearance is not specific, however, as other lesions such as
4005:
3888:
3226:
2268:
2034:
1664:
5442:
1120:
6329:"Geographic Variations in the Incidence of Glioblastoma and Prognostic Factors Predictive of Overall Survival in US Adults from 2004–2013"
6296:"Reexamining the radiation therapy oncology group (RTOG) recursive partitioning analysis (RPA) for glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) patients"
6095:"A very rare case report of long-term survival: A patient operated on in 1994 of glioblastoma multiforme and currently in perfect health"
2274:
7328:
7182:
7101:
5748:
1172:
4446:
Smirniotopoulos JG, Murphy FM, Rushing EJ, Rees JH, Schroeder JW (2007). "Patterns of contrast enhancement in the brain and meninges".
3707:"The combination of IDH1 mutations and MGMT methylation status predicts survival in glioblastoma better than either IDH1 or MGMT alone"
7693:
5775:"Maintenance Therapy With Tumor-Treating Fields Plus Temozolomide vs Temozolomide Alone for Glioblastoma: A Randomized Clinical Trial"
1296:
According to a 2003 study, GBM prognosis can be divided into three subgroups dependent on KPS, the age of the patient, and treatment.
1233:
1079:
Supportive treatment focuses on relieving symptoms and improving the patient's neurologic function. The primary supportive agents are
757:
6380:"Brain Tumours: Rise in Glioblastoma Multiforme Incidence in England 1995–2015 Suggests an Adverse Environmental or Lifestyle Factor"
4532:"Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Mutations Are Associated with Different Expression and DNA Methylation Patterns of OLIG2 in Adult Gliomas"
670:
6276:"University of California, Los Angeles Neuro-Oncology : How Our Patients Perform : Glioblastoma Multiforme [GBM]"
7516:
7037:
1546:
744:
At least three distinct paths in the development of Glioblastomas have been identified with the aid of molecular investigations.
648:
7029:
4141:"A systematic review of microRNA in glioblastoma multiforme: micro-modulators in the mesenchymal mode of migration and invasion"
719:
Many other genetic alterations have been described in glioblastoma, and the majority of them are clustered in two pathways, the
458:
371:
5073:"Cancer-related cognitive impairment: an update on state of the art, detection, and management strategies in cancer survivors"
2328:"CBTRUS Statistical Report: Primary Brain and Other Central Nervous System Tumors Diagnosed in the United States in 2013–2017"
1823:"CBTRUS Statistical Report: Primary Brain and Other Central Nervous System Tumors Diagnosed in the United States in 2012–2016"
7175:
927:
761:
3435:"Tumor Evolution of Glioma-Intrinsic Gene Expression Subtypes Associates with Immunological Changes in the Microenvironment"
824:
1 and is not mutated in glioblastoma. As such, these tumors behave more aggressively compared to IDH1-mutated astrocytomas.
4239:"The functional synergism of microRNA clustering provides therapeutically relevant epigenetic interference in glioblastoma"
2589:"Population-based studies on incidence, survival rates, and genetic alterations in astrocytic and oligodendroglial gliomas"
1249:
Increasing age (> 60 years) carries a worse prognostic risk. Death is usually due to widespread tumor infiltration with
449:
and glioblastoma, gliomas such as glioblastoma have long been assumed to originate from glial-type stem cells found in the
240:, and has a very poor prognosis for survival. Initial signs and symptoms of glioblastoma are nonspecific. They may include
7323:
6829:"Formulations for Intranasal Delivery of Pharmacological Agents to Combat Brain Disease: A New Opportunity to Tackle GBM?"
1184:
7495:
1101:
7368:
5710:
4298:
2665:"Detection of human herpesvirus-6 variants in pediatric brain tumors: association of viral antigen in low grade gliomas"
1153:
1071:
Treatment of primary brain tumors consists of palliative (symptomatic) care and therapies intended to improve survival.
870:
1982:
Tran B, Rosenthal MA (April 2010). "Survival comparison between glioblastoma multiforme and other incurable cancers".
1467:
Other gene therapy approaches has also been explored in the context of glioblastoma, including suicide gene therapy.
1200:. Temozolomide seems to work by sensitizing the tumor cells to radiation, and appears more effective for tumors with
930:, and other entities may have a similar appearance. Definitive diagnosis of a suspected GBM on CT or MRI requires a
767:
The second method involves activating the intracellular signaling system known as phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase (
6050:
Smoll NR, Schaller K, Gautschi OP (May 2013). "Long-term survival of patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM)".
422:
1271:
are associated with longer survival. A DNA test can be conducted on glioblastomas to determine whether or not the
7580:
6726:"Suicide gene therapy for the treatment of high-grade glioma: past lessons, present trends, and future prospects"
4584:
768:
533:
5658:"Challenges in glioblastoma immunotherapy: mechanisms of resistance and therapeutic approaches to overcome them"
3945:
Gilbertson RJ, Rich JN (October 2007). "Making a tumour's bed: glioblastoma stem cells and the vascular niche".
1149:
268:
126:
7419:
7414:
7206:
7112:
1176:
1042:
898:
821:
753:
749:
6640:"Programming pluripotent precursor cells derived from Xenopus embryos to generate specific tissues and organs"
2931:
Kan P, Simonsen SE, Lyon JL, Kestle JR (January 2008). "Cellular phone use and brain tumor: a meta-analysis".
1064:
41:
3291:
Louis DN, Perry A, Reifenberger G, von Deimling A, Figarella-Branger D, Cavenee WK, et al. (June 2016).
7198:
6279:
2663:
Crawford JR, Santi MR, Thorarinsdottir HK, Cornelison R, Rushing EJ, Zhang H, et al. (September 2009).
2628:
Vilchez RA, Kozinetz CA, Arrington AS, Madden CR, Butel JS (June 2003). "Simian virus 40 in human cancers".
1536:
643:
There are currently three molecular subtypes of glioblastoma that were identified based on gene expression:
5705:
537:
shift: some of the tumors were defined also by their genetic composition as well as their cell morphology.
7670:
Note: Not all brain tumors are of nervous tissue, and not all nervous tissue tumors are in the brain (see
7338:
7333:
7267:
4830:"Outcomes after combined use of intraoperative MRI and 5-aminolevulinic acid in high-grade glioma surgery"
1443:), and the highly variable appearance due to the presence of necrosis, hemorrhage, and cysts (multiform).
1408:
1246:
treatment, survival is typically three months. Complete cures are extremely rare, but have been reported.
1205:
1021:
873:
signaling in cultured glioma cells and that miRNA clustering controls epigenetic pathways in the disease.
720:
666:
502:
347:
4879:"DDRugging glioblastoma: understanding and targeting the DNA damage response to improve future therapies"
1501:. The results were encouraging and, as of 2016, a similar trial has been initiated in the United States.
7635:
7594:
7318:
4589:
2569:
1480:
1254:
1134:
947:
Distinguishing glioblastoma from high-grade astrocytoma is important. These tumors occur spontaneously (
724:
430:
2155:"Radiomic Analysis to Predict Histopathologically Confirmed Pseudoprogression in Glioblastoma Patients"
4664:
Stevens GH (July 2006). "Antiepileptic therapy in patients with central nervous system malignancies".
4190:"MicroRNA-451 regulates LKB1/AMPK signaling and allows adaptation to metabolic stress in glioma cells"
3705:
Molenaar RJ, Verbaan D, Lamba S, Zanon C, Jeuken JW, Boots-Sprenger SH, et al. (September 2014).
3293:"The 2016 World Health Organization Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: a summary"
741:
Studies using genome-wide profiling have revealed glioblastomas to have a remarkable genetic variety.
7698:
7599:
7409:
6966:"Preclinical development and clinical use of perillyl alcohol for chemoprevention and cancer therapy"
4250:
3381:
Louis DN, Perry A, Wesseling P, Brat DJ, Cree IA, Figarella-Branger D, et al. (2 August 2021).
1156:
for glioblastoma. GTV: gross tumor volume, CTV: clinical target volume, PTV: planning target volume.
632:
TERT promoter mutation, combined gain of chromosome 7 and loss of chromosome 10; EGFR amplification
374:. Previous radiation therapy is also a risk. For unknown reasons, it occurs more commonly in males.
7442:
7079:
2845:
Guyon J, Haidar Ahmad S, El Baba R, Le Quang M, Bikfalvi A, Daubon T, et al. (29 March 2024).
1097:
931:
478:
450:
406:
3332:
Louis DN, Perry A, Wesseling P, Brat DJ, Cree IA, Figarella-Branger D, et al. (August 2021).
3109:"Tumor Cell Infiltration into the Brain in Glioblastoma: From Mechanisms to Clinical Perspectives"
1212:
control symptoms, but do not appear to affect overall survival in those with glioblastoma. A 2018
1129:
potentially removing disease before secondary resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy occurs.
782:
The third pathway is defined by p53 and retinoblastoma (Rb) tumor suppressor pathway inactivation.
413:(CMV). Infection with an oncogenic CMV may even be necessary for the development of glioblastoma.
7606:
7548:
7011:
6946:
6903:
6706:
6257:
6075:
5536:
5493:
5446:
5397:
5352:
5293:
4689:
4019:
3970:
2956:
2796:
El Baba R, Pasquereau S, Haidar Ahmad S, Monnien F, Abad M, Bibeau F, et al. (9 June 2023).
2778:
2236:
2192:
2007:
1961:
1272:
474:
470:
367:
366:
Uncommon risk factors include genetic disorders such as neurofibromatosis, Li–Fraumeni syndrome,
76:
6827:
van Woensel M, Wauthoz N, Rosière R, Amighi K, Mathieu V, Lefranc F, et al. (August 2013).
5773:
Stupp R, Taillibert S, Kanner AA, Kesari S, Steinberg DM, Toms SA, et al. (December 2015).
5607:
Hanna C, Lawrie TA, Rogozińska E, Kernohan A, Jefferies S, Bulbeck H, et al. (March 2020).
3651:
Bleeker FE, Lamba S, Zanon C, Molenaar RJ, Hulsebos TJ, Troost D, et al. (September 2014).
528:
classification has been traditionally based on histopathology at macroscopic level, measured in
5901:
Rominiyi O, Vanderlinden A, Clenton SJ, Bridgewater C, Al-Tamimi Y, Collis SJ (February 2021).
4828:
Schatlo B, Fandino J, Smoll NR, Wetzel O, Remonda L, Marbacher S, et al. (December 2015).
4397:
Weller M, van den Bent M, Preusser M, Le Rhun E, Tonn JC, Minniti G, et al. (March 2021).
2419:
Alifieris C, Trafalis DT (August 2015). "Glioblastoma multiforme: Pathogenesis and treatment".
2258:
7708:
7619:
7363:
7228:
7123:
6987:
6938:
6895:
6860:
6806:
6755:
6671:
6620:
6571:
6522:
6460:
6411:
6360:
6249:
6214:
6168:
6124:
6067:
6032:
6003:"Improved survival time trends for glioblastoma using the SEER 17 population-based registries"
5983:
5950:
Grochans S, Cybulska AM, Simińska D, Korbecki J, Kojder K, Chlubek D, et al. (May 2022).
5932:
5883:
5834:
5796:
5687:
5638:
5585:
5528:
5485:
5389:
5328:
5285:
5249:
5214:
5178:
5143:
5102:
5050:
5001:
4957:
4908:
4859:
4810:
4774:
4738:
4681:
4646:
4561:
4512:
4463:
4428:
4370:
4321:
4276:
4237:
Bhaskaran V, Nowicki MO, Idriss M, Jimenez MA, Lugli G, Hayes JL, et al. (January 2019).
4219:
4170:
4121:
4070:
4011:
4001:
3962:
3927:
3884:
3853:
3818:
3777:
3736:
3684:
3633:
3598:
3546:
3505:
3464:
3412:
3363:
3314:
3273:
3222:
3191:
3140:
3089:
3040:
2991:
2948:
2913:
2878:
2827:
2770:
2735:
2694:
2645:
2610:
2561:
2526:
2477:
2436:
2392:
2357:
2308:
2264:
2228:
2184:
2135:
2086:
2030:
1999:
1953:
1908:
1852:
1796:
1744:
1660:
1612:
1213:
1168:
910:
792:
272:
264:
176:
137:
130:
122:
60:
6493:"Insights into molecular therapy of glioma: current challenges and next generation blueprint"
6191:
Krex D, Klink B, Hartmann C, von Deimling A, Pietsch T, Simon M, et al. (October 2007).
5817:
Sampson JH (December 2015). "Alternating Electric Fields for the Treatment of Glioblastoma".
5737:
4188:
Godlewski J, Nowicki MO, Bronisz A, Nuovo G, Palatini J, De Lay M, et al. (March 2010).
3795:
Hegi ME, Diserens AC, Gorlia T, Hamou MF, de Tribolet N, Weller M, et al. (March 2005).
3242:
Louis DN, Ohgaki H, Wiestler OD, Cavenee WK, Burger PC, Jouvet A, et al. (August 2007).
2847:"Generation of glioblastoma in mice engrafted with human cytomegalovirus-infected astrocytes"
7671:
7437:
6977:
6930:
6887:
6850:
6840:
6796:
6786:
6745:
6737:
6698:
6661:
6651:
6610:
6602:
6561:
6553:
6512:
6504:
6450:
6442:
6401:
6391:
6350:
6340:
6307:
6241:
6204:
6158:
6114:
6106:
6059:
6022:
6014:
5973:
5963:
5922:
5914:
5873:
5865:
5826:
5786:
5677:
5669:
5628:
5620:
5575:
5567:
5520:
5477:
5424:
5379:
5320:
5277:
5241:
5206:
5170:
5133:
5092:
5084:
5040:
5032:
4991:
4947:
4939:
4928:"A systematic review of cognitive function in patients with glioblastoma undergoing surgery"
4898:
4890:
4849:
4841:
4802:
4766:
4728:
4720:
4673:
4636:
4628:
4551:
4543:
4502:
4494:
4455:
4418:
4410:
4360:
4352:
4313:
4266:
4258:
4209:
4201:
4160:
4152:
4111:
4101:
4060:
4050:
3993:
3954:
3917:
3876:
3845:
3808:
3769:
3726:
3718:
3674:
3664:
3625:
3588:
3580:
3536:
3495:
3454:
3446:
3402:
3394:
3353:
3345:
3304:
3263:
3255:
3214:
3181:
3171:
3130:
3120:
3079:
3071:
3030:
3022:
2983:
2940:
2905:
2868:
2858:
2817:
2809:
2762:
2725:
2684:
2676:
2637:
2600:
2553:
2516:
2508:
2467:
2428:
2384:
2347:
2339:
2300:
2220:
2174:
2166:
2125:
2117:
2076:
2068:
1991:
1943:
1935:
1898:
1890:
1842:
1834:
1821:
Ostrom QT, Cioffi G, Gittleman H, Patil N, Waite K, Kruchko C, et al. (November 2019).
1786:
1778:
1734:
1726:
1602:
1594:
1494:
862:
858:
695:
The mesenchymal subtype is characterized by high rates of mutations or other alterations in
462:
395:
260:
118:
6001:
Koshy M, Villano JL, Dolecek TA, Howard A, Mahmood U, Chmura SJ, et al. (March 2012).
7703:
7511:
7355:
7033:
3567:
Verhaak RG, Hoadley KA, Purdom E, Wang V, Qi Y, Wilkerson MD, et al. (January 2010).
2495:
Smoll NR, Brady Z, Scurrah KJ, Lee C, Berrington de González A, Mathews JD (6 July 2023).
1518:
1428:
1328:
1261:
1225:
Phase 3 clinical trials of immunotherapy treatments for glioblastoma have largely failed.
1180:
700:
510:
410:
253:
204:
192:
5903:"Tumour treating fields therapy for glioblastoma: current advances and future directions"
4139:
Møller HG, Rasmussen AP, Andersen HH, Johnsen KB, Henriksen M, Duroux M (February 2013).
1046:
Management of IDH wild type glioblastoma, WHO grade 4. KPS, Karnofsky performance status.
669:
in chromosome 10 is also frequently seen in the classical subtype alongside chromosome 7
4507:
4482:
4254:
3904:
Murat A, Migliavacca E, Gorlia T, Lambiv WL, Shay T, Hamou MF, et al. (June 2008).
2873:
2846:
2822:
2798:"EZH2-Myc driven glioblastoma elicited by cytomegalovirus infection of human astrocytes"
2797:
2521:
2496:
2072:
1598:
1293:
UCLA Neuro-oncology publishes real-time survival data for patients with this diagnosis.
1187:
has been tested as an alternative treatment for glioblastoma, but is not in common use.
55:(viewed from the back of the head) with contrast of a glioblastoma in a 15-year-old male
7480:
7471:
7401:
7095:
6982:
6965:
6855:
6828:
6801:
6774:
6750:
6725:
6666:
6639:
6615:
6590:
6566:
6541:
6517:
6492:
6455:
6430:
6406:
6379:
6355:
6328:
6119:
6094:
6027:
6002:
5978:
5951:
5927:
5902:
5878:
5853:
5682:
5657:
5633:
5608:
5580:
5555:
5161:
Biegler KA, Chaoul MA, Cohen L (2009). "Cancer, cognitive impairment, and meditation".
5138:
5121:
5097:
5072:
5045:
5020:
4996:
4979:
4952:
4927:
4903:
4878:
4854:
4829:
4733:
4708:
4641:
4616:
4556:
4531:
4423:
4398:
4365:
4340:
4271:
4238:
4214:
4189:
4165:
4140:
4116:
4089:
4065:
4038:
3731:
3706:
3679:
3652:
3593:
3568:
3459:
3434:
3407:
3382:
3358:
3333:
3268:
3243:
3186:
3159:
3135:
3108:
3084:
3059:
3035:
3010:
2909:
2689:
2664:
2472:
2455:
2352:
2327:
2179:
2154:
2130:
2105:
2081:
2056:
1903:
1878:
1847:
1822:
1791:
1766:
1739:
1714:
1607:
1582:
1432:
1250:
1197:
1084:
1080:
1017:
1000:
442:
311:
65:
6312:
6295:
4806:
2753:
McFaline-Figueroa JR, Wen PY (February 2017). "The Viral Connection to Glioblastoma".
2641:
2224:
7687:
7589:
7475:
7391:
7026:
6542:"The art of gene therapy for glioma: a review of the challenging road to the bedside"
5706:"FDA approves expanded indication for medical device to treat a form of brain cancer"
4023:
3060:"Cell of origin for malignant gliomas and its implication in therapeutic development"
2432:
2326:
Ostrom QT, Patil N, Cioffi G, Waite K, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan JS (October 2020).
2196:
1965:
1948:
1108:
735:
292:
150:
49:
7152:
7084:
6710:
6429:
Siegel DA, Li J, Henley SJ, Wilson RJ, Lunsford NB, Tai E, et al. (June 2018).
6294:
Shaw EG, Seiferheld W, Scott C, Coughlin C, Leibel S, Curran W, et al. (2003).
6261:
5540:
5401:
5297:
4693:
4615:
Lawson HC, Sampath P, Bohan E, Park MC, Hussain N, Olivi A, et al. (May 2007).
4341:"Normalizing tumor microenvironment to treat cancer: bench to bedside to biomarkers"
2987:
2960:
2782:
2240:
2106:"Exciting new advances in neuro-oncology: the avenue to a cure for malignant glioma"
727:. 68–78% and 88% of Glioblastomas have alterations in these pathways, respectively.
259:
The cause of most cases of glioblastoma is not known. Uncommon risk factors include
7626:
7614:
7286:
6950:
6907:
6491:
Rajesh Y, Pal I, Banik P, Chakraborty S, Borkar SA, Dey G, et al. (May 2017).
6079:
5624:
5609:"Treatment of newly diagnosed glioblastoma in the elderly: a network meta-analysis"
5571:
5497:
3974:
2153:
McKenney AS, Weg E, Bale TA, Wild AT, Um H, Fox MJ, et al. (6 February 2022).
2011:
1782:
1526:
1468:
1461:
1456:
1161:
426:
391:
307:
303:
188:
172:
69:
7006:
5554:
Ameratunga M, Pavlakis N, Wheeler H, Grant R, Simes J, Khasraw M (November 2018).
5347:
5071:
Lange M, Joly F, Vardy J, Ahles T, Dubois M, Tron L, et al. (December 2019).
3011:"The cellular origin for malignant glioma and prospects for clinical advancements"
665:(p53), which is often mutated in glioblastoma, is rarely mutated in this subtype.
529:
7117:
6891:
5245:
5036:
4205:
2573:
7485:
7447:
7313:
7281:
7233:
7167:
6656:
6110:
4399:"EANO guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of diffuse gliomas of adulthood"
3997:
3992:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 1139. pp. 1–21.
3773:
3450:
3383:"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: a summary"
3334:"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: a summary"
3218:
3160:"MRI evaluation of pathologies affecting the corpus callosum: A pictorial essay"
3075:
2557:
1268:
1209:
833:
525:
494:
482:
425:
is a risk factor. No risk had been confirmed as of 2003. Similarly, exposure to
343:
276:
113:
7155:
7128:
6431:"Geographic Variation in Pediatric Cancer Incidence – United States, 2003–2014"
6063:
5918:
5673:
5210:
5021:"Prevalence, mechanisms, and management of cancer-related cognitive impairment"
4770:
4617:"Interstitial chemotherapy for malignant gliomas: the Johns Hopkins experience"
4414:
4262:
2863:
2813:
2388:
2170:
1995:
1583:"Current trends in the surgical management and treatment of adult glioblastoma"
441:
The cellular origin of glioblastoma is unknown. Because of the similarities in
7630:
7543:
7386:
6934:
6245:
6018:
5524:
5481:
5428:
5174:
4677:
4632:
4156:
3584:
3309:
3292:
3259:
2944:
2766:
2680:
2304:
1894:
1531:
1508:
1436:
1412:
1283:
935:
923:
837:
805:
498:
486:
446:
319:
298:
There is no known method of preventing the cancer. Treatment usually involves
183:
6741:
6606:
6557:
6345:
4498:
4356:
3922:
3905:
3669:
3433:
Wang Q, Hu B, Hu X, Kim H, Squatrito M, Scarpace L, et al. (July 2017).
3398:
3349:
3176:
2512:
2343:
791:
Glioblastoma cells with properties similar to progenitor cells (glioblastoma
7305:
7253:
7147:
7069:
5968:
5869:
5830:
5791:
5774:
5443:"Temozolomide Plus Radiation Helps Brain Cancer – National Cancer Institute"
5088:
4894:
4845:
4724:
3722:
3125:
2730:
2713:
2605:
2588:
1838:
1541:
1440:
1093:
890:
561:
490:
454:
387:
280:
199:
6991:
6942:
6899:
6864:
6845:
6810:
6759:
6702:
6675:
6624:
6575:
6526:
6464:
6446:
6415:
6396:
6364:
6253:
6218:
6209:
6192:
6172:
6128:
6071:
6036:
5987:
5936:
5887:
5838:
5800:
5691:
5642:
5589:
5532:
5489:
5393:
5332:
5253:
5182:
5147:
5106:
5054:
5005:
4961:
4912:
4863:
4814:
4778:
4742:
4685:
4650:
4565:
4547:
4516:
4467:
4432:
4374:
4325:
4280:
4223:
4174:
4125:
4074:
4055:
4015:
3966:
3931:
3857:
3822:
3781:
3740:
3688:
3637:
3602:
3550:
3509:
3468:
3416:
3367:
3318:
3277:
3195:
3144:
3093:
3044:
2995:
2952:
2917:
2882:
2831:
2774:
2739:
2712:
Chi J, Gu B, Zhang C, Peng G, Zhou F, Chen Y, et al. (November 2012).
2698:
2649:
2614:
2565:
2530:
2481:
2440:
2396:
2361:
2312:
2232:
2188:
2139:
2090:
2003:
1957:
1912:
1856:
1800:
1748:
1616:
1435:, based on the idea that the tumor originates from primitive precursors of
5368:"Radiotherapy plus concomitant and adjuvant temozolomide for glioblastoma"
5289:
4106:
3629:
3107:
Seker-Polat F, Pinarbasi Degirmenci N, Solaroglu I, Bagci-Onder T (2022).
2104:
Van Meir EG, Hadjipanayis CG, Norden AD, Shu HK, Wen PY, Olson JJ (2010).
748:
The first pathway involves the amplification and mutational activation of
647:
Classical: Around 97% of tumors in this subtype carry extra copies of the
7535:
7378:
6724:
Hossain JA, Marchini A, Fehse B, Bjerkvig R, Miletic H (1 January 2020).
6508:
5656:
Habashy KJ, Mansour R, Moussalem C, Sawaya R, Massaad MJ (October 2022).
5384:
5367:
5218:
4943:
4459:
3880:
3813:
3796:
2057:"Concurrent therapy to enhance radiotherapeutic outcomes in glioblastoma"
506:
339:
335:
288:
241:
146:
82:
4317:
3849:
1050:
Treating glioblastoma is difficult due to several complicating factors:
832:
Furthermore, GBM exhibits numerous alterations in genes that encode for
5324:
5281:
3541:
3524:
2121:
1939:
1730:
1498:
919:
383:
299:
284:
168:
142:
7052:
6791:
6163:
6146:
3562:
3560:
3244:"The 2007 WHO classification of tumours of the central nervous system"
3026:
752:(RTK) genes, leading to the dysregulation of growth factor signaling.
7463:
7296:
7064:
3616:
Kuehn BM (March 2010). "Genomics illuminates a deadly brain cancer".
3158:
Kazi AZ, Joshi PC, Kelkar AB, Mahajan MS, Ghawate AS (October 2013).
684:
514:
249:
245:
233:
90:
86:
3958:
3500:
3483:
3797:"MGMT gene silencing and benefit from temozolomide in glioblastoma"
1368:
Age ≥ 50, KPS ≥ 70, surgical removal with good neurologic function
1020:
of tumor cells, conferring a diagnosis of glioblastoma rather than
1016:
Lower magnification histopathology, showing necrosis surrounded by
6775:"Oncolytic Viruses for Malignant Glioma: On the Verge of Success?"
1148:
1119:
1096:
concurrent with radiation may have serious skin reactions such as
1041:
974:
909:
897:
889:
841:
796:
237:
7010:
for "Safety and Efficacy Study in Recurrent Grade IV Glioma " at
7106:
3525:"Biomarkers and therapeutic advances in glioblastoma multiforme"
1879:"Recent advances in the molecular understanding of glioblastoma"
1279:
1167:
GBM tumors are well known to contain zones of tissue exhibiting
984:
980:
959:
953:
906:
with contrast of a glioblastoma WHO grade 4 in a 15-year-old boy
866:
800:
776:
661:
402:
7171:
4039:"Chemotherapeutic Drugs: DNA Damage and Repair in Glioblastoma"
2497:"Computed tomography scan radiation and brain cancer incidence"
7659:
WHO classification of the tumors of the central nervous system
5019:
Janelsins MC, Kesler SR, Ahles TA, Morrow GR (February 2014).
3209:
Kleihues P, Burger PC, Scheithauer BW (1993). "Introduction".
2714:"Human herpesvirus 6 latent infection in patients with glioma"
963:, whereas this mutation is not present in glioblastoma. Thus,
903:
772:
678:
52:
6300:
International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
5234:
International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
5122:"Cognitive Impairment Associated with Cancer: A Brief Review"
4980:"Cognitive Impairment Associated with Cancer: A Brief Review"
4299:"The glioblastoma vasculature as a target for cancer therapy"
1765:
Hart MG, Garside R, Rogers G, Stein K, Grant R (April 2013).
1057:
The brain is susceptible to damage from conventional therapy.
676:
The proneural subtype often has high rates of alterations in
3211:
Histological Typing of Tumours of the Central Nervous System
2291:
McNeill KA (November 2016). "Epidemiology of Brain Tumors".
5952:"Epidemiology of Glioblastoma Multiforme-Literature Review"
2898:
Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology
5417:
Progress in Neurotherapeutics and Neuropsychopharmacology
6540:
Tobias A, Ahmed A, Moon KS, Lesniak MS (February 2013).
6186:
6184:
6182:
5120:
Pendergrass JC, Targum SD, Harrison JE (February 2018).
4978:
Pendergrass JC, Targum SD, Harrison JE (February 2018).
1054:
The tumor cells are resistant to conventional therapies.
318:
the brain and the second-most common brain tumor, after
283:. The diagnosis typically is made by a combination of a
6378:
Philips A, Henshaw DL, Lamburn G, O'Carroll MJ (2018).
6284:. Neurooncology.ucla.edu. Retrieved on 19 October 2010.
3762:
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Reviews on Cancer
1581:
Young RM, Jamshidi A, Davis G, Sherman JH (June 2015).
1133:
if the surgery is guided by a fluorescent dye known as
655:) gene, and most have higher than normal expression of
4707:
Das S, Marsden PA (October 2013). Phimister EG (ed.).
2456:"Current data and strategy in glioblastoma multiforme"
481:(CSF) (> 100 mg/dl), as well as an occasional
310:
is frequently used as part of chemotherapy. High-dose
4530:
Mo H, Magaki S, Deisch JK, Raghavan R (August 2022).
7042:
6093:
Caruso R, Pesce A, Wierzbicki V (20 February 2017).
5854:"TTFields: where does all the skepticism come from?"
4536:
Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology
2593:
Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology
509:
and may exhibit the classic infiltration across the
493:
cells carried in the CSF may spread (rarely) to the
252:. Symptoms often worsen rapidly and may progress to
207:~ 12 months with treatment (5 year survival <10%)
7651:
7579:
7557:
7534:
7504:
7460:
7430:
7400:
7377:
7354:
7304:
7295:
7275:
7266:
7242:
7214:
7205:
7138:
7046:
4973:
4971:
1124:
Glioblastoma pre (left) and post (right) resection.
616:Usually supratentorial, rarely cerebellum or spine
211:
198:
182:
164:
156:
136:
112:
104:
96:
75:
59:
31:
26:
6546:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
1060:The brain has a limited capacity to repair itself.
401:Glioblastoma has been associated with the viruses
232:), is the most aggressive and most common type of
6193:"Long-term survival with glioblastoma multiforme"
3653:"Mutational profiling of kinases in glioblastoma"
1715:"Nonsurgical treatment of recurrent glioblastoma"
779:, which is crucial for controlling cell survival.
6140:
6138:
5738:"FDA approval letter – NovoTTF-100A System"
1877:Bleeker FE, Molenaar RJ, Leenstra S (May 2012).
1183:, and as of 2015 a clinical trial was underway.
894:GBM in the frontal right lobe as seen on CT scan
421:Research has been done to see if consumption of
5556:"Anti-angiogenic therapy for high-grade glioma"
4926:Sinha R, Stephenson JM, Price SJ (March 2020).
4292:
4290:
1650:
1648:
1646:
983:expression, immunohistochemical negativity for
730:Another important alteration is methylation of
584:Median length of clinical history at diagnosis
306:and radiation therapy are used. The medication
6822:
6820:
6147:"The cure fraction of glioblastoma multiforme"
5812:
5810:
4037:Annovazzi L, Mellai M, Schiffer D (May 2017).
3523:Sasmita AO, Wong YP, Ling AP (February 2018).
2263:. Philadelphia: Mosby Elsevier. p. 1336.
1644:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1626:
545:Features of glioblastoma, IDH wildtype, WHO 4
7183:
6591:"The status of gene therapy for brain tumors"
6099:International Journal of Surgery Case Reports
5066:
5064:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4384:
3754:
3752:
3750:
3700:
3698:
3164:The Indian Journal of Radiology & Imaging
1092:prescribing this medication. Those receiving
477:wall, leading to high protein content in the
8:
3058:Zong H, Parada LF, Baker SJ (January 2015).
473:. The tumor may extend into the meninges or
7522:Embryonal tumour with multilayered rosettes
6435:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
5613:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
5560:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1977:
1975:
1771:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1576:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1562:
756:(EGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (
7301:
7292:
7272:
7211:
7190:
7176:
7168:
7043:
6964:Chen TC, Fonseca CO, Schönthal AH (2015).
6384:Journal of Environmental and Public Health
6145:Smoll NR, Schaller K, Gautschi OP (2012).
4666:Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports
4487:Exploration of Targeted Anti-Tumor Therapy
3064:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2252:
2250:
1760:
1758:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1696:
40:
23:
6981:
6854:
6844:
6800:
6790:
6749:
6665:
6655:
6614:
6565:
6516:
6454:
6405:
6395:
6354:
6344:
6311:
6208:
6162:
6118:
6026:
5977:
5967:
5926:
5877:
5790:
5681:
5632:
5579:
5383:
5137:
5096:
5044:
4995:
4951:
4902:
4853:
4732:
4640:
4555:
4506:
4422:
4364:
4270:
4213:
4164:
4115:
4105:
4064:
4054:
3921:
3812:
3730:
3678:
3668:
3592:
3540:
3529:Asia-Pacific Journal of Clinical Oncology
3499:
3458:
3406:
3357:
3308:
3267:
3185:
3175:
3134:
3124:
3083:
3034:
3009:Zong H, Verhaak RG, Canoll P (May 2012).
2872:
2862:
2821:
2729:
2688:
2604:
2520:
2471:
2414:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2351:
2286:
2284:
2178:
2129:
2080:
1947:
1902:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1846:
1790:
1738:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1606:
621:Necrosis and microvascular proliferation
497:or cause meningeal gliomatosis. However,
6773:Suryawanshi YR, Schulze AJ (July 2021).
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1460:LPLNP-PPT (long persistent luminescence
1298:
543:
7643:Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor
7567:Primary central nervous system lymphoma
7491:Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour
4481:Eibl RH, Schneemann M (February 2023).
2050:
2048:
2046:
1558:
1376:Age ≥ 50, KPS ≥ 70, no surgical removal
990:
914:Diagnostic algorithm of diffuse glioma.
760:), and platelet-derived growth factor (
690:platelet-derived growth factor receptor
629:Associated molecular/genetic mutations
465:could all serve as the cell of origin.
382:Other associations include exposure to
6638:Borchers A, Pieler T (November 2010).
5754:from the original on 22 September 2015
4877:Rominiyi O, Collis SJ (January 2022).
3015:Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics
2454:Iacob G, Dinca EB (25 November 2009).
605:Surgery + radiotherapy + chemotherapy
6589:Fulci G, Chiocca EA (February 2007).
3428:
3426:
882:processes such as immunosuppression.
591:
275:. Glioblastomas represent 15% of all
248:, and symptoms similar to those of a
7:
6595:Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy
6481:. JB Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1926.
5126:Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience
4984:Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience
1767:"Temozolomide for high grade glioma"
513:, producing a butterfly (bilateral)
7329:Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma
6970:American Journal of Cancer Research
5372:The New England Journal of Medicine
4713:The New England Journal of Medicine
4596:from the original on 9 October 2021
3801:The New England Journal of Medicine
3484:"Genomics boosts brain-cancer work"
2260:Neurology and clinical neuroscience
2073:10.3978/j.issn.2305-5839.2016.01.25
2029:. World Health Organization. 2014.
1659:. World Health Organization. 2014.
1599:10.3978/j.issn.2305-5839.2015.05.10
1173:oxygen diffusion-enhancing compound
453:. More recent studies suggest that
350:until it reaches an enormous size.
6327:Xu H, Chen J, Xu H, Qin Z (2017).
5718:from the original on 23 March 2016
5025:International Review of Psychiatry
3990:Stem Cells Heterogeneity in Cancer
2910:10.1615/JEnvPathToxOncol.v22.i2.60
2755:Current Infectious Disease Reports
2718:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
2587:Ohgaki H, Kleihues P (June 2005).
2277:from the original on 29 July 2017.
1234:Alternating electric field therapy
14:
4403:Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology
279:. They are thought to arise from
7517:Atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor
7038:American Brain Tumor Association
6052:Journal of Clinical Neuroscience
4483:"Liquid biopsy and glioblastoma"
4306:Biochemical Society Transactions
2630:The American Journal of Medicine
2433:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2015.05.005
2061:Annals of Translational Medicine
1984:Journal of Clinical Neuroscience
1587:Annals of Translational Medicine
1547:List of people with brain tumors
1511:
1009:
993:
649:epidermal growth factor receptor
459:oligodendrocyte progenitor cells
6880:Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery
6333:Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience
2988:10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.01.003
2421:Pharmacology & Therapeutics
1310:Historical Median Survival Time
1302:Recursive partitioning analysis
16:Aggressive type of brain cancer
7611:Cranial and paraspinal nerves
7027:Information about glioblastoma
5625:10.1002/14651858.cd013261.pub2
5572:10.1002/14651858.CD008218.pub4
4709:"Angiogenesis in glioblastoma"
4090:"Ion channels in glioblastoma"
2159:Advances in Radiation Oncology
1783:10.1002/14651858.CD007415.pub2
1497:for intranasal delivery as an
928:tumefactive multiple sclerosis
1:
7324:Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma
7199:Tumours of the nervous system
6691:Advanced Functional Materials
6313:10.1016/S0360-3016(03)00843-5
4807:10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70665-9
2642:10.1016/S0002-9343(03)00087-1
2225:10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70025-7
1407:It is the second-most common
1185:Boron neutron capture therapy
703:and fewer alterations in the
7369:Anaplastic oligodendroglioma
6892:10.1517/17425247.2013.790887
5711:Food and Drug Administration
5246:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2007.03.045
5037:10.3109/09540261.2013.864260
4345:Journal of Clinical Oncology
4206:10.1016/j.molcel.2010.02.018
3910:Journal of Clinical Oncology
2669:Journal of Clinical Virology
2460:Journal of Medicine and Life
1154:Radiation treatment planning
1063:Many drugs cannot cross the
836:, including upregulation of
820:gene encodes for the enzyme
707:gene and less expression of
6657:10.3390/chemosensors8040117
6111:10.1016/j.ijscr.2017.02.025
4297:Dimberg A (December 2014).
3998:10.1007/978-3-030-14366-4_1
3774:10.1016/j.bbcan.2014.05.004
3451:10.1016/j.ccell.2017.06.003
3219:10.1007/978-3-642-84988-6_1
3076:10.1101/cshperspect.a020610
2558:10.1016/j.canep.2016.03.006
1319:Historical 5-Year Survival
1262:Karnofsky performance score
521:Glioblastoma classification
485:of 10 to 100 cells, mostly
7725:
6497:Acta Pharmacologica Sinica
6479:Tumors of the Glioma Group
6064:10.1016/j.jocn.2012.05.040
5919:10.1038/s41416-020-01136-5
5674:10.1038/s41416-022-01864-w
5355:, accessed 1 February 2016
5211:10.3171/jns.1978.49.3.0333
4771:10.3171/jns.2001.95.2.0190
4415:10.1038/s41571-020-00447-z
4263:10.1038/s41467-019-08390-z
3482:Hayden EC (January 2010).
2864:10.1038/s41417-024-00767-7
2814:10.1038/s41388-023-02709-3
2389:10.1016/j.ejca.2015.07.032
2377:European Journal of Cancer
2171:10.1016/j.adro.2022.100916
2055:Khosla D (February 2016).
1996:10.1016/j.jocn.2009.09.004
1427:was introduced in 1926 by
1316:Historical 3-Year Survival
1313:Historical 1-Year Survival
7694:Aging-associated diseases
7667:
6935:10.1007/s11060-013-1346-5
6923:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
6246:10.1007/s11060-006-9292-0
6234:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
6019:10.1007/s11060-011-0738-7
6007:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
5907:British Journal of Cancer
5662:British Journal of Cancer
5525:10.1007/s11060-008-9663-9
5513:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
5482:10.1007/s11060-006-9241-y
5470:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
5429:10.1017/S1748232105000054
5270:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
5175:10.1080/02841860802415535
4678:10.1007/s11910-006-0024-9
4633:10.1007/s11060-006-9303-1
4621:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
4585:The James Cancer Hospital
4157:10.1007/s12035-012-8349-7
3585:10.1016/j.ccr.2009.12.020
3310:10.1007/s00401-016-1545-1
3260:10.1007/s00401-007-0243-4
2945:10.1007/s11060-007-9432-1
2933:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
2767:10.1007/s11908-017-0563-z
2681:10.1016/j.jcv.2009.05.011
2305:10.1016/j.ncl.2016.06.014
1895:10.1007/s11060-011-0793-0
1883:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
1713:Gallego O (August 2015).
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1372:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1208:with medications such as
1107:Corticosteroids, usually
688:the gene encoding a-type
534:World Health Organization
48:
39:
7496:Lhermitte–Duclos disease
7420:Choroid plexus carcinoma
7415:Choroid plexus papilloma
6607:10.1517/14712598.7.2.197
6558:10.1136/jnnp-2012-302946
6346:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00352
4499:10.37349/etat.2023.00121
4357:10.1200/JCO.2012.46.3653
3923:10.1200/JCO.2007.15.7164
3873:Handbook of Neurosurgery
3670:10.1186/1471-2407-14-718
3177:10.4103/0971-3026.125604
2338:(12 Suppl 2): iv1–iv96.
2027:World Cancer Report 2014
1657:World Cancer Report 2014
1488:Intranasal drug delivery
1351:Age < 50, KPS < 90
1177:trans sodium crocetinate
1102:Stevens–Johnson syndrome
822:isocitrate dehydrogenase
754:Epithelial growth factor
750:receptor tyrosine kinase
592:Median overall survival
568:Median age at diagnosis
338:, headaches, nausea and
334:Common symptoms include
89:, symptoms similar to a
7032:5 February 2024 at the
6730:Neuro-Oncology Advances
6650:(3). MDPI AG: 413–426.
5969:10.3390/cancers14102412
5831:10.1001/jama.2015.16701
5792:10.1001/jama.2015.16669
5199:Journal of Neurosurgery
4932:Neuro-Oncology Practice
4895:10.1002/1878-0261.13020
4759:Journal of Neurosurgery
4725:10.1056/NEJMcibr1309402
3838:Genes & Development
3126:10.3390/cancers14020443
1537:Glioblastoma Foundation
1425:glioblastoma multiforme
842:ClC-3 chloride channels
597:Surgery + radiotherapy
244:, personality changes,
236:that originates in the
226:glioblastoma multiforme
85:, personality changes,
81:Initially nonspecific,
35:Glioblastoma multiforme
7339:Anaplastic astrocytoma
7334:Fibrillary astrocytoma
7004:Clinical trial number
6846:10.3390/cancers5031020
6742:10.1093/noajnl/vdaa013
6703:10.1002/adfm.201604992
6477:Bailey & Cushing:
6447:10.15585/mmwr.mm6725a2
5345:Clinical trial number
4145:Molecular Neurobiology
4056:10.3390/cancers9060057
3947:Nature Reviews. Cancer
3399:10.1093/neuonc/noab106
3350:10.1093/neuonc/noab106
2513:10.1093/neuonc/noad012
2344:10.1093/neuonc/noaa200
1409:central nervous system
1393:Age ≥ 50, KPS < 70
1206:Antiangiogenic therapy
1157:
1125:
1047:
1022:anaplastic astrocytoma
915:
907:
895:
865:is a key regulator of
838:gBK potassium channels
667:Loss of heterozygosity
503:central nervous system
431:electromagnetic fields
348:asymptomatic condition
224:, previously known as
215:3 per 100,000 per year
7595:Esthesioneuroblastoma
7319:Pilocytic astrocytoma
5870:10.1093/neuonc/now012
5852:Wick W (March 2016).
5089:10.1093/annonc/mdz410
4846:10.1093/neuonc/nov049
4590:Ohio State University
4339:Jain RK (June 2013).
4243:Nature Communications
3871:Greenberg MS (2016).
3723:10.1093/neuonc/nou005
3630:10.1001/jama.2010.236
3297:Acta Neuropathologica
3248:Acta Neuropathologica
2731:10.1093/infdis/jis513
2606:10.1093/jnen/64.6.479
1949:10536/DRO/DU:30138185
1934:(4). Wiley: 299–312.
1839:10.1093/neuonc/noz150
1481:Oncolytic virotherapy
1476:Oncolytic virotherapy
1255:intracranial pressure
1152:
1135:5-aminolevulinic acid
1123:
1045:
913:
901:
893:
639:Molecular alterations
7600:Ganglioneuroblastoma
7505:CNS embryonal tumors
7410:Choroid plexus tumor
6509:10.1038/aps.2016.167
6397:10.1155/2018/7910754
6210:10.1093/brain/awm204
6203:(Pt 10): 2596–2606.
5385:10.1056/NEJMoa043330
4795:The Lancet. Oncology
4580:"Gliomas Prevention"
4548:10.1093/jnen/nlac059
4460:10.1148/rg.272065155
4088:Molenaar RJ (2011).
3881:10.1055/b-006-149702
3814:10.1056/NEJMoa043331
2257:Schapira AH (2007).
2213:The Lancet. Oncology
1833:(Suppl 5): v1–v100.
1217:radiotherapy alone.
1067:to act on the tumor.
699:, the gene encoding
396:rubber manufacturing
269:Li–Fraumeni syndrome
127:Li–Fraumeni syndrome
7443:Gliomatosis cerebri
4318:10.1042/BST20140278
4255:2019NatCo..10..442B
4107:10.5402/2011/590249
3850:10.1101/gad.1596707
2851:Cancer Gene Therapy
2546:Cancer Epidemiology
1098:erythema multiforme
1075:Symptomatic therapy
1065:blood–brain barrier
932:stereotactic biopsy
806:DNA damage response
546:
479:cerebrospinal fluid
451:subventricular zone
7607:Nerve sheath tumor
7549:Hemangiopericytoma
7139:External resources
7012:ClinicalTrials.gov
5353:ClinicalTrials.gov
5325:10.2217/fon.10.123
5282:10.1007/BF00170946
5077:Annals of Oncology
4944:10.1093/nop/npz018
4883:Molecular Oncology
3542:10.1111/ajco.12756
2293:Neurologic Clinics
2122:10.3322/caac.20069
1940:10.3322/caac.21613
1731:10.3747/co.22.2436
1484:overall survival.
1158:
1126:
1048:
916:
908:
896:
736:MGMT gene promoter
659:, whereas the gene
576:Male:Female ratio
553:Glioblastoma, GBM
544:
501:of GBM beyond the
471:perivascular space
429:, and residential
392:petroleum refining
368:tuberous sclerosis
330:Signs and symptoms
7681:
7680:
7620:Neurofibromatosis
7575:
7574:
7530:
7529:
7456:
7455:
7364:Oligodendroglioma
7262:
7261:
7229:Craniopharyngioma
7165:
7164:
6792:10.3390/v13071294
6164:10.1159/000339319
6151:Neuroepidemiology
5825:(23): 2511–2513.
5785:(23): 2535–2543.
5449:on 15 August 2007
5319:(10): 1591–1601.
5083:(12): 1925–1940.
4840:(12): 1560–1567.
4719:(16): 1561–1563.
4351:(17): 2205–2218.
4007:978-3-030-14365-7
3916:(18): 3015–3024.
3890:978-1-62623-242-6
3844:(21): 2683–2710.
3228:978-3-540-56971-8
3027:10.1586/erm.12.30
2808:(24): 2031–2045.
2383:(15): 2231–2241.
2270:978-0-323-07053-9
2036:978-92-832-0429-9
1666:978-92-832-0429-9
1397:
1396:
1214:systematic review
877:Tumor vasculature
793:cancer stem cells
787:Cancer stem cells
711:than other types.
636:
635:
530:hematoxylin-eosin
463:neural stem cells
390:, and working in
273:radiation therapy
265:neurofibromatosis
261:genetic disorders
219:
218:
138:Diagnostic method
131:radiation therapy
123:neurofibromatosis
119:Genetic disorders
21:Medical condition
7716:
7672:brain metastasis
7636:Acoustic neuroma
7438:Oligoastrocytoma
7431:Multiple/unknown
7302:
7293:
7273:
7247:
7222:
7212:
7192:
7185:
7178:
7169:
7044:
7014:
7002:
6996:
6995:
6985:
6976:(5): 1580–1593.
6961:
6955:
6954:
6918:
6912:
6911:
6875:
6869:
6868:
6858:
6848:
6839:(3): 1020–1048.
6824:
6815:
6814:
6804:
6794:
6770:
6764:
6763:
6753:
6721:
6715:
6714:
6686:
6680:
6679:
6669:
6659:
6635:
6629:
6628:
6618:
6586:
6580:
6579:
6569:
6537:
6531:
6530:
6520:
6488:
6482:
6475:
6469:
6468:
6458:
6426:
6420:
6419:
6409:
6399:
6375:
6369:
6368:
6358:
6348:
6324:
6318:
6317:
6315:
6291:
6285:
6283:
6278:. Archived from
6272:
6266:
6265:
6229:
6223:
6222:
6212:
6188:
6177:
6176:
6166:
6142:
6133:
6132:
6122:
6090:
6084:
6083:
6047:
6041:
6040:
6030:
5998:
5992:
5991:
5981:
5971:
5947:
5941:
5940:
5930:
5898:
5892:
5891:
5881:
5849:
5843:
5842:
5814:
5805:
5804:
5794:
5770:
5764:
5763:
5761:
5759:
5753:
5742:
5734:
5728:
5727:
5725:
5723:
5702:
5696:
5695:
5685:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5636:
5604:
5598:
5597:
5583:
5566:(11): CD008218.
5551:
5545:
5544:
5508:
5502:
5501:
5465:
5459:
5458:
5456:
5454:
5445:. Archived from
5439:
5433:
5432:
5412:
5406:
5405:
5387:
5362:
5356:
5343:
5337:
5336:
5308:
5302:
5301:
5264:
5258:
5257:
5229:
5223:
5222:
5193:
5187:
5186:
5158:
5152:
5151:
5141:
5117:
5111:
5110:
5100:
5068:
5059:
5058:
5048:
5016:
5010:
5009:
4999:
4975:
4966:
4965:
4955:
4923:
4917:
4916:
4906:
4874:
4868:
4867:
4857:
4825:
4819:
4818:
4789:
4783:
4782:
4753:
4747:
4746:
4736:
4704:
4698:
4697:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4644:
4612:
4606:
4605:
4603:
4601:
4576:
4570:
4569:
4559:
4527:
4521:
4520:
4510:
4478:
4472:
4471:
4443:
4437:
4436:
4426:
4394:
4379:
4378:
4368:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4312:(6): 1647–1652.
4303:
4294:
4285:
4284:
4274:
4234:
4228:
4227:
4217:
4185:
4179:
4178:
4168:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4119:
4109:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4068:
4058:
4034:
4028:
4027:
3985:
3979:
3978:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3925:
3901:
3895:
3894:
3868:
3862:
3861:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3816:
3807:(10): 997–1003.
3792:
3786:
3785:
3756:
3745:
3744:
3734:
3717:(9): 1263–1273.
3702:
3693:
3692:
3682:
3672:
3648:
3642:
3641:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3596:
3564:
3555:
3554:
3544:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3503:
3479:
3473:
3472:
3462:
3430:
3421:
3420:
3410:
3393:(8): 1231–1251.
3378:
3372:
3371:
3361:
3344:(8): 1231–1251.
3329:
3323:
3322:
3312:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3271:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3213:. pp. 1–3.
3206:
3200:
3199:
3189:
3179:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3138:
3128:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3087:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3038:
3006:
3000:
2999:
2982:(2–3): 113–122.
2971:
2965:
2964:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2893:
2887:
2886:
2876:
2866:
2857:(7): 1070–1080.
2842:
2836:
2835:
2825:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2750:
2744:
2743:
2733:
2724:(9): 1394–1398.
2709:
2703:
2702:
2692:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2608:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2507:(7): 1368–1376.
2492:
2486:
2485:
2475:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2416:
2401:
2400:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2355:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2288:
2279:
2278:
2254:
2245:
2244:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2182:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2133:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2084:
2052:
2041:
2040:
2022:
2016:
2015:
1979:
1970:
1969:
1951:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1906:
1874:
1861:
1860:
1850:
1818:
1805:
1804:
1794:
1762:
1753:
1752:
1742:
1725:(4): e273–e281.
1719:Current Oncology
1710:
1671:
1670:
1655:"Chapter 5.16".
1652:
1621:
1620:
1610:
1578:
1521:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1495:perillyl alcohol
1299:
1229:Other procedures
1181:radiosensitizers
1013:
997:
859:RNA interference
547:
44:
24:
7724:
7723:
7719:
7718:
7717:
7715:
7714:
7713:
7684:
7683:
7682:
7677:
7676:
7663:
7647:
7571:
7553:
7526:
7512:Medulloblastoma
7500:
7462:
7452:
7426:
7396:
7373:
7356:Oligodendrocyte
7350:
7285:
7279:
7277:Neuroepithelial
7258:
7243:
7238:
7215:
7201:
7196:
7166:
7161:
7160:
7134:
7133:
7055:
7034:Wayback Machine
7023:
7018:
7017:
7003:
6999:
6963:
6962:
6958:
6920:
6919:
6915:
6877:
6876:
6872:
6826:
6825:
6818:
6772:
6771:
6767:
6723:
6722:
6718:
6697:(11): 1604992.
6688:
6687:
6683:
6637:
6636:
6632:
6588:
6587:
6583:
6539:
6538:
6534:
6490:
6489:
6485:
6476:
6472:
6441:(25): 707–713.
6428:
6427:
6423:
6377:
6376:
6372:
6326:
6325:
6321:
6293:
6292:
6288:
6282:on 9 June 2012.
6274:
6273:
6269:
6231:
6230:
6226:
6190:
6189:
6180:
6144:
6143:
6136:
6092:
6091:
6087:
6049:
6048:
6044:
6000:
5999:
5995:
5949:
5948:
5944:
5900:
5899:
5895:
5851:
5850:
5846:
5816:
5815:
5808:
5772:
5771:
5767:
5757:
5755:
5751:
5740:
5736:
5735:
5731:
5721:
5719:
5704:
5703:
5699:
5655:
5654:
5650:
5619:(3): CD013261.
5606:
5605:
5601:
5553:
5552:
5548:
5510:
5509:
5505:
5467:
5466:
5462:
5452:
5450:
5441:
5440:
5436:
5414:
5413:
5409:
5378:(10): 987–996.
5364:
5363:
5359:
5344:
5340:
5313:Future Oncology
5310:
5309:
5305:
5266:
5265:
5261:
5231:
5230:
5226:
5195:
5194:
5190:
5163:Acta Oncologica
5160:
5159:
5155:
5119:
5118:
5114:
5070:
5069:
5062:
5018:
5017:
5013:
4977:
4976:
4969:
4925:
4924:
4920:
4876:
4875:
4871:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4791:
4790:
4786:
4755:
4754:
4750:
4706:
4705:
4701:
4663:
4662:
4658:
4614:
4613:
4609:
4599:
4597:
4578:
4577:
4573:
4529:
4528:
4524:
4480:
4479:
4475:
4445:
4444:
4440:
4396:
4395:
4382:
4338:
4337:
4333:
4301:
4296:
4295:
4288:
4236:
4235:
4231:
4187:
4186:
4182:
4138:
4137:
4133:
4087:
4086:
4082:
4036:
4035:
4031:
4008:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3959:10.1038/nrc2246
3953:(10): 733–736.
3944:
3943:
3939:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3891:
3870:
3869:
3865:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3794:
3793:
3789:
3758:
3757:
3748:
3704:
3703:
3696:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3624:(10): 925–927.
3615:
3614:
3610:
3566:
3565:
3558:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3501:10.1038/463278a
3481:
3480:
3476:
3445:(1): 42–56.e6.
3432:
3431:
3424:
3380:
3379:
3375:
3331:
3330:
3326:
3290:
3289:
3285:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3229:
3208:
3207:
3203:
3157:
3156:
3152:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3057:
3056:
3052:
3008:
3007:
3003:
2976:Pathophysiology
2973:
2972:
2968:
2930:
2929:
2925:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2662:
2661:
2657:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2418:
2417:
2404:
2374:
2373:
2369:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2290:
2289:
2282:
2271:
2256:
2255:
2248:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2054:
2053:
2044:
2037:
2025:"Chapter 3.8".
2024:
2023:
2019:
1981:
1980:
1973:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1876:
1875:
1864:
1820:
1819:
1808:
1777:(4): CD007415.
1764:
1763:
1756:
1712:
1711:
1674:
1667:
1654:
1653:
1624:
1580:
1579:
1560:
1555:
1519:Medicine portal
1517:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1490:
1478:
1454:
1449:
1429:Percival Bailey
1421:
1402:
1303:
1260:A good initial
1243:
1231:
1223:
1193:
1147:
1118:
1085:corticosteroids
1081:anticonvulsants
1077:
1040:
1031:
1024:
1018:pseudopalisades
1014:
1005:
998:
941:MR spectroscopy
888:
879:
855:
847:
830:
814:
789:
701:neurofibromin 1
641:
558:Cell of origin
523:
511:corpus callosum
439:
419:
411:cytomegalovirus
380:
372:Turcot syndrome
364:
356:
332:
271:, and previous
254:unconsciousness
205:Life expectancy
108:Usually unclear
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7722:
7720:
7712:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7696:
7686:
7685:
7679:
7678:
7668:
7665:
7664:
7662:
7661:
7655:
7653:
7649:
7648:
7646:
7645:
7640:
7639:
7638:
7624:
7623:
7622:
7617:
7609:
7604:
7603:
7602:
7597:
7586:
7584:
7577:
7576:
7573:
7572:
7570:
7569:
7563:
7561:
7555:
7554:
7552:
7551:
7546:
7540:
7538:
7532:
7531:
7528:
7527:
7525:
7524:
7519:
7514:
7508:
7506:
7502:
7501:
7499:
7498:
7493:
7488:
7483:
7481:Retinoblastoma
7478:
7472:Ganglioneuroma
7468:
7466:
7458:
7457:
7454:
7453:
7451:
7450:
7445:
7440:
7434:
7432:
7428:
7427:
7425:
7424:
7423:
7422:
7417:
7406:
7404:
7402:Choroid plexus
7398:
7397:
7395:
7394:
7389:
7383:
7381:
7375:
7374:
7372:
7371:
7366:
7360:
7358:
7352:
7351:
7349:
7348:
7347:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7326:
7321:
7310:
7308:
7299:
7290:
7270:
7264:
7263:
7260:
7259:
7257:
7256:
7250:
7248:
7240:
7239:
7237:
7236:
7231:
7225:
7223:
7209:
7203:
7202:
7197:
7195:
7194:
7187:
7180:
7172:
7163:
7162:
7159:
7158:
7143:
7142:
7140:
7136:
7135:
7132:
7131:
7120:
7109:
7098:
7087:
7072:
7056:
7051:
7050:
7048:
7047:Classification
7041:
7040:
7022:
7021:External links
7019:
7016:
7015:
6997:
6956:
6929:(3): 437–446.
6913:
6886:(7): 957–972.
6870:
6816:
6765:
6736:(1): vdaa013.
6716:
6681:
6630:
6601:(2): 197–208.
6581:
6552:(2): 213–222.
6532:
6503:(5): 591–613.
6483:
6470:
6421:
6370:
6319:
6306:(2): S135–36.
6286:
6267:
6224:
6178:
6134:
6085:
6058:(5): 670–675.
6042:
6013:(1): 207–212.
5993:
5942:
5913:(4): 697–709.
5893:
5864:(3): 303–305.
5858:Neuro-Oncology
5844:
5806:
5765:
5729:
5697:
5668:(6): 976–987.
5648:
5599:
5546:
5519:(3): 315–319.
5503:
5460:
5434:
5407:
5357:
5338:
5303:
5259:
5240:(3): 820–824.
5224:
5205:(3): 333–343.
5188:
5153:
5132:(1–2): 36–44.
5112:
5060:
5031:(1): 102–113.
5011:
4990:(1–2): 36–44.
4967:
4938:(2): 131–142.
4918:
4869:
4834:Neuro-Oncology
4820:
4801:(5): 392–401.
4784:
4765:(2): 190–198.
4748:
4699:
4672:(4): 311–318.
4656:
4607:
4571:
4542:(9): 707–716.
4522:
4473:
4454:(2): 525–551.
4438:
4409:(3): 170–186.
4380:
4331:
4286:
4229:
4200:(5): 620–632.
4194:Molecular Cell
4180:
4151:(1): 131–144.
4131:
4094:ISRN Neurology
4080:
4029:
4006:
3980:
3937:
3896:
3889:
3863:
3828:
3787:
3768:(2): 326–341.
3746:
3711:Neuro-Oncology
3694:
3643:
3608:
3556:
3515:
3474:
3422:
3387:Neuro-Oncology
3373:
3338:Neuro-Oncology
3324:
3303:(6): 803–820.
3283:
3234:
3227:
3201:
3170:(4): 321–332.
3150:
3099:
3070:(5): a020610.
3050:
3021:(4): 383–394.
3001:
2966:
2923:
2904:(2): 129–137.
2888:
2837:
2788:
2745:
2704:
2655:
2636:(8): 675–684.
2620:
2599:(6): 479–489.
2579:
2536:
2501:Neuro-Oncology
2487:
2466:(4): 386–393.
2446:
2402:
2367:
2332:Neuro-Oncology
2318:
2299:(4): 981–998.
2280:
2269:
2246:
2219:(5): 459–466.
2202:
2145:
2116:(3): 166–193.
2096:
2042:
2035:
2017:
1990:(4): 417–421.
1971:
1918:
1862:
1827:Neuro-Oncology
1806:
1754:
1672:
1665:
1622:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1506:
1503:
1489:
1486:
1477:
1474:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1433:Harvey Cushing
1420:
1417:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1253:and increased
1251:cerebral edema
1242:
1239:
1230:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1198:clinical trial
1192:
1189:
1146:
1143:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1105:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1068:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1039:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1015:
1008:
1006:
1001:Histopathology
999:
992:
887:
884:
878:
875:
854:
851:
845:
829:
826:
813:
810:
788:
785:
784:
783:
780:
765:
713:
712:
693:
682:(p53), and in
674:
640:
637:
634:
633:
630:
626:
625:
622:
618:
617:
614:
610:
609:
606:
602:
601:
598:
594:
593:
589:
588:
585:
581:
580:
577:
573:
572:
569:
565:
564:
559:
555:
554:
551:
541:glioblastoma.
532:sections. The
522:
519:
443:immunostaining
438:
435:
418:
415:
379:
376:
363:
360:
355:
352:
331:
328:
302:, after which
217:
216:
213:
209:
208:
202:
196:
195:
186:
180:
179:
166:
162:
161:
158:
154:
153:
140:
134:
133:
116:
110:
109:
106:
102:
101:
98:
94:
93:
79:
73:
72:
66:Neuro-oncology
63:
57:
56:
46:
45:
37:
36:
33:
29:
28:
20:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7721:
7710:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7691:
7689:
7675:
7673:
7666:
7660:
7657:
7656:
7654:
7650:
7644:
7641:
7637:
7634:
7633:
7632:
7628:
7625:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7612:
7610:
7608:
7605:
7601:
7598:
7596:
7593:
7592:
7591:
7590:Neuroblastoma
7588:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7578:
7568:
7565:
7564:
7562:
7560:
7559:Hematopoietic
7556:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7541:
7539:
7537:
7533:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7509:
7507:
7503:
7497:
7494:
7492:
7489:
7487:
7484:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7476:Ganglioglioma
7473:
7470:
7469:
7467:
7465:
7459:
7449:
7446:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7435:
7433:
7429:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7411:
7408:
7407:
7405:
7403:
7399:
7393:
7392:Subependymoma
7390:
7388:
7385:
7384:
7382:
7380:
7376:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7361:
7359:
7357:
7353:
7345:
7342:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7316:
7315:
7312:
7311:
7309:
7307:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7294:
7291:
7288:
7287:spinal tumors
7283:
7278:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7265:
7255:
7252:
7251:
7249:
7246:
7241:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7227:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7219:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7204:
7200:
7193:
7188:
7186:
7181:
7179:
7174:
7173:
7170:
7157:
7154:
7150:
7149:
7145:
7144:
7141:
7137:
7130:
7126:
7125:
7121:
7119:
7115:
7114:
7110:
7108:
7104:
7103:
7099:
7097:
7093:
7092:
7088:
7086:
7082:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7071:
7067:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7057:
7054:
7049:
7045:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7028:
7025:
7024:
7020:
7013:
7009:
7008:
7001:
6998:
6993:
6989:
6984:
6979:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6960:
6957:
6952:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6917:
6914:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6885:
6881:
6874:
6871:
6866:
6862:
6857:
6852:
6847:
6842:
6838:
6834:
6830:
6823:
6821:
6817:
6812:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6793:
6788:
6784:
6780:
6776:
6769:
6766:
6761:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6743:
6739:
6735:
6731:
6727:
6720:
6717:
6712:
6708:
6704:
6700:
6696:
6692:
6685:
6682:
6677:
6673:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6649:
6645:
6641:
6634:
6631:
6626:
6622:
6617:
6612:
6608:
6604:
6600:
6596:
6592:
6585:
6582:
6577:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6551:
6547:
6543:
6536:
6533:
6528:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6494:
6487:
6484:
6480:
6474:
6471:
6466:
6462:
6457:
6452:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6432:
6425:
6422:
6417:
6413:
6408:
6403:
6398:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6374:
6371:
6366:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6323:
6320:
6314:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6290:
6287:
6281:
6277:
6271:
6268:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6228:
6225:
6220:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6187:
6185:
6183:
6179:
6174:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6141:
6139:
6135:
6130:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6089:
6086:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6046:
6043:
6038:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
5997:
5994:
5989:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5946:
5943:
5938:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5897:
5894:
5889:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5848:
5845:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5813:
5811:
5807:
5802:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5769:
5766:
5750:
5746:
5739:
5733:
5730:
5717:
5713:
5712:
5707:
5701:
5698:
5693:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5652:
5649:
5644:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5603:
5600:
5596:
5591:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5550:
5547:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5507:
5504:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5464:
5461:
5448:
5444:
5438:
5435:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5411:
5408:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5386:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5361:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5349:
5342:
5339:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5307:
5304:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5263:
5260:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5228:
5225:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5192:
5189:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5157:
5154:
5149:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5116:
5113:
5108:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5067:
5065:
5061:
5056:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5015:
5012:
5007:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4974:
4972:
4968:
4963:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4922:
4919:
4914:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4873:
4870:
4865:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4824:
4821:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4788:
4785:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4752:
4749:
4744:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4703:
4700:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4660:
4657:
4652:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4611:
4608:
4595:
4591:
4587:
4586:
4581:
4575:
4572:
4567:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4526:
4523:
4518:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4477:
4474:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4448:Radiographics
4442:
4439:
4434:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4381:
4376:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4335:
4332:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4300:
4293:
4291:
4287:
4282:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4233:
4230:
4225:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4184:
4181:
4176:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4135:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4033:
4030:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3984:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3941:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3897:
3892:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3867:
3864:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3832:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3791:
3788:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3699:
3695:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3647:
3644:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3612:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3579:(1): 98–110.
3578:
3574:
3570:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3552:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3516:
3511:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3494:(7279): 278.
3493:
3489:
3485:
3478:
3475:
3470:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3427:
3423:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3377:
3374:
3369:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3328:
3325:
3320:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3287:
3284:
3279:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3254:(2): 97–109.
3253:
3249:
3245:
3238:
3235:
3230:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3205:
3202:
3197:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3154:
3151:
3146:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3100:
3095:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3005:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2927:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2892:
2889:
2884:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2749:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2624:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2583:
2580:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2488:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2371:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2319:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2262:
2261:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2206:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2165:(1): 100916.
2164:
2160:
2156:
2149:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2018:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1509:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1463:
1462:nanoparticles
1458:
1451:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1399:
1392:
1391:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:Age < 50,
1326:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1301:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1247:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1228:
1226:
1221:Immunotherapy
1220:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1136:
1130:
1122:
1115:
1110:
1109:dexamethasone
1106:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1072:
1066:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1044:
1037:
1035:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1007:
1002:
996:
991:
989:
986:
982:
977:
976:
970:
966:
962:
961:
956:
955:
950:
945:
942:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
912:
905:
900:
892:
885:
883:
876:
874:
872:
868:
864:
860:
852:
850:
843:
839:
835:
827:
825:
823:
819:
811:
809:
807:
802:
798:
794:
786:
781:
778:
774:
770:
766:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
746:
745:
742:
739:
737:
733:
728:
726:
722:
717:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
691:
687:
686:
681:
680:
675:
672:
671:amplification
668:
664:
663:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:
644:
638:
631:
628:
627:
623:
620:
619:
615:
612:
611:
607:
604:
603:
599:
596:
595:
590:
586:
583:
582:
578:
575:
574:
570:
567:
566:
563:
560:
557:
556:
552:
549:
548:
542:
538:
535:
531:
527:
520:
518:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
436:
434:
432:
428:
424:
416:
414:
412:
408:
404:
399:
397:
393:
389:
385:
378:Environmental
377:
375:
373:
369:
361:
359:
353:
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
329:
327:
323:
321:
315:
313:
309:
305:
301:
296:
294:
293:tissue biopsy
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
257:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
214:
210:
206:
203:
201:
197:
194:
190:
187:
185:
181:
178:
174:
170:
167:
163:
159:
155:
152:
151:tissue biopsy
148:
144:
141:
139:
135:
132:
128:
124:
120:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
100:~64 years old
99:
95:
92:
88:
84:
80:
78:
74:
71:
67:
64:
62:
58:
54:
51:
47:
43:
38:
34:
30:
25:
19:
7669:
7627:Neurilemmoma
7615:Neurofibroma
7344:Glioblastoma
7343:
7282:brain tumors
7244:
7216:
7146:
7122:
7111:
7100:
7089:
7074:
7059:
7005:
7000:
6973:
6969:
6959:
6926:
6922:
6916:
6883:
6879:
6873:
6836:
6832:
6782:
6778:
6768:
6733:
6729:
6719:
6694:
6690:
6684:
6647:
6643:
6633:
6598:
6594:
6584:
6549:
6545:
6535:
6500:
6496:
6486:
6478:
6473:
6438:
6434:
6424:
6387:
6383:
6373:
6336:
6332:
6322:
6303:
6299:
6289:
6280:the original
6270:
6240:(1): 91–93.
6237:
6233:
6227:
6200:
6196:
6157:(1): 63–69.
6154:
6150:
6102:
6098:
6088:
6055:
6051:
6045:
6010:
6006:
5996:
5962:(10): 2412.
5959:
5955:
5945:
5910:
5906:
5896:
5861:
5857:
5847:
5822:
5818:
5782:
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5768:
5756:. Retrieved
5744:
5732:
5720:. Retrieved
5709:
5700:
5665:
5661:
5651:
5616:
5612:
5602:
5593:
5563:
5559:
5549:
5516:
5512:
5506:
5476:(1): 81–83.
5473:
5469:
5463:
5453:15 September
5451:. Retrieved
5447:the original
5437:
5420:
5416:
5410:
5375:
5371:
5360:
5346:
5341:
5316:
5312:
5306:
5276:(1): 63–72.
5273:
5269:
5262:
5237:
5233:
5227:
5202:
5198:
5191:
5169:(1): 18–26.
5166:
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5080:
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5028:
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4983:
4935:
4931:
4921:
4889:(1): 11–41.
4886:
4882:
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4798:
4794:
4787:
4762:
4758:
4751:
4716:
4712:
4702:
4669:
4665:
4659:
4627:(1): 61–70.
4624:
4620:
4610:
4598:. Retrieved
4583:
4574:
4539:
4535:
4525:
4493:(1): 28–41.
4490:
4486:
4476:
4451:
4447:
4441:
4406:
4402:
4348:
4344:
4334:
4309:
4305:
4246:
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4232:
4197:
4193:
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3983:
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3804:
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3646:
3621:
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3572:
3535:(1): 40–51.
3532:
3528:
3518:
3491:
3487:
3477:
3442:
3438:
3390:
3386:
3376:
3341:
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3327:
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3247:
3237:
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3163:
3153:
3116:
3112:
3102:
3067:
3063:
3053:
3018:
3014:
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2979:
2975:
2969:
2939:(1): 71–78.
2936:
2932:
2926:
2901:
2897:
2891:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2758:
2754:
2748:
2721:
2717:
2707:
2675:(1): 37–42.
2672:
2668:
2658:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2596:
2592:
2582:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2504:
2500:
2490:
2463:
2459:
2449:
2424:
2420:
2380:
2376:
2370:
2335:
2331:
2321:
2296:
2292:
2259:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2162:
2158:
2148:
2113:
2109:
2099:
2064:
2060:
2026:
2020:
1987:
1983:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1889:(1): 11–27.
1886:
1882:
1830:
1826:
1774:
1770:
1722:
1718:
1656:
1590:
1586:
1527:Adegramotide
1491:
1479:
1469:Suicide gene
1466:
1457:Gene therapy
1455:
1452:Gene therapy
1424:
1422:
1411:tumor after
1406:
1403:
1400:Epidemiology
1295:
1292:
1288:
1276:
1259:
1248:
1244:
1232:
1224:
1201:
1194:
1191:Chemotherapy
1166:
1162:temozolomide
1159:
1145:Radiotherapy
1141:meditation.
1139:
1131:
1127:
1078:
1070:
1049:
1032:
973:
968:
964:
958:
952:
948:
946:
917:
880:
863:microRNA-451
857:As of 2012,
856:
834:ion channels
831:
828:Ion channels
817:
815:
790:
743:
740:
729:
718:
714:
708:
704:
696:
683:
677:
660:
656:
652:
642:
539:
524:
467:
440:
437:Pathogenesis
427:formaldehyde
420:
400:
381:
365:
357:
354:Risk factors
333:
324:
316:
308:temozolomide
304:chemotherapy
297:
277:brain tumors
258:
229:
225:
222:Glioblastoma
221:
220:
189:Temozolomide
173:chemotherapy
129:), previous
114:Risk factors
70:neurosurgery
27:Glioblastoma
18:
7699:Brain tumor
7486:Neurocytoma
7448:Gliosarcoma
7314:Astrocytoma
7234:Pituicytoma
7007:NCT02704858
6785:(7): 1294.
6390:: 7910754.
5758:26 December
5745:www.fda.gov
5348:NCT01465347
3573:Cancer Cell
3439:Cancer Cell
1437:glial cells
1354:11.2 months
1334:17.1 months
1304:(RPA) class
1269:methylation
1210:bevacizumab
600:9.9 months
526:Brain tumor
495:spinal cord
487:lymphocytes
483:pleocytosis
475:ventricular
447:glial cells
344:memory loss
97:Usual onset
32:Other names
7688:Categories
7631:Schwannoma
7544:Meningioma
7387:Ependymoma
7124:DiseasesDB
4249:(1): 442.
4100:: 590249.
3663:(1): 718.
3657:BMC Cancer
3119:(2): 443.
2574:1797583676
1593:(9): 121.
1553:References
1532:Asunercept
1441:glioblasts
1413:meningioma
1379:7.5 months
1307:Definition
1284:methylated
1264:(KPS) and
1029:Prevention
936:craniotomy
924:metastasis
812:Metabolism
624:Extensive
608:15 months
571:~62 years
499:metastasis
455:astrocytes
423:cured meat
388:pesticides
320:meningioma
281:astrocytes
263:, such as
184:Medication
157:Prevention
7306:Astrocyte
7254:Pinealoma
7207:Endocrine
7153:neuro/147
7148:eMedicine
7036:from the
6105:: 41–43.
5423:: 37–52.
4600:9 October
4049:(6): 57.
4024:167220115
2552:: 60–65.
2427:: 63–82.
2197:246647975
2067:(3): 54.
1966:219170898
1542:Lomustine
1423:The term
1241:Prognosis
1094:phenytoin
1038:Treatment
902:Sagittal
886:Diagnosis
613:Location
587:4 months
562:Astrocyte
550:Synonyms
491:Malignant
242:headaches
212:Frequency
200:Prognosis
177:radiation
165:Treatment
83:headaches
61:Specialty
7709:Oncology
7536:Meninges
7379:Ependyma
7156:med/2692
7030:Archived
6992:26175929
6943:24398618
6900:23586809
6865:24202332
6811:34372501
6760:32642680
6711:99147218
6676:24710095
6625:17250458
6576:22993449
6527:28317871
6465:29953430
6416:30034480
6365:29163134
6262:34370292
6254:17164975
6219:17785346
6173:22776797
6129:28273605
6072:23352352
6037:21984115
5988:35626018
5937:33144698
5888:26917587
5839:26670969
5801:26670971
5749:Archived
5722:19 March
5716:Archived
5692:35662275
5643:32202316
5590:30480778
5541:21517366
5533:18688571
5490:16944309
5402:41340212
5394:15758009
5333:21062158
5298:24245934
5254:17499453
5183:19031161
5148:29497579
5107:31617564
5055:24716504
5006:29497579
4962:32626582
4913:34036721
4864:25858636
4815:16648043
4779:11780887
4743:24131182
4694:37712742
4686:16822352
4651:17171441
4594:Archived
4566:35856894
4517:36937320
4508:10017188
4468:17374867
4433:33293629
4375:23669226
4326:25399584
4281:30683859
4224:20227367
4175:23054677
4126:22389824
4075:28587121
4016:31134492
3967:17882276
3932:18565887
3858:17974913
3823:15758010
3782:24880135
3741:24510240
3689:25256166
3638:20215599
3603:20129251
3551:28840962
3510:20090720
3469:28697342
3417:34185076
3368:34185076
3319:27157931
3278:17618441
3196:24604936
3145:35053605
3094:25635044
3045:22616703
2996:19268551
2961:23460254
2953:17619826
2918:14533876
2883:38553638
2874:11257955
2832:37147437
2823:10256614
2802:Oncogene
2783:30446699
2775:28233187
2761:(2): 5.
2740:22962688
2699:19505845
2650:12798456
2615:15977639
2570:ProQuest
2566:27038588
2531:36638155
2522:10326490
2482:20108752
2441:25944528
2397:26421825
2362:33123732
2313:27720005
2275:Archived
2241:25150249
2233:19269895
2189:36711062
2140:20445000
2091:26904576
2004:20167494
1958:32478924
1913:22270850
1857:31675094
1801:23633341
1749:26300678
1617:26207249
1505:See also
1447:Research
1273:promoter
1175:such as
853:MicroRNA
725:PI3K/AKT
723:and the
507:cerebrum
362:Genetics
340:vomiting
336:seizures
312:steroids
289:MRI scan
193:steroids
147:MRI scan
77:Symptoms
7118:D005909
7096:M9440/3
6983:4497427
6951:2414770
6908:8020921
6856:3795377
6833:Cancers
6802:8310195
6779:Viruses
6751:7212909
6667:3966229
6616:2819130
6567:3543505
6518:5457688
6456:6023185
6407:6035820
6356:5681990
6339:: 352.
6120:5338899
6080:5088829
6028:4077033
5979:9139611
5956:Cancers
5928:7884384
5879:4767251
5683:9470562
5634:7086476
5581:6516839
5498:6262668
5290:1335044
5139:5819720
5098:8109411
5046:4084673
4997:5819720
4953:7318858
4904:8732357
4855:4633924
4734:5378489
4642:4086528
4557:9614687
4424:7904519
4366:3731977
4272:6347618
4251:Bibcode
4215:3125113
4166:3538124
4117:3263536
4066:5483876
4043:Cancers
3975:2634215
3732:4136888
3680:4192443
3594:2818769
3460:5599156
3408:8328013
3359:8328013
3269:1929165
3187:3932574
3136:8773542
3113:Cancers
3085:4448618
3036:3368274
2690:2749001
2473:3019011
2353:7596247
2180:9873493
2131:2888474
2082:4740000
2012:5492993
1904:3337398
1848:6823730
1792:6457743
1740:4530825
1608:4481356
1499:aerosol
1419:History
1275:of the
1169:hypoxia
1116:Surgery
949:de novo
920:abscess
579:1.42:1
384:smoking
300:surgery
285:CT scan
169:Surgery
160:Unknown
143:CT scan
50:Coronal
7704:Cancer
7464:neuron
7461:Mature
7297:Glioma
7245:Other:
7218:Sellar
7107:137800
6990:
6980:
6949:
6941:
6906:
6898:
6863:
6853:
6809:
6799:
6758:
6748:
6709:
6674:
6664:
6623:
6613:
6574:
6564:
6525:
6515:
6463:
6453:
6414:
6404:
6363:
6353:
6260:
6252:
6217:
6171:
6127:
6117:
6078:
6070:
6035:
6025:
5986:
5976:
5935:
5925:
5886:
5876:
5837:
5799:
5690:
5680:
5641:
5631:
5588:
5578:
5539:
5531:
5496:
5488:
5400:
5392:
5331:
5296:
5288:
5252:
5219:355604
5217:
5181:
5146:
5136:
5105:
5095:
5053:
5043:
5004:
4994:
4960:
4950:
4911:
4901:
4862:
4852:
4813:
4777:
4741:
4731:
4692:
4684:
4649:
4639:
4564:
4554:
4515:
4505:
4466:
4431:
4421:
4373:
4363:
4324:
4279:
4269:
4222:
4212:
4173:
4163:
4124:
4114:
4073:
4063:
4022:
4014:
4004:
3973:
3965:
3930:
3887:
3856:
3821:
3780:
3739:
3729:
3687:
3677:
3636:
3601:
3591:
3549:
3508:
3488:Nature
3467:
3457:
3415:
3405:
3366:
3356:
3317:
3276:
3266:
3225:
3194:
3184:
3143:
3133:
3092:
3082:
3043:
3033:
2994:
2959:
2951:
2916:
2881:
2871:
2830:
2820:
2781:
2773:
2738:
2697:
2687:
2648:
2613:
2572:
2564:
2529:
2519:
2480:
2470:
2439:
2395:
2360:
2350:
2311:
2267:
2239:
2231:
2195:
2187:
2177:
2138:
2128:
2089:
2079:
2033:
2010:
2002:
1964:
1956:
1911:
1901:
1855:
1845:
1799:
1789:
1747:
1737:
1663:
1615:
1605:
1373:V + VI
1004:stain.
685:PDGFRA
515:glioma
461:, and
409:, and
291:, and
250:stroke
246:nausea
234:cancer
105:Causes
91:stroke
87:nausea
7652:Other
7129:29448
7091:ICD-O
6947:S2CID
6904:S2CID
6707:S2CID
6644:Genes
6258:S2CID
6197:Brain
6076:S2CID
5752:(PDF)
5741:(PDF)
5595:time.
5537:S2CID
5494:S2CID
5398:S2CID
5294:S2CID
4690:S2CID
4302:(PDF)
4020:S2CID
3971:S2CID
2957:S2CID
2779:S2CID
2237:S2CID
2193:S2CID
2008:S2CID
1962:S2CID
975:OLIG2
939:with
934:or a
797:CD133
417:Other
407:HHV-6
370:, or
238:brain
7113:MeSH
7102:OMIM
7080:9-CM
6988:PMID
6939:PMID
6896:PMID
6861:PMID
6807:PMID
6756:PMID
6672:PMID
6621:PMID
6572:PMID
6523:PMID
6461:PMID
6412:PMID
6388:2018
6361:PMID
6250:PMID
6215:PMID
6169:PMID
6125:PMID
6068:PMID
6033:PMID
5984:PMID
5933:PMID
5884:PMID
5835:PMID
5819:JAMA
5797:PMID
5779:JAMA
5760:2014
5724:2016
5688:PMID
5639:PMID
5617:2020
5586:PMID
5564:2018
5529:PMID
5486:PMID
5455:2007
5390:PMID
5329:PMID
5286:PMID
5250:PMID
5215:PMID
5179:PMID
5144:PMID
5103:PMID
5051:PMID
5002:PMID
4958:PMID
4909:PMID
4860:PMID
4811:PMID
4775:PMID
4739:PMID
4682:PMID
4647:PMID
4602:2021
4562:PMID
4513:PMID
4464:PMID
4429:PMID
4371:PMID
4322:PMID
4277:PMID
4220:PMID
4171:PMID
4122:PMID
4098:2011
4071:PMID
4012:PMID
4002:ISBN
3963:PMID
3928:PMID
3885:ISBN
3854:PMID
3819:PMID
3778:PMID
3766:1846
3737:PMID
3685:PMID
3634:PMID
3618:JAMA
3599:PMID
3547:PMID
3506:PMID
3465:PMID
3413:PMID
3364:PMID
3315:PMID
3274:PMID
3223:ISBN
3192:PMID
3141:PMID
3090:PMID
3041:PMID
2992:PMID
2949:PMID
2914:PMID
2879:PMID
2828:PMID
2771:PMID
2736:PMID
2695:PMID
2646:PMID
2611:PMID
2562:PMID
2527:PMID
2478:PMID
2437:PMID
2393:PMID
2358:PMID
2309:PMID
2265:ISBN
2229:PMID
2185:PMID
2136:PMID
2087:PMID
2031:ISBN
2000:PMID
1954:PMID
1909:PMID
1853:PMID
1797:PMID
1775:2013
1745:PMID
1661:ISBN
1613:PMID
1431:and
1343:14%
1331:≥ 90
1280:gene
1277:MGMT
1266:MGMT
1202:MGMT
1100:and
1083:and
985:IDH1
981:ATRX
969:IDH2
967:and
965:IDH1
960:IDH2
954:IDH1
871:AMPK
867:LKB1
840:and
818:IDH1
816:The
801:CD44
777:mTOR
769:PI3K
762:PDGF
758:VEGF
732:MGMT
709:EGFR
705:EGFR
679:TP53
662:TP53
657:EGFR
653:EGFR
403:SV40
267:and
7581:PNS
7268:CNS
7085:191
7076:ICD
7070:C71
7061:ICD
6978:PMC
6931:doi
6927:116
6888:doi
6851:PMC
6841:doi
6797:PMC
6787:doi
6746:PMC
6738:doi
6699:doi
6662:PMC
6652:doi
6611:PMC
6603:doi
6562:PMC
6554:doi
6513:PMC
6505:doi
6451:PMC
6443:doi
6402:PMC
6392:doi
6351:PMC
6341:doi
6308:doi
6242:doi
6205:doi
6201:130
6159:doi
6115:PMC
6107:doi
6060:doi
6023:PMC
6015:doi
6011:107
5974:PMC
5964:doi
5923:PMC
5915:doi
5911:124
5874:PMC
5866:doi
5827:doi
5823:314
5787:doi
5783:314
5678:PMC
5670:doi
5666:127
5629:PMC
5621:doi
5576:PMC
5568:doi
5521:doi
5478:doi
5425:doi
5380:doi
5376:352
5321:doi
5278:doi
5242:doi
5207:doi
5171:doi
5134:PMC
5093:PMC
5085:doi
5041:PMC
5033:doi
4992:PMC
4948:PMC
4940:doi
4899:PMC
4891:doi
4850:PMC
4842:doi
4803:doi
4767:doi
4729:PMC
4721:doi
4717:369
4674:doi
4637:PMC
4629:doi
4552:PMC
4544:doi
4503:PMC
4495:doi
4456:doi
4419:PMC
4411:doi
4361:PMC
4353:doi
4314:doi
4267:PMC
4259:doi
4210:PMC
4202:doi
4161:PMC
4153:doi
4112:PMC
4102:doi
4061:PMC
4051:doi
3994:doi
3955:doi
3918:doi
3877:doi
3846:doi
3809:doi
3805:352
3770:doi
3727:PMC
3719:doi
3675:PMC
3665:doi
3626:doi
3622:303
3589:PMC
3581:doi
3537:doi
3496:doi
3492:463
3455:PMC
3447:doi
3403:PMC
3395:doi
3354:PMC
3346:doi
3305:doi
3301:131
3264:PMC
3256:doi
3252:114
3215:doi
3182:PMC
3172:doi
3131:PMC
3121:doi
3080:PMC
3072:doi
3031:PMC
3023:doi
2984:doi
2941:doi
2906:doi
2869:PMC
2859:doi
2818:PMC
2810:doi
2763:doi
2726:doi
2722:206
2685:PMC
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