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activated by others' need). Ervin Staub described a "prosocial value orientation" that makes helping more likely when noticing a person in physical distress or psychological distress. Prosocial orientation was also negatively related to aggression in boys, and positively related to "constructive patriotism". The components of this orientation are a positive view of human beings, concern about others' welfare, and a feeling of and belief in one's responsibility for others' welfare.
326:
when helping. This can be, for example, a sense of goodness and self-satisfaction. When seeing someone in distress, we may empathize with that person and thereby become aroused and distressed. We may choose to help in order to reduce this arousal and distress. According to this theory, before helping, people consciously calculate the benefits and costs of helping and not helping, and they help when the overall benefit to themselves of helping outweighs the cost.
237:. Egoistic motives lead a person to help others in bad circumstances in order to reduce personal distress experienced from knowing the situation of the people in need. Helping behavior happens only when the personal distress cannot be relieved by other actions. This model also explains people's avoidance behavior when they notice people in need: this is an alternative way for them to reduce their own distress.
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This can be confused with the Expert Role because they seem to overlap each other. This role includes the client asking for information and service but also demands a diagnosis and prescription. Doctors, counselors, coaches, and repair personnel fulfill this kind of role. Contrary to the expert role,
285:
The hypothesis was supported by a study that divided participants into a high-empathy group and a low-empathy group. Both groups listened to Janet, a fellow student, sharing her feelings of loneliness. The results indicated that the high-empathy group (instructed to vividly imagine Janet's emotions)
174:
An experiment conducted in
Britain supported kin selection It is illustrated by diagram below. The result showed that people were more willing to provide help to people with higher relatedness, something which occurs in both genders and in various cultures. The result also shows gender difference in
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Rewards are either external or internal. External rewards are things that are obtained from others when helping them, for instance, friendship and gratitude. People are more likely to help those who are more attractive or important, whose approval is desired. Internal reward is generated by oneself
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204:
notes, āreciprocity is found amongst all social mammals with long memories who live in stable communities and recognize each other as individuals.ā Individuals should identify cheaters (those who do not reciprocate help) who lose the benefit of help from them in the future, as seen, for example, in
298:
A strong influence on helping is feeling responsible to help, especially when combined with the belief that one can help other people. The feeling of responsibility can result from a situation that focuses responsibility on a person, or it can be a personal characteristic (leading to helping when
245:
In one study, guilt feelings were induced in subjects by having them accidentally ruin a student's thesis data or by them seeing the data being ruined. Some subjects experienced positive events afterwards, e.g. being praised. Subjects who experienced negative guilt feelings were more motivated to
418:
Here the helper focuses on the communication process from the very beginning. Before help can start, there needs to be an establishment of trust between the helper and the client. For example, in order for a tech consultant to be effective, he or she has to take a few minutes to discuss what the
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This is the most common. It assumes that the person being helped is seeking information or expert service that they cannot provide for themselves. For example, simple issues like asking for directions or more complex issues like an organization hiring a financial consultant will fall into this
54:
is distinguished from helping behavior in this way: Altruism refers to prosocial behaviors that are carried out without expectation of obtaining external reward (concrete reward or social reward) or internal reward (self-reward). An example of altruism would be anonymously donating to charity.
212:
Economic trade and business may be fostered by reciprocal altruism in which products given and received involve different exchanges. Economic trades follow the āIāll scratch your back if you scratch mineā principle. A pattern of frequent giving and receiving of help among workers boosts both
331:
358:. Collectivists attend more to the needs and goals of the group they belong to, while individualists focus on themselves. This might suggest that collectivists would be more likely to help ingroup members, and would help strangers less frequently than would individualists.
180:
281:
Daniel Batson's
Empathy-altruism hypothesis asserts that the decision of whether to help or not is primarily influenced by the presence of empathy towards the person in need, and secondarily by factors like the potential costs and rewards (social exchange concerns).
171:"where B is the benefit to the recipient, C is the cost to the altruist (both measured as the number of offspring gained or lost) and r is the coefficient of relationship (i.e. the probability that they share the same gene by descent)."
290:. This finding underscores the idea that empathetic individuals are more likely to provide assistance, without being primarily motivated by considerations of costs and rewards, thus lending support to the empathy-altruism hypothesis..
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believes it is advantageous for an organism to pay a cost for the benefit of another non-related organism if the favor is repaid (when the benefit of the sacrifice outweighs the cost).
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A meta-analytical study found out that at either extreme, urban (300,000 people or more) or rural environments (5,000 people or less), are the worst places if you're looking for help.
575:
Miller, P.A.; Bernzweig, J.; Eisenberg, N.; Fabes, R.A. (1991). "The development and socialization of prosocial behavior". In Hinde, Robert Aubrey; Groebel, Jo (eds.).
256:
A second study found that people who anticipate positive events (in this case, listening to a comedy tape), show low helping motivation since they are expecting their
912:
Fultz, J.; Schaller, M.; Cialdini, R.B. (1988). "Empathy, sadness and distress: Three related but distinct vicarious affective responses to anothers' suffering".
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describes three different roles people may follow when they respond to requests for help: The Expert
Resource Role, The Doctor Role, The Process Consultant Role.
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help than those who had a neutral emotion. However, once the negative mood was relieved by receiving praise, subjects no longer had high motivation to help.
1509:
105:). Kin selection refers to an inheritable tendency to perform behaviors that may favor the chance of survival of people with a similar genetic base.
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48:(voluntary action intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals, such as sharing, comforting, rescuing and helping).
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How children develop, exploring child development student media tool kit & Scientific
American Reader to accompany how children develop
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situation is, how often the problem occurs, what has been tried before, etc. before transitioning into the expert role or the doctor role.
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the Doctor Role shifts more power to the helper who is responsible for those duties: diagnosing, prescribing, and administering the cure.
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700:
Michael, F.C. (1984). "Co-operative breeding by the
Australian Bell Miner Manorina melanophrys Latham: A test of kin selection theory".
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Fultz, J.; Batson, C.D.; Fortenbach, V.A.; McCarthy, P.M.; Varney, L. (1986). "Social evaluation and the empathy altruism hypothesis".
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is the idea that the incentive for an individual to help in the present is based on the expectation of receipt of help in the future.
1287:(1991). "Cross-cultural differences in assertiveness/competition vs. group loyalty/cooperation". In Hinde, R.A.; Groebel, J. (eds.).
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Rewards are incentives, which can be material goods, social rewards which can improve one's image and reputation (e.g. praise), or
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Campbell, D.T. (1975). "On the conflicts between biological and social evolution and between psychology and moral tradition".
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for the person they are helpingāwhen they can relate to that person and feel and understand what that person is experiencing.
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646:(1971). "Selection of selfish and altruistic behavior in some extreme models". In Eisenberg, J.F.; Sillon, W.S. (eds.).
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Madsen, E.A.; Tunney, R.J.; Fieldman, G.; Plotkin, H.C.; Dunbar, R.I.M.; Richardson, J.; McFarland, D. (2007).
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refers to voluntary actions intended to help others, with reward regarded or disregarded. It is a type of
1958:
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Levine, R.V.; Norenzayan, A.; Philbrick, K. (2001). "Cross-cultural differences in helping strangers".
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without abilities to adapt to the challenging environment, preservation of good traits and superior
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2013:
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Batson, C.D.; Shaw, L.L. (1991). "Evidence for altruism: Toward a pluralism of prosocial motives".
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1978:
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The psychology of good and evil: What leads children, adults and groups to help and harm others
370:. In general, frequency of helping behavior in a country is inversely related to the country's
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311:, people help because they want to gain goods from the one being helped. People estimate the
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kin selection: men are more affected by cues suggesting a similar genetic base than women.
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and costs of helping others, and aim at maximizing the former and minimizing the latter.
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Foundations and Trends in
Technology, Information and Operations Management
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Workers and people from the nearby town helping repair a water borehole in
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579:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54ā77.
1291:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 78ā88.
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are important for survival of future generations (i.e.
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2077:
2054:
1237:
Unger, R.K. (April 1979), "Whom does helping help?",
1054:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 592.
288:, regardless of whether their help remained anonymous
1371:(1st ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Pub.
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People may initiate helping behavior when they feel
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Helping : how to offer, give, and receive help
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1259:Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin
961:Aronson, E.; Wilson, T.D.; Akert, R.M. (1997).
1153:"Fairness versus reason in the ultimatum game"
233:of helping states that people help because of
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2453:
1403:
1151:Nowak, M.A.; Page, K.M.; Sigmund, K. (2000).
1079:. Morrisontown, N.J.: General Learning Press.
695:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
670:(1981). "Is altruism part of human nature?".
528:Eisenberg, Nancy; Mussen, Paul Henry (1989).
260:to be lifted up by the upcoming stimulation.
8:
1239:Eastern Psychological Association convention
1017:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
672:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
294:Responsibility ā prosocial value orientation
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530:The Roots of Prosocial Behavior in Children
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1510:Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues
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914:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
648:Man and beast: Comparative social behavior
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933:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
532:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1557:Values in Action Inventory of Strengths
1254:Piliavin, J.A.; Piliavin, I.M. (1973),
517:
286:volunteered to spend more time with her
366:Helping behavior is influenced by the
1256:The Good Samaritan: Why does he help?
7:
1304:Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
1542:Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers
702:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
577:Cooperation and Prosocial Behaviour
1289:Cooperation and prosocial behavior
1077:Resource theory of social exchange
213:productivity and social standing.
25:
85:theory explains altruism from an
691:Sober, E.; Wilson, D.S. (1998).
329:
249:
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27:Voluntarily prosocial behaviour
1495:Catalogue of Vices and Virtues
608:Journal of Theoretical Biology
551:. New York: Worth Publishers.
1:
1180:10.1126/science.289.5485.1773
1075:Foa, U.G.; Foa, E.B. (1975).
739:British Journal of Psychology
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1107:10.1037/0003-066X.30.12.1103
945:10.1016/0022-1031(73)90031-0
809:. Oxford: Oxford University.
628:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4
2509:Interpersonal relationships
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1343:10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.346
1316:10.1177/0022022101032005002
777:Quarterly Review of Biology
547:Siegler, Robert S. (2006).
264:Empathy-altruism hypothesis
231:negative-state relief model
225:Negative-state relief model
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1029:10.1037/0022-3514.50.4.761
1002:10.1207/s15327965pli0202_1
684:10.1037/0022-3514.40.1.121
267:
1363:Schein, Edgar H. (2009).
501:Social value orientations
1199:. New York: W.W. Norton.
974:. New York: W.W. Norton.
751:10.1348/000712606X129213
415:Process Consultant Role
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1218:Psychological Bulletin
309:social-exchange theory
303:Social exchange theory
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1959:Righteous indignation
1095:American Psychologist
1050:Staub, Ervin (2003).
990:Psychological Inquiry
219:
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2504:Evolutionary biology
1477:BodhipakkhiyÄ dhammÄ
1269:Myers, D.G. (1999).
884:Current Anthropology
397:Expert Resource Role
378:Rural vs. urban area
368:economic environment
362:Economic environment
342:Cultural differences
78:Kin selection theory
1547:Theological virtues
1450:Positive psychology
1331:Psychology Bulletin
1172:2000Sci...289.1773N
1166:(5485): 1773ā1775.
1128:1998Natur.393..573N
834:1984Natur.308..181W
620:1964JThBi...7....1H
471:Reciprocal altruism
348:cultural difference
220:Reciprocal altruism
191:Reciprocal altruism
186:Reciprocal altruism
89:perspective. Since
1979:Self-transcendence
1571:Individual virtues
1515:Nine Noble Virtues
1444:Nicomachean Ethics
869:10.1561/0200000009
714:10.1007/BF00291904
466:Prosocial behavior
391:Edgar Henry Schein
241:Supporting studies
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46:prosocial behavior
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1633:Conscientiousness
1500:Epistemic virtues
1378:978-1-57675-863-2
1271:Social psychology
1197:Social Psychology
1122:(6685): 573ā576.
1101:(12): 1103ā1126.
972:Social Psychology
963:Social Psychology
828:(5955): 181ā184.
491:Social psychology
307:According to the
258:negative emotions
205:blood-sharing by
103:inclusive fitness
91:natural selection
16:(Redirected from
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1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1578:Accountability
1574:
1572:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1480:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1440:
1435:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1407:
1400:
1392:
1385:
1384:
1377:
1348:
1337:(3): 346ā356.
1321:
1310:(5): 543ā560.
1294:
1285:Triandis, H.C.
1276:
1261:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1234:
1224:(4): 258ā302.
1212:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1192:
1148:
1111:
1089:
1082:
1067:
1060:
1042:
1023:(4): 761ā769.
1007:
996:(2): 107ā122.
980:
977:
976:
967:
957:
950:
939:(6): 501ā516.
923:
901:
896:10.1086/203251
874:
863:(3): 121ā232.
847:
812:
794:
789:10.1086/406755
764:
745:(2): 339ā359.
722:
719:
718:
708:(2): 137ā146.
697:
688:
678:(1): 121ā137.
663:
656:
653:
652:
644:Hamilton, W.D.
640:
604:Hamilton, W.D.
599:
592:
585:
567:
564:
563:
557:
544:
538:
524:
516:
514:
511:
509:
508:
503:
498:
496:Social support
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
427:
425:
422:
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398:
387:
384:
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363:
360:
343:
340:
338:
335:
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268:Main article:
265:
262:
242:
239:
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223:
195:Robert Trivers
187:
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109:W. D. Hamilton
79:
76:
63:
57:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2526:
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2209:
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2201:
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2173:
2169:
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2158:
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2148:
2147:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2133:
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2130:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2108:
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2103:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2090:
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2076:
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2046:
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2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1999:Sportsmanship
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1964:Righteousness
1962:
1960:
1957:
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1952:
1950:
1947:
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1937:
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1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
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1900:
1898:
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1893:
1890:
1888:
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1880:
1878:
1877:Nonattachment
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
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1855:
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1543:
1540:
1538:
1537:Seven virtues
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
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1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
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1501:
1498:
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1488:
1486:
1485:
1484:BrahmavihÄrÄs
1481:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1461:
1460:Virtue ethics
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1428:
1426:About virtues
1424:
1420:
1413:
1408:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1394:
1393:
1390:
1380:
1374:
1369:
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1177:
1173:
1169:
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1161:
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1141:
1137:
1136:10.1038/31225
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
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1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
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1090:
1086:
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1061:0-521-52880-1
1057:
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1038:
1034:
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862:
858:
851:
848:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
816:
813:
808:
804:
803:Singer, Peter
798:
795:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
768:
765:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
729:
727:
723:
715:
711:
707:
703:
698:
694:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
668:Hoffman, M.L.
665:
664:
660:
657:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
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596:
593:
588:
586:0-521-39999-8
582:
578:
571:
568:
560:
558:0-7167-6113-0
554:
550:
545:
541:
539:0-521-33771-2
535:
531:
526:
525:
521:
518:
512:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
486:Social animal
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
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439:
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436:Collaboration
434:
432:
429:
428:
423:
417:
414:
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405:
404:
399:
396:
395:
394:
392:
385:
383:
377:
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369:
361:
359:
357:
356:individualism
353:
349:
341:
336:
334:
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327:
323:
316:
314:
310:
302:
300:
293:
291:
283:
279:
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224:
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140:
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118:
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110:
106:
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100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
83:Kin selection
77:
70:
58:
56:
53:
49:
47:
43:
37:
32:
19:
2462:
2446:
2439:
2432:
2414:
2398:
2391:
2357:
2350:
2332:
2325:
2318:
2312:
2305:
2298:
2291:
2284:
2277:
2270:
2263:
2256:
2249:
2233:
2226:
2221:Brahmacharya
2219:
2212:
2205:
2198:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2159:
2152:
2127:
2120:
2104:
2086:
2070:
2063:
2019:Tranquillity
1969:Self-control
1939:Renunciation
1897:Philanthropy
1892:Perspicacity
1852:Magnificence
1805:Intelligence
1785:Impartiality
1705:Faithfulness
1593:Authenticity
1519:
1505:Five virtues
1482:
1475:
1455:Trait theory
1442:
1366:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1264:
1255:
1249:
1238:
1221:
1217:
1208:
1196:
1163:
1159:
1119:
1115:
1098:
1094:
1085:
1076:
1070:
1051:
1045:
1020:
1016:
1010:
993:
989:
983:
971:
962:
953:
936:
932:
926:
917:
913:
887:
883:
877:
860:
856:
850:
825:
821:
815:
806:
797:
780:
776:
767:
742:
738:
705:
701:
692:
675:
671:
659:
647:
611:
607:
595:
576:
570:
548:
529:
520:
506:Volunteering
389:
381:
365:
352:collectivism
345:
337:Implications
328:
324:
317:
306:
297:
284:
280:
273:
255:
248:
244:
228:
211:
207:vampire bats
202:Peter Singer
199:
189:
177:
173:
170:
107:
93:screens out
87:evolutionary
81:
50:
41:
40:
2039:Workmanship
1929:Punctuality
1847:Magnanimity
1770:Hospitality
1720:Forgiveness
1665:Discernment
1623:Cleanliness
890:: 223ā245.
614:(1): 1ā52.
446:Eusociality
441:Cooperation
406:Doctor Role
350:is between
320:self-reward
2499:Assistance
2493:Categories
2352:Auctoritas
2200:Aparigraha
2179:Adhiį¹į¹hÄna
2161:Sophrosyne
2129:Eutrapelia
2014:Temperance
1994:Solidarity
1984:Simplicity
1944:Resilience
1919:Politeness
1887:Patriotism
1867:Moderation
1740:Good faith
1730:Generosity
1690:Equanimity
1670:Discipline
1628:Compassion
920:: 312ā315.
513:References
451:Friendship
2400:Humanitas
2146:Phronesis
2137:Philotimo
1989:Sincerity
1954:Reverence
1822:Judgement
1810:Emotional
1800:Integrity
1790:Innocence
1745:Gratitude
1725:Frugality
1715:Foresight
1695:Etiquette
1685:Endurance
1660:Diligence
1583:Alertness
1532:Scout Law
1433:Endowment
783:: 35ā56.
401:category.
2393:Gravitas
2376:Dignitas
2122:Ataraxia
2004:Sympathy
1934:Religion
1924:Prudence
1882:Patience
1857:Meekness
1832:Kindness
1780:Humility
1775:Humanity
1710:Fidelity
1655:Courtesy
1618:Chivalry
1613:Chastity
1603:Charisma
1598:Calmness
1588:Altruism
1188:10976075
805:(1994).
759:17456276
431:Altruism
424:See also
346:A major
52:Altruism
2448:Sadaqah
2434:Ganbaru
2367:Decorum
2359:Caritas
2314:ÅraddhÄ
2300:Shaucha
2265:Kshanti
2193:Akrodha
2048:Chinese
1949:Respect
1872:Modesty
1842:Loyalty
1827:Justice
1795:Insight
1755:Honesty
1750:Heroism
1680:Empathy
1638:Courage
1608:Charity
1521:PÄramÄ«s
1419:Virtues
1168:Bibcode
1160:Science
1144:9634232
1124:Bibcode
1037:3712222
830:Bibcode
636:5875341
616:Bibcode
481:Sharing
313:rewards
276:empathy
141:rB>C
95:species
18:Helpful
2416:Virtus
2408:Pietas
2327:Upekį¹£Ä
2320:SaddhÄ
2286:PrajƱÄ
2279:MuditÄ
2258:Kshama
2251:Karuį¹Ä
2214:Asteya
2207:Ärjava
2186:Ahimsa
2171:Indian
2154:Sophia
2029:Wisdom
1907:Filial
1815:Social
1760:Honour
1375:
1186:
1142:
1116:Nature
1058:
1035:
822:Nature
807:Ethics
757:
634:
583:
555:
536:
476:Rescue
235:egoism
66:": -->
2472:VirtĆ¹
2426:Other
2385:Fides
2344:Latin
2334:VÄ«rya
2293:Satya
2272:MettÄ
2235:Dhį¹ti
2114:Arete
2106:Agape
2098:Greek
2024:Trust
2009:Taste
1902:Piety
1862:Mercy
1735:Glory
1700:Faith
1648:Moral
1643:Civil
1562:Yamas
1156:(PDF)
99:genes
36:Ghana
2464:Sisu
2456:Seny
2441:Giri
2307:SevÄ
2228:DÄna
2065:Jing
1914:Pity
1837:Love
1765:Hope
1675:Duty
1373:ISBN
1184:PMID
1140:PMID
1056:ISBN
1033:PMID
755:PMID
632:PMID
581:ISBN
553:ISBN
534:ISBN
456:Hero
354:and
229:The
68:edit
2243:Hrī
2080:Ren
2034:Wit
1339:doi
1335:102
1312:doi
1226:doi
1176:doi
1164:289
1132:doi
1120:393
1103:doi
1025:doi
998:doi
941:doi
892:doi
865:doi
838:doi
826:308
785:doi
747:doi
710:doi
680:doi
624:doi
200:As
2495::
2088:Yi
2072:Li
2057:De
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1000::
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894::
871:.
867::
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840::
832::
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761:.
749::
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712::
686:.
682::
638:.
626::
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72:]
20:)
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