444:
503:
230:, patron saint of gold- and silversmiths. In other nations, such as Poland, the hallmark is a single mark indicating metal and fineness, augmented by a responsibility mark (known as a sponsor's mark in the UK). Within a group of nations that are signatories to an international convention known as the Vienna Convention on the Control of the Fineness and the Hallmarking of Precious Metal Objects, additional, optional yet official, marks may also be struck by the assay office. These can ease import obligations among and between the signatory states. Signatory countries each have a single representative hallmark, which would be struck next to the Convention mark that represents the metal and fineness.
378:
859:, or cupellation. As applied to gold bearing metallics, as in hallmark assaying, it is also known as cupellation and can have an accuracy of 1 part in 10,000. In this process the article is melted, the alloys separated and constituents weighed. Since this method is totally destructive, when this method is employed for the assay of jewelry, it is done under the guise of random or selective sampling. For example, if a single manufacturer deposits a lot of rings or watch cases, while most are assayed using the non-destructive methods a few pieces from the lot are randomly selected for fire assay.
842:
264:, hallmarking was administered by local governments through authorized assayers. These assayers examined precious metal objects, under the auspices of the state, before the object could be offered for public sale. By the age of the craft guilds, the authorized examiner's mark was the "master's mark", which consisted frequently of his initials and/or the coat of arms of the goldsmith or silversmith. At one time, there was no distinction between silversmiths and goldsmiths, who were all referred to as
492:
562:
476:
204:". A hallmark is not the mark of a manufacturer to distinguish their products from other manufacturers' products: that is the function of trademarks or makers' marks. To be a true hallmark, it must be the guarantee of an independent body or authority that the contents are as marked. Thus, a stamp of "925" by itself is not, strictly speaking, a hallmark, but is rather an unattested fineness mark, generally stamped by the maker.
798:, which would be damaged or distorted by the punching process. Laser marking also means that finished articles do not need to be re-finished. Laser marking works by using high-power lasers to evaporate material from the metal surface. Two methods exist: 2D and 3D laser marking. 2D laser marking burns the outline of the hallmarks into the object, while 3D laser marking better simulates the marks made by punching.
176:). Hallmarks are a guarantee of certain purity or fineness of the metal, as determined by official metal (assay) testing. Hallmarks include information not only about the precious metal and fineness, but the country from which the item was tested and marked. Some hallmarks can reveal even more information, e.g. the assay office, size of the object marked, year the item was hallmarked - referred to as a
286:
100:
369:, enacted a regulation on the purity and hallmarking of silver objects (following the French standards) for application in Geneva. Although gold was used for articles, the regulation was silent on standards and hallmarking for gold. In Switzerland today, only precious metal watch cases must be hallmarked. The hallmarking of other items including silverware and jewelry is optional.
436:
464:
permit a variance from the marked fineness of up to 10 parts per thousand, others do not permit any variance (known as negative tolerance) at all. Many nations abide by the Vienna system and procedures are in place to allow additional nations to join the Vienna
Convention. Similarly, with the consent of all the current member states, the terms of the convention may be amended.
408:. At this time, the date letter system was introduced in England. This was originally intended to be the mark of an official known as the Assay Master, who was sworn in every May. After being sworn in, the letter would advance to the next in the alphabet, regardless of whether the same individual continued to hold the post, so it came to be regarded simply as a date letter.
642:
576:(c. 43) made Britain a member of the Vienna Convention as well as introducing marking for platinum, a recognised metal under the convention. All four remaining assay offices finally adopted the same date letter sequences. In 1999 changes were made to the UK hallmarking system to bring the system closer into line with the
634:
737:"Netherlands' Responsibility Marks since 1797" (in three volumes and in the English language) illustrating all the responsibility marks registered there since that time. This is significant since producers that exported precious metal goods to the Netherlands would have been required to register their marks.
740:
The Dutch government markets their assay services/office as the "Jewellery
Gateway in and to Europe." The Netherlands' hallmarks are also recognized in other EU countries and thus can be sold in Austria, France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom without further testing. The Netherlands'
591:
began striking
Birmingham hallmarks in Mumbai, India and further offshore offices are likely to be established. In March 2018 the British Hallmarking Council announced that UK assay office marks struck offshore must be distinguishable from those struck in the UK. It is likely that an 'offshore' assay
845:
These two pieces of hallmarked
English silver show assay "scrapes," where a small amount of silver was removed from the underside of the item in order to perform a fire assay. The 10 3/4" salver (Richard Rugg, 1759) shows a large scrape. The salt cellar (Robert & Samuel Hennell, 1803) has a much
837:
The modern X-ray fluorescence is also a non-destructive technique that is suitable for normal assaying requirements. It typically has an accuracy of up to five parts per thousand and is well-suited to the relatively flat and large surfaces. It is a quick technique taking about three minutes, and the
629:
Although hallmarking in the Swiss territories dates back to Geneva in the fifteenth century, there was no uniform system of hallmarking in
Switzerland until 1881. Before that time, hallmarking was undertaken at the local level by the Swiss cantons. With the introduction of Federal hallmarking laws
451:
In the modern world, in an attempt at standardizing the legislation on the inspection of precious metals and to facilitate international trade, in
November 1972 a core group of European nations signed the Vienna Convention on the Control of the Fineness and the Hallmarking of Precious Metal Objects.
811:
for precious metal content. While different nations permit a variety of legally acceptable finenesses, the assayer is actually testing to determine that the fineness of the product conforms with the statement or claim of fineness that the maker has claimed (usually by stamping a number such as 750
806:
Precious metal items of art or jewelry are frequently hallmarked (depending upon the requirements of the laws of either the place of manufacture or the place of import). Where required to be hallmarked, semi-finished precious metal items of art or jewelry pass through the official testing channels
243:
The control or inspection of precious metals was an ancient concept of examination and marking, by means of inspection stamps (punch marks). The use of hallmarks, at first on silver, has a long history dating back to the 4th century AD—there is evidence of silver bars marked under authority of the
828:
method is particularly suited to the testing of very valuable pieces, for which sampling by destructive means, such as scraping, cutting or drilling is unacceptable. A rubbing of the item is made on a special stone, treated with acids and the resulting color compared to references. Differences in
812:
for 18k gold) on the item. In the past the assay was conducted by using the touchstone method but currently (most often) it is done using X-ray
Fluorescence (XRF). XRF is used because this method is more exacting than the touchstone test. The most exact method of assay is known as fire assay or
736:
The
Netherlands, who are members of the International hallmarking Convention, have been striking hallmarks since at least 1814. Like many other nations, the Netherlands require the registration and use of Responsibility Marks, however, perhaps somewhat unusual, there is a book published entitled
212:
Many nations require, as a prerequisite to official hallmarking, that the maker or sponsor itself marks upon the item a responsibility mark and a claim of fineness. Responsibility marks are also required in the US if metal fineness is claimed, even though there is no official hallmarking scheme
947:
English
Goldsmiths and Their Marks: A History of the Goldsmiths and Plate Workers of England, Scotland, and Ireland; with Over Thirteen Thousand Marks Reproduced in Facsimile from Authentic Examples of Plate and Tables of Date-letters and Other Hall-marks Used in the Essay Offices of the United
463:
Complete international hallmarking has been plagued by difficulties, because even amongst countries which have implemented hallmarking, standards and enforcement vary considerably, making it difficult for one country to accept another's hallmarking as equivalent to its own. While some countries
777:
Traditionally, the hallmarks are "struck" using steel punches. Punches are made in different sizes, suitable for tiny pieces of jewelry to large silver platters. Punches are made in straight shank or ring shank, the latter used to mark rings. The problem with traditional punching is that the
459:
This mark is recognized in all the other contracting states, including: Austria, Cyprus, the Czech
Republic, Denmark, Finland, Great Britain, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and Ukraine (see links below). Other nations
867:
There are methods of assay noted above which are more properly suited for finished goods while other methods are suitable for use on raw materials before artistic workmanship has begun. Raw precious metals (bullion or metal stock) are assayed by the following methods: silver is assayed by
764:) Hallmark is a hallmarking system for gold as well as silver jewellery sold in India certifying the purity of the metal. It certifies that the piece of jewellery conforms to a set of standards laid by the Bureau of Indian Standards, the national standards organization of India.
720:
Under the current law, on all gold, silver, platinum or palladium watches cases made in Switzerland or imported into Switzerland, there shall be affixed, near the Maker's Responsibility Mark and his indication of purity, the official Hallmark, the head of a
829:
precious metal content as small as 10 to 20 parts per thousand can often be established with confidence by the test. It is not indicated for use with white gold, for example, since the color variation among white gold alloys is almost imperceptible.
225:
In some nations, such as the UK, the hallmark is made up of several elements, including: a mark denoting the type of metal, the maker/sponsor's mark and the year of the marking. In England, the year of marking commences on 19 May, the feast day of
456:(CCM), attesting to the material's fineness. The multi-tiered motif of the CCM is the balance scales, superimposed, for gold, on two intersecting circles; for platinum, a diamond shape and for silver a mark in the shape of the Latin letter "M".
1472:
970:
443:
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results can be automatically printed out by the computer. It also measures the content of the other alloying metals present. It is not indicated, however, for articles with chemical surface treatment or electroplated metals.
425:
In 1784, the United Kingdom began charging a tax on silverware, and a further mark was added to indicate this had been paid. The mark was the monarch's head and continued to be used until 1890, when the tax was
778:
process of punching displaces metal, causing some distortion of the article being marked. This means that re-finishing of the article is required after hallmarking. For this reason, and that off-cuts from
422:(95.83%, i.e. 23/24ths silver) was made compulsory in Great Britain to protect the new coinage which was being melted down by silversmiths for the silver. The Sterling standard (92.5%) was restored in 1720.
565:
Offshore hallmark used by Birmingham Assay Office's subsidiary in India. Precious metal objects assayed and marked outside of the UK must carry a mark which distinguishes them from items assayed in the
1465:
618:
for the year 2000), and in this example, the 'Millennium mark', which was only available for the years 1999 and 2000. The bottom example bears the Yorkshire rose mark for the Sheffield Assay Office.
353:, from whence the English term "hallmark" is derived. (In the UK the use of the term "hallmark" was first recorded in this sense in 1721 and in the more general sense as a "mark of quality" in 1864.)
502:
614:
These are shown in the top of the two example hallmarks. The bottom example shows the extra marks that can also be struck, the lion passant, indicating Sterling silver, the date mark (lowercase
603:
As it now stands, the compulsory part of the UK hallmark consists of the sponsor or maker's mark, the assay office mark, and the standard of fineness (in this case silver, 925 parts in 1,000).
982:
978:
467:
The most significant item currently up for debate is the recognition of palladium as a precious metal. Some member nations recognize palladium as a precious metal while others do not.
877:
1002:. Dumbarton Oaks Studies. Vol. 7. J.P.C. Kent (excursus on the comes sacrarum largitionum). Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 23–35.
1258:
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airports. The other one is located in Joure, called Edelmetaal Waarborg Nederland b.v. The Netherlands recognises platinum, gold, silver and palladium as precious metals.
1590:"941.31 Loi fédérale du 20 juin 1933 sur le contrôle du commerce des métaux précieux et des ouvrages en métaux précieux (Loi sur le contrôle des métaux précieux, LCMP)"
282:
for gold and 12 to 13 lots (75% to 81%) for silver, but the standards could only be partly enforced, owing to the lack of precise analytical tools and techniques.
217:
by an independent party to determine that its purity conforms not only to the standards set down by the law but also with the maker's claims as to metal content.
1173:. Mémoires et Documents publiés par la Société d’Histoire et d’Archéologie de Genève (in French). Vol. 33. Geneva: A. Jullien, George & Co. p. 4.
816:. This method is better suited for the assay of bullion and gold stocks rather than works or art or jewelry because it is a completely destructive method.
1443:
1057:
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standard (92.5% pure silver) and must be assayed in this regard by 'guardians of the craft' who would then mark the item with a leopard's head. In 1327
394:
In 1355, individual maker marks were introduced in France. This concept was later mirrored in England in 1363, adding accountability to the two systems.
349:(more commonly known as the Goldsmiths' Company), marking the beginning of the company's formal existence. This entity was headquartered in London at
1619:
278:
literally "the maker's punch". In this period, fineness was more or less standardized in the major European nations (writ: France and England) at 20
1270:
1624:
593:
321:
prescribed, by royal decree, the mark for use on silver works, along with specific punches for each community's smiths. In 1313, his successor,
452:
Articles which are assayed and found by the qualifying office of a signatory country to conform to the standard, receive a mark, known as the
587:(LRO) came into effect on 8 February 2013 giving UK assay offices the legal right to strike hallmarks outside of UK territory. In July 2016
1504:
1359:
1334:
725:. Only precious metal watch cases must be hallmarked. Swiss hallmarking for other articles such as jewelry and cutlery is optional.
607:
147:
1309:
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In addition to the Swiss hallmark, all precious metal goods may be stamped with the Common Control Mark of the Vienna Convention.
1629:
1375:
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1112:
519:
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around AD 350—and represents the oldest known form of consumer protection. A series or system of five marks has been found on
919:
125:
1668:
1597:
1027:
213:
there. Nevertheless, in nations with an official hallmarking scheme, the hallmark is only applied after the item has been
79:
is used to refer to any standard of quality. Not to be confused with responsibility marks that are the marks of the maker.
1718:
377:
971:
Non-Destructive Imaging of Worn-off Hallmarks and Engravings from Metal Objects of Art Using Scanning Acoustic Microscopy
645:
The official hallmark used for all precious metals and all fineness standards since 1995, the "head of a St. Bernard dog"
1086:
974:
749:
510:
French mark head of horse for jewellery and watches from 18k gold made in the French provinces between 1838 and 1919
110:
1466:"Consultation on hallmarking by UK Assay Offices at overseas sub-offices: British Hallmarking Council full response"
1405:
825:
761:
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129:
114:
1723:
1713:
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hallmarks are also recognized in Belgium, Denmark, Finland and Sweden, which have voluntary hallmarking systems.
121:
35:
841:
491:
483:
Hallmarks for gold, palladium, platinum and silver from Poland. Official Polish hallmarks between 1963 and 1986
397:
In 1427, the date letter system was established in France, allowing the accurate dating of any hallmarked piece.
268:, the French word for goldsmith. The master craftsman was responsible for the quality of the work that left his
1748:
1435:
584:
305:. Modern hallmarking in Europe appears first in France, with the Goldsmiths Statute of 1260 promulgated under
1049:
274:
or workshop, regardless of who made the item. Hence the responsibility mark is still known today in French as
1559:
588:
386:
782:
are often used for assay, many articles are sent unfinished to the assay office for assay and hallmarking.
1633:
846:
smaller scrape - however the cellar was from a set of at least four, allowing for scrapes to be combined.
597:
580:. Note that under this latest enactment, the date letter is no longer a compulsory part of the hallmark.
1243:
453:
245:
779:
342:
558:. The assay office marks are no longer an indicator that an item was assayed in the city, or in the UK.
573:
318:
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405:
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252:
silver dating from this period, though their interpretation is still not completely resolved.
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1149:
914:
419:
310:
1728:
1708:
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One of the two Dutch assay offices, WaarborgHolland b.v., is located in Gouda between the
475:
412:
338:
1306:
577:
543:
381:
A set of hallmarks on an English silver spoon. From left to right, the maker's mark of
362:
279:
88:
31:
1383:
633:
1733:
1702:
621:
The Hallmarking Act was amended in July 2009 to include palladium from January 2010.
290:
227:
1108:
592:
mark will have to be added to signify that the item was not assayed in the UK. Only
1217:
889:
523:
401:
382:
201:
165:
1138:"Historical Review of the Swiss Precious Metals Control Act Focused on Platinoids"
650:
Distinctive symbols appear in place of the "X" on the ear of the St. Bernard dog.
75:
1589:
1019:
873:
813:
606:
322:
285:
261:
99:
54:
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1189:
Histoire Corporative de l'Horlogerie, de l'Orfèvrerie et des Industries Annexes
1171:
Histoire corporative de l'horlogerie, de l'orfèvrerie et des industries annexes
160:
Historically, hallmarks were applied by a trusted party: the "guardians of the
795:
539:
435:
197:
1544:
1527:
1266:
1154:
1137:
1288:
Flocco; Strasser (Summer 2007). "Schweizer Punzen auf Uhrgehäusen in Gold".
1078:
909:
904:
869:
555:
547:
249:
70:
30:
This article is about the quality stamp. For the greeting card company, see
1663:
1178:
1007:
518:
499:
Official French Hallmarks used between 1798 and 1972 for gold and silver.
1413:
58:
17:
1294:
Chronométrophilia (The Swiss Association for the History of Timekeeping)
641:
1679:
1227:
527:
460:
monitor the activities of the convention and may apply for membership.
794:
is now available, which is especially valuable for delicate items and
551:
535:
531:
366:
269:
66:
1207:
1186:
447:
Closeup view of the hallmarks in an antique silver spoon from China
337:
enacted a statute requiring that all silver articles must meet the
1659:
Online Encyclopedia of Silver Marks, Hallmarks & Maker's Marks
840:
791:
640:
632:
605:
560:
501:
490:
474:
442:
434:
376:
284:
161:
50:
1567:
855:
The most elaborate, but totally destructive, assay method is the
62:
93:
365:, after consulting a council of eight Master Goldsmiths from
317:. A standard for silver was thus established. In 1275, King
415:
was added to English marks, to bring the number up to four.
1658:
1259:
National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors, Inc.
979:
National Center for Preservation Technology and Training
969:
Benson, Paul L.; Gilmore, Robert S. (15 November 2004).
630:
starting in 1881, increased uniformity was established.
325:"the Fair" expanded the use of hallmarks to gold works.
1244:"An Explanation of Swiss Hallmarks on Gold Watchcases"
951:. George Horace Lorimer Library. Macmillan. p. 57
600:
assay offices now strike marks exclusively in the UK.
389:
mark, the lion passant and the monarch's head tax-mark
1675:
More complete list of UK hallmarks past and present
418:In 1697, a higher standard of silver, known as the
1684:
87:For the meanings of gold standard hallmarks, see
1669:List of basic hallmarks from various countries
8:
610:Examples of British hallmarks for 925 silver
637:The Swiss hallmarks used on the watch cases
506:The French hallmarks 1838–1919 not official
128:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
49:or series of marks struck on items made of
1376:"Background to the Hallmarking Convention"
1543:
1382:. PIC/S. 20 November 2012. Archived from
1226:
1216:
1206:
1153:
301:Hallmarking is Europe's earliest form of
148:Learn how and when to remove this message
1354:. Antique Collectors' Club. p. 14.
1329:. Antique Collectors' Club. p. 12.
648:
517:
1136:Zaffalon, Pierre-LĂ©onard (2018-04-01).
1018:Dubler, Anne-Marie (27 November 2008).
936:
1089:from the original on 24 September 2017
1292:(in German) (61). La Chaux-de-Fonds:
7:
1625:The Goldsmiths' Company Assay Office
1501:The Goldsmiths' Company Assay Office
1440:The Goldsmiths' Company Assay Office
1436:"Convention & Other Legal Marks"
1131:
1129:
1030:from the original on 17 January 2019
126:adding citations to reliable sources
73:. In a more general sense, the term
1664:Gold hallmark identification wizard
1507:from the original on 1 January 2017
1446:from the original on 1 January 2017
1406:"Which carat gold should I choose?"
373:Augmentations in France and England
196:Hallmarks are often confused with "
53:, mostly to certify the content of
27:Official stamp on gold, silver etc.
25:
1528:"Palladium Hallmarking in the UK"
1242:Flocco, Luis S. (December 2005).
1142:Johnson Matthey Technology Review
1600:from the original on 6 July 2007
1024:Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz
526:marks – from left to right, the
347:Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths
98:
1478:from the original on 2019-07-17
1471:. British Hallmarking Council.
1276:from the original on 2017-01-01
1115:from the original on 2012-10-13
1060:from the original on 2018-05-22
998:Dodd, Erica Cruikshank (1961).
1195:The American Historical Review
1185:Kunz, George F. (April 1917).
920:State quality mark of the USSR
790:A new method of marking using
495:The French hallmarks 1798–1972
479:The Polish hallmarks 1963–1986
385:, the date letter (1889), the
1:
1596:(in French). 1 January 2011.
1412:. 11 May 2014. Archived from
1109:"Online Etymology Dictionary"
361:In 1424, the French cardinal
1685:Silver Hallmark Encyclopedia
208:Prerequisites to hallmarking
1503:. The Goldsmiths' Company.
1442:. The Goldsmiths' Company.
975:Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art
876:and platinum is assayed by
807:where they are analyzed or
239:Ancient Byzantine hallmarks
164:" or, more recently, by an
1765:
1671:(archived 26 October 2015)
1290:Chronométrophilia Bulletin
762:Bureau of Indian Standards
343:King Edward III of England
86:
29:
1620:"The Hallmarking Process"
657:
654:
345:granted a charter to the
36:Hallmark (disambiguation)
1545:10.1595/003214010X482375
1155:10.1595/205651318x696701
585:legislative reform order
335:King Edward I of England
1630:The Goldsmiths' Company
1218:2027/njp.32101043186319
1000:Byzantine Silver Stamps
589:Birmingham Assay Office
387:Birmingham Assay Office
1532:Platinum Metals Review
1380:Hallmarking Convention
1350:Pickford, Ian (1991).
1325:Pickford, Ian (1991).
1169:Babel, Antony (1916).
944:Jackson, C.J. (1921).
847:
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611:
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567:
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34:. For other uses, see
1526:Organ, R. M. (2010).
872:, gold is assayed by
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478:
446:
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69:and in some nations,
1719:Branding terminology
977:. Natchitoches, LA:
878:ICP OES spectrometry
574:Hallmarking Act 1973
276:le poinçon de maître
122:improve this section
1680:Hallmark Convention
1570:on 27 November 2020
1386:on 13 November 2019
1352:Jackson's Hallmarks
1327:Jackson's Hallmarks
985:on 13 December 2016
651:
454:Common Control Mark
404:was established in
303:consumer protection
246:Emperor Augustinian
1691:2016-03-02 at the
1594:Le Conseil fédéral
1312:2007-04-09 at the
1111:. Etymonline.com.
1054:visualiseur.bnf.fr
900:Certification mark
848:
833:X-ray fluorescence
768:Marking techniques
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508:
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481:
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420:Britannia standard
391:
294:
289:Jewelry hallmark:
1636:on 4 October 2020
1560:"Swiss Hallmarks"
723:Saint Bernard dog
718:
717:
695:La Chaux-de-Fonds
439:Hallmark for gold
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16:(Redirected from
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1724:Jewellery making
1714:Brand management
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1191:by Antony Babel"
1187:"Reviewed Work:
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981:. Archived from
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941:
915:Silver hallmarks
802:Methods of assay
652:
431:Modern hallmarks
406:Goldsmiths' Hall
351:Goldsmiths' Hall
311:Provost of Paris
256:Late Middle Ages
183:
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102:
94:
83:General overview
21:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1755:
1754:
1753:
1749:Precious metals
1699:
1698:
1693:Wayback Machine
1655:
1650:
1649:
1639:
1637:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1603:
1601:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1573:
1571:
1564:Swiss Hallmarks
1558:
1557:
1553:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1510:
1508:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1468:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1449:
1447:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1419:
1417:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1389:
1387:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1362:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1337:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1314:Wayback Machine
1305:
1301:
1287:
1285:
1279:
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1273:
1246:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1208:10.2307/1842663
1184:
1183:
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1163:
1135:
1134:
1127:
1118:
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1107:
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1102:
1092:
1090:
1077:
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1072:
1063:
1061:
1048:
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1043:
1033:
1031:
1017:
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995:
988:
986:
968:
967:
963:
954:
952:
943:
942:
938:
933:
928:
895:Merchant's mark
886:
865:
853:
835:
822:
804:
788:
775:
770:
758:
734:
627:
559:
516:
489:
473:
433:
375:
359:
339:sterling silver
331:
307:Étienne Boileau
299:
258:
241:
236:
223:
210:
194:
192:Distinguishment
184:(also known as
178:
177:
170:
169:
154:
143:
137:
134:
119:
103:
92:
85:
45:is an official
39:
28:
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15:
12:
11:
5:
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1654:
1653:External links
1651:
1648:
1647:
1611:
1581:
1551:
1518:
1497:"UK Hallmarks"
1488:
1457:
1427:
1416:on 15 May 2014
1397:
1367:
1360:
1342:
1335:
1317:
1299:
1251:NAWCC Bulletin
1234:
1201:(3): 631–633.
1161:
1148:(3): 263–270.
1125:
1100:
1083:Dictionary.com
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1041:
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733:
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626:
623:
578:European Union
544:Yorkshire rose
515:
514:United Kingdom
512:
488:
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472:
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363:Jean de Brogny
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260:From the Late
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89:Carat (purity)
84:
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32:Hallmark Cards
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1361:1-85149-128-7
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1338:
1336:1-85149-128-7
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1307:Swiss Customs
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1074:
1071:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1045:
1042:
1029:
1026:(in German).
1025:
1021:
1020:"Edelmetalle"
1015:
1009:
1005:
1001:
984:
980:
976:
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881:
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875:
871:
863:Other methods
862:
860:
858:
850:
843:
839:
832:
830:
827:
819:
817:
815:
810:
801:
799:
797:
793:
786:Laser marking
785:
783:
781:
772:
767:
765:
763:
755:
753:
751:
747:
742:
738:
731:
729:
726:
724:
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701:
697:
694:
693:
689:
686:
685:
681:
678:
677:
673:
670:
669:
665:
663:Biel / Bienne
662:
661:
653:
643:
635:
631:
624:
622:
619:
617:
608:
604:
601:
599:
595:
590:
586:
581:
579:
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563:
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541:
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477:
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414:
410:
407:
403:
400:In 1478, the
399:
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372:
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368:
364:
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328:
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324:
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316:
315:King Louis IX
312:
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291:Dirce Repossi
287:
283:
281:
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263:
255:
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247:
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228:Saint Dunstan
220:
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216:
207:
205:
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202:maker's marks
199:
191:
189:
187:
181:
173:
167:
163:
152:
149:
141:
138:December 2016
131:
127:
123:
117:
116:
112:
107:This section
105:
101:
96:
95:
90:
82:
80:
78:
77:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
37:
33:
19:
1638:. Retrieved
1634:the original
1623:
1614:
1602:. Retrieved
1593:
1584:
1572:. Retrieved
1568:the original
1563:
1554:
1538:(1): 51–52.
1535:
1531:
1521:
1509:. Retrieved
1500:
1491:
1480:. Retrieved
1460:
1448:. Retrieved
1439:
1430:
1418:. Retrieved
1414:the original
1409:
1400:
1388:. Retrieved
1384:the original
1379:
1370:
1351:
1345:
1326:
1320:
1302:
1289:
1278:. Retrieved
1254:
1250:
1237:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1170:
1164:
1145:
1141:
1117:. Retrieved
1103:
1091:. Retrieved
1082:
1073:
1062:. Retrieved
1053:
1044:
1032:. Retrieved
1023:
1013:
999:
987:. Retrieved
983:the original
964:
953:. Retrieved
946:
939:
890:Assay office
866:
854:
836:
824:The age-old
823:
805:
789:
776:
759:
743:
739:
735:
727:
719:
628:
620:
615:
613:
602:
582:
571:
524:assay office
509:
498:
482:
466:
462:
458:
450:
413:lion passant
402:Assay Office
383:George Unite
360:
332:
300:
275:
270:
265:
259:
242:
224:
211:
195:
185:
179:
171:
166:assay office
159:
144:
135:
120:Please help
108:
74:
55:noble metals
42:
40:
1640:31 December
1511:31 December
1450:31 December
1390:31 December
1261:: 686–699.
1050:"Gallica -"
874:cupellation
814:cupellation
732:Netherlands
703:Le Noirmont
625:Switzerland
530:'s head of
357:Switzerland
323:Philippe IV
262:Middle Ages
186:date letter
1703:Categories
1482:2019-07-17
1410:Astratelli
1286:See also:
1280:2019-01-16
1119:2011-12-11
1079:"Hallmark"
1064:2008-06-10
1034:16 January
989:16 January
973:(Report).
955:2023-10-15
926:References
857:fire assay
851:Fire assay
826:touchstone
820:Touchstone
796:hollowware
550:, and the
540:Birmingham
426:abolished.
411:In 1544 a
319:Philip III
198:trademarks
172:assay mark
1739:Palladium
1574:8 January
1267:1527-1609
1093:2 October
931:Footnotes
910:Trademark
905:Mint mark
870:titration
760:The BIS (
750:Rotterdam
746:Amsterdam
598:Edinburgh
556:Edinburgh
548:Sheffield
250:Byzantine
180:date mark
109:does not
71:palladium
57:—such as
18:Hallmarks
1744:Platinum
1689:Archived
1598:Archived
1505:Archived
1473:Archived
1444:Archived
1310:Archived
1296:: 61–90.
1271:Archived
1113:Archived
1087:Archived
1058:Archived
1028:Archived
884:See also
773:Punching
333:In 1300
266:orfèvres
76:hallmark
59:platinum
43:hallmark
1257:(359).
1228:1842663
1179:2235476
1014:Compare
1008:1705103
996:Cites:
948:Kingdom
809:assayed
679:Chiasso
658:Symbol
528:leopard
329:England
271:atelier
234:History
221:Systems
215:assayed
130:removed
115:sources
1729:Silver
1709:Brands
1604:30 May
1420:14 May
1358:
1333:
1265:
1225:
1177:
1006:
792:lasers
780:sprues
711:Zurich
687:Geneva
655:Place
594:London
552:castle
542:, the
536:anchor
534:, the
532:London
487:France
471:Poland
367:Geneva
313:, for
297:France
280:karats
200:" or "
67:silver
1476:(PDF)
1469:(PDF)
1274:(PDF)
1247:(PDF)
1223:JSTOR
756:India
671:Basel
162:craft
51:metal
1734:Gold
1642:2016
1606:2007
1576:2019
1513:2016
1452:2016
1422:2014
1392:2016
1356:ISBN
1331:ISBN
1263:ISSN
1175:OCLC
1095:2017
1036:2019
1004:OCLC
991:2019
748:and
596:and
572:The
522:The
113:any
111:cite
63:gold
47:mark
1540:doi
1213:hdl
1203:doi
1150:doi
566:UK.
554:of
546:of
538:of
188:).
124:by
1705::
1628:.
1622:.
1592:.
1562:.
1536:54
1534:.
1530:.
1499:.
1438:.
1408:.
1378:.
1269:.
1255:47
1253:.
1249:.
1221:.
1211:.
1199:22
1197:.
1193:.
1146:62
1144:.
1140:.
1128:^
1085:.
1081:.
1056:.
1052:.
1022:.
1016::
880:.
714:Z
706:J
698:C
690:G
682:T
674:*
666:B
583:A
309:,
65:,
61:,
41:A
1695:)
1687:(
1644:.
1608:.
1578:.
1548:.
1542::
1515:.
1485:.
1454:.
1424:.
1394:.
1364:.
1339:.
1283:.
1231:.
1215::
1205::
1181:.
1158:.
1152::
1122:.
1097:.
1067:.
1038:.
1010:.
993:.
958:.
616:a
168:(
151:)
145:(
140:)
136:(
132:.
118:.
91:.
38:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
