196:
204:
306:
141:
339:
The regions of DNA packaged in facultative heterochromatin will not be consistent between the cell types within a species, and thus a sequence in one cell that is packaged in facultative heterochromatin (and the genes within are poorly expressed) may be packaged in euchromatin in another cell (and
1112:
An up-to-date account of the current understanding of repetitive DNA, which usually doesn't contain genetic information. If evolution makes sense only in the context of the regulatory control of genes, we propose that heterochromatin, which is the main form of chromatin in higher eukaryotes, is
155:
and heterochromatin. Originally, the two forms were distinguished cytologically by how intensely they get stained – the euchromatin is less intense, while heterochromatin stains intensely, indicating tighter packing. Heterochromatin was given its name for this reason by botanist Emil Heitz who
215:
Heterochromatin has been associated with several functions, from gene regulation to the protection of chromosome integrity; some of these roles can be attributed to the dense packing of DNA, which makes it less accessible to protein factors that usually bind DNA or its associated factors. For
445:
synthesizes a transcript that serves as a platform to recruit RITS, RDRC and possibly other complexes required for heterochromatin assembly. Both RNAi and an exosome-dependent RNA degradation process contribute to heterochromatic gene silencing. These mechanisms of
48:. Because it is tightly packed, it was thought to be inaccessible to polymerases and therefore not transcribed; however, according to Volpe et al. (2002), and many other papers since, much of this DNA is in fact transcribed, but it is continuously
160:. Despite this early dichotomy, recent evidence in both animals and plants has suggested that there are more than two distinct heterochromatin states, and it may in fact exist in four or five 'states', each marked by different combinations of
437:, two RNAi complexes, the RITS complex and the RNA-directed RNA polymerase complex (RDRC), are part of an RNAi machinery involved in the initiation, propagation and maintenance of heterochromatin assembly. These two complexes localize in a
105:. It is not repetitive and shares the compact structure of constitutive heterochromatin. However, under specific developmental or environmental signaling cues, it can lose its condensed structure and become transcriptionally active.
1113:
positioned to be a deeply effective target for evolutionary change. Future investigations into assembly, maintenance and the many other functions of heterochromatin will shed light on the processes of gene and chromosome regulation.
156:
discovered that heterochromatin remained darkly stained throughout the entire cell cycle, unlike euchromatin whose stain disappeared during interphase. Heterochromatin is usually localized to the periphery of the
1160:
420:
has regions of DNA that are transcribed very poorly. These loci are the so-called silent mating type loci (HML and HMR), the rDNA (encoding ribosomal RNA), and the sub-telomeric regions. Fission yeast (
251:
sequences may act as a barrier in rare cases where constitutive heterochromatin and highly active genes are juxtaposed (e.g. the 5'HS4 insulator upstream of the chicken β-globin locus, and loci in two
2266:
239:. Variations cause heterochromatin to encroach on adjacent genes or recede from genes at the extremes of domains. Transcribable material may be repressed by being positioned (in
235:. Heterochromatin is generally clonally inherited; when a cell divides, the two daughter cells typically contain heterochromatin within the same regions of DNA, resulting in
295:
contain large regions of constitutive heterochromatin. In most organisms, constitutive heterochromatin occurs around the chromosome centromere and near telomeres.
1767:
776:
1453:
Kato H, Goto DB, Martienssen RA, Urano T, Furukawa K, Murakami Y (July 2005). "RNA polymerase II is required for RNAi-dependent heterochromatin assembly".
1727:
539:
195:
2256:
1897:
1566:
94:
53:
2261:
340:
the genes within are no longer silenced). However, the formation of facultative heterochromatin is regulated, and is often associated with
426:) uses another mechanism for heterochromatin formation at its centromeres. Gene silencing at this location depends on components of the
1267:
Allis CD, Grewal SI (August 2001). "Transitions in distinct histone H3 methylation patterns at the heterochromatin domain boundaries".
1760:
388:
329:, wherein the lighter staining regions are generally more euchromatic, whereas darker regions generally are more heterochromatic.
356:
is packaged as facultative heterochromatin and silenced, while the other X chromosome is packaged as euchromatin and expressed.
231:
Some regions of chromatin are very densely packed with fibers that display a condition comparable to that of the chromosome at
1163:; et al. (December 1986). "Cytogenetic and molecular aspects of position effect variegation in Drosophila melanogaster".
767:
243:) at these boundary domains. This gives rise to expression levels that vary from cell to cell, which may be demonstrated by
1555:"Heterochromatin Assembly and Transcriptional Gene Silencing under the Control of Nuclear RNAi: Lessons from Fission Yeast"
2292:
1882:
368:
1753:
272:
266:
34:
2287:
1312:"RNA polymerase III and RNA polymerase II promoter complexes are heterochromatin barriers in Saccharomyces cerevisiae"
416:
and its heterochromatin has been defined thoroughly. Although most of its genome can be characterized as euchromatin,
244:
71:
40:
216:
example, naked double-stranded DNA ends would usually be interpreted by the cell as damaged or viral DNA, triggering
2029:
454:
has also been implicated in the production of siRNAs to mediate heterochromatin formation in some fission yeast.
422:
171:, and many genes are repressed to various extents, although some cannot be expressed in euchromatin at all. Both
203:
2083:
1867:
1584:"Analysis of small RNA in fission yeast; centromeric siRNAs are potentially generated through a structured RNA"
408:
345:
305:
1027:"Heterochromatin protein 1 is required for the normal expression of two heterochromatin genes in Drosophila"
463:
360:
75:
2036:
2019:
1989:
1962:
1208:
Burgess-Beusse B, Farrell C, Gaszner M, Litt M, Mutskov V, Recillas-Targa F, et al. (December 2002).
236:
430:
pathway. Double-stranded RNA is believed to result in silencing of the region through a series of steps.
2024:
1922:
1582:
Djupedal I, Kos-Braun IC, Mosher RA, Söderholm N, Simmer F, Hardcastle TJ, et al. (December 2009).
367:. The mechanism for such spreading is still a matter of controversy. The polycomb repressive complexes
288:
2244:
2169:
2154:
1984:
1932:
1907:
1847:
1696:
1462:
1221:
722:
495:
379:
compaction and gene expression and have a fundamental role in developmental processes. PRC-mediated
284:
280:
248:
128:
appear to have a pivotal role in modifying heterochromatin during lineage commitment at the onset of
98:
275:, and thus in all cells, any genes contained within the constitutive heterochromatin will be poorly
32:, which comes in multiple varieties. These varieties lie on a continuum between the two extremes of
1912:
1683:
Caron H, van Schaik B, van der Mee M, Baas F, Riggins G, van Sluis P, et al. (February 2001).
140:
57:
1506:"RNA Pol II subunit Rpb7 promotes centromeric transcription and RNAi-directed chromatin silencing"
711:"H3K9me3-heterochromatin loss at protein-coding genes enables developmental lineage specification"
1486:
1384:
1292:
1190:
1103:
640:
521:
384:
1504:
Djupedal I, Portoso M, Spåhr H, Bonilla C, Gustafsson CM, Allshire RC, Ekwall K (October 2005).
1359:
Talbert PB, Henikoff S (October 2006). "Spreading of silent chromatin: inaction at a distance".
1165:
1125:
Fisher AG, Merkenschlager M (April 2002). "Gene silencing, cell fate and nuclear organisation".
359:
Among the molecular components that appear to regulate the spreading of heterochromatin are the
612:
1974:
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691:
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125:
564:"ChromEMT: Visualizing 3D chromatin structure and compaction in interphase and mitotic cells"
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2063:
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738:
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681:
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624:
583:
575:
503:
102:
61:
28:
2219:
2214:
660:"Determination of enriched histone modifications in non-genic portions of the human genome"
2056:
1877:
1685:"The human transcriptome map: clustering of highly expressed genes in chromosomal domains"
927:
Roudier F, Ahmed I, Bérard C, Sarazin A, Mary-Huard T, Cortijo S, et al. (May 2011).
396:
276:
45:
86:, in addition to acting as an attractor for other gene-expression or repression signals.
1700:
1466:
1225:
726:
499:
1947:
1871:
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349:
90:
1336:
1311:
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1209:
1138:
977:
789:
2281:
1927:
1026:
978:"Mapping simple repeated DNA sequences in heterochromatin of Drosophila melanogaster"
709:
Nicetto D, Donahue G, Jain T, Peng T, Sidoli S, Sheng L, et al. (January 2019).
484:"Regulation of heterochromatic silencing and histone H3 lysine-9 methylation by RNAi"
341:
253:
168:
129:
49:
1490:
1296:
1194:
1107:
644:
1902:
1776:
1388:
525:
353:
326:
318:
292:
225:
184:
157:
117:
993:
929:"Integrative epigenomic mapping defines four main chromatin states in Arabidopsis"
208:
1042:
482:
Volpe TA, Kidner C, Hall IM, Teng G, Grewal SI, Martienssen RA (September 2002).
2121:
2116:
1979:
1957:
1952:
1820:
380:
152:
79:
1214:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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1745:
1709:
1684:
1474:
1280:
734:
658:
Rosenfeld JA, Wang Z, Schones DE, Zhao K, DeSalle R, Zhang MQ (March 2009).
579:
508:
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332:
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148:
83:
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517:
441:-dependent manner on chromosomes, at the site of heterochromatin assembly.
1011:
805:
2079:
1863:
1420:
1210:"The insulation of genes from external enhancers and silencing chromatin"
176:
562:
Ou HD, Phan S, Deerinck TJ, Thor A, Ellisman MH, O'Shea CC (July 2017).
2249:
2103:
2014:
2009:
1559:
RNA and the
Regulation of Gene Expression: A Hidden Layer of Complexity
1521:
1178:
540:"What is the current evidence showing active transcription withinin..."
232:
121:
113:
109:
1657:
2159:
2046:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1642:"Heterochromatin in animals and plants. Similarities and differences"
1554:
451:
199:
General model for duplication of heterochromatin during cell division
1372:
1091:
1075:
628:
613:"The role of nuclear architecture in genomic instability and ageing"
70:
Constitutive heterochromatin can affect the genes near itself (e.g.
67:
staining reveal that the dense packing is not due to the chromatin.
1025:
Lu BY, Emtage PC, Duyf BJ, Hilliker AJ, Eissenberg JC (June 2000).
2224:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2149:
2087:
438:
314:
304:
202:
194:
139:
1404:"Polycomb Repressor Complex 2 in Genomic Instability and Cancer"
427:
372:
364:
271:
All cells of a given species package the same regions of DNA in
1749:
821:"Heterochromatin as an Important Driver of Genome Organization"
23:
450:
may occur in other eukaryotes. A large RNA structure called
89:
Facultative heterochromatin is the result of genes that are
819:
Penagos-Puig, Andrés; Furlan-Magaril, Mayra (2020-09-18).
207:
Microscopy of heterochromatic versus euchromatic nuclei (
1726:
Cha, Ariana
Eunjung; Bernstein, Lenny (April 30, 2015).
167:
Heterochromatin mainly consists of genetically inactive
2267:
International System for Human
Cytogenetic Nomenclature
1728:"Scientists discover an important new driver of aging"
1636: – Histology Learning System at Boston University
2237:
2140:
2102:
2072:
2000:
1856:
1787:
1402:Veneti Z, Gkouskou KK, Eliopoulos AG (July 2017).
976:Lohe AR, Hilliker AJ, Roberts PA (August 1993).
348:. An example of facultative heterochromatin is
611:Oberdoerffer P, Sinclair DA (September 2007).
16:Compact and highly condensed form of chromatin
1761:
1127:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
777:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
108:Heterochromatin has been associated with the
8:
1408:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
825:Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology
224:or destruction of the fragment, such as by
2099:
1768:
1754:
1746:
120:in certain portions of the human genome.
1708:
1665:
1607:
1529:
1429:
1419:
1335:
1243:
1233:
1050:
1001:
952:
903:
880:"Chromatin: constructing the big picture"
854:
836:
742:
685:
675:
587:
507:
768:"Heterochromatin and gene regulation in
474:
78:and forms structural functions such as
1310:Donze D, Kamakaka RT (February 2001).
617:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
387:and malignancy and play a role in the
2257:List of organisms by chromosome count
279:. For example, all human chromosomes
132:and in maintaining lineage fidelity.
54:RNA-induced transcriptional silencing
7:
325:, which is a method that includes
14:
1074:Grewal SI, Jia S (January 2007).
1878:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
1553:Vavasseur; et al. (2008).
412:, or budding yeast, is a model
179:are heterochromatic, as is the
144:Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
1:
1139:10.1016/S0959-437X(02)00286-1
790:10.1016/S0959-437X(96)80050-5
363:and non-coding genes such as
317:, showing an overview of the
273:constitutive heterochromatin
267:Constitutive heterochromatin
261:Constitutive heterochromatin
93:through a mechanism such as
56:(RITS). Recent studies with
35:constitutive heterochromatin
22:is a tightly packed form of
1076:"Heterochromatin revisited"
994:10.1093/genetics/134.4.1149
878:van Steensel B (May 2011).
301:Facultative heterochromatin
245:position-effect variegation
183:of the second, inactivated
151:is found in two varieties:
72:position-effect variegation
41:facultative heterochromatin
2309:
1918:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
1561:. Caister Academic Press.
1043:10.1093/genetics/155.2.699
383:aberrations are linked to
330:
264:
44:. Both play a role in the
2262:List of sequenced genomes
2030:Chromosomal translocation
1903:A chromosome/B chromosome
1894:(or accessory chromosome)
1634:Histology image: 20102loa
838:10.3389/fcell.2020.579137
448:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
435:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
423:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
350:X chromosome inactivation
2084:Telomere-binding protein
1898:Supernumerary chromosome
1640:Avramova ZV (May 2002).
1361:Nature Reviews. Genetics
1080:Nature Reviews. Genetics
677:10.1186/1471-2164-10-143
409:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1710:10.1126/science.1056794
1510:Genes & Development
1475:10.1126/science.1114955
1281:10.1126/science.1064150
735:10.1126/science.aau0583
580:10.1126/science.aag0025
509:10.1126/science.1074973
464:Centric heterochromatin
395:and in the fidelity of
361:Polycomb-group proteins
352:in female mammals: one
2020:Structural alterations
1600:10.1038/emboj.2009.351
1328:10.1093/emboj/20.3.520
1235:10.1073/pnas.162342499
945:10.1038/emboj.2011.103
896:10.1038/emboj.2011.135
336:
237:epigenetic inheritance
212:
200:
145:
2037:Numerical alterations
2025:Chromosomal inversion
1923:Homologous chromosome
433:In the fission yeast
403:Yeast heterochromatin
331:Further information:
308:
206:
198:
143:
95:histone deacetylation
2293:Nuclear organization
2245:Extrachromosomal DNA
1933:Satellite chromosome
1908:Lampbrush chromosome
1848:Nuclear organization
1421:10.3390/ijms18081657
1220:(Suppl 4): 16433–7.
766:Elgin, S.C. (1996).
543:www.researchgate.net
99:Piwi-interacting RNA
1938:Centromere position
1913:Polytene chromosome
1883:Circular chromosome
1701:2001Sci...291.1289C
1467:2005Sci...309..467K
1226:2002PNAS...9916433B
727:2019Sci...363..294N
500:2002Sci...297.1833V
169:satellite sequences
58:electron microscopy
46:expression of genes
2288:Molecular genetics
1522:10.1101/gad.344205
1179:10.1007/BF00292759
574:(6349): eaag0025.
385:genome instability
337:
213:
201:
146:
126:methyltransferases
2275:
2274:
2233:
2232:
1970:Centromere number
1887:Linear chromosome
1695:(5507): 1289–92.
1658:10.1104/pp.010981
1568:978-1-904455-25-7
721:(6424): 294–297.
443:RNA polymerase II
74:). It is usually
2300:
2100:
2064:Polyploidization
1892:Extra chromosome
1807:Genetic material
1770:
1763:
1756:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1722:
1712:
1679:
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1646:Plant Physiology
1622:
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1611:
1588:The EMBO Journal
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1316:The EMBO Journal
1307:
1301:
1300:
1275:(5532): 1150–5.
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1205:
1199:
1198:
1157:
1151:
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1122:
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1071:
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1016:
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1005:
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933:The EMBO Journal
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884:The EMBO Journal
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494:(5588): 1833–7.
479:
116:-methylation of
101:(piRNA) through
2308:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2297:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2229:
2136:
2098:
2068:
2057:Paleopolyploidy
2002:
1996:
1852:
1826:Heterochromatin
1789:
1783:
1774:
1736:
1734:
1725:
1682:
1639:
1630:
1625:
1594:(24): 3832–44.
1581:
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1547:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1461:(5733): 467–9.
1452:
1451:
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1401:
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1373:10.1038/nrg1920
1367:(10): 793–803.
1358:
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1092:10.1038/nrg2008
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1024:
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1019:
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970:
939:(10): 1928–38.
926:
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890:(10): 1885–95.
877:
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629:10.1038/nrm2238
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346:differentiation
335:
327:Giemsa staining
303:
269:
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193:
138:
65:
20:Heterochromatin
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1948:Submetacentric
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1935:
1930:
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1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1889:
1880:
1875:
1874:or heterosome)
1868:Sex chromosome
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1732:New York Times
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1628:External links
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1545:
1516:(19): 2301–6.
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1445:
1394:
1351:
1302:
1259:
1200:
1173:(6): 492–504.
1161:Zhimulev, I.F.
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1066:
1037:(2): 699–708.
1017:
988:(4): 1149–74.
968:
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811:
784:(2): 193–202.
758:
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623:(9): 692–702.
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265:Main article:
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189:
137:
134:
63:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2305:
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2110:
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2040:
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2038:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2003:and evolution
1999:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1968:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1928:Isochromosome
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
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1370:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1322:(3): 520–31.
1321:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1303:
1298:
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1290:
1286:
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1278:
1274:
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983:
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771:
762:
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724:
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697:
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419:
418:S. cerevisiae
415:
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386:
382:
378:
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366:
362:
357:
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351:
347:
343:
342:morphogenesis
334:
328:
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320:
316:
312:
307:
300:
298:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
268:
260:
258:
256:
255:
254:Saccharomyces
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
229:
228:in bacteria.
227:
226:endonucleases
223:
219:
210:
209:H&E stain
205:
197:
190:
188:
187:in a female.
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
165:
163:
159:
154:
150:
142:
135:
133:
131:
130:organogenesis
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
68:
66:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
42:
37:
36:
31:
30:
29:condensed DNA
25:
21:
1969:
1937:
1825:
1777:Cytogenetics
1735:. Retrieved
1731:
1692:
1688:
1649:
1645:
1591:
1587:
1577:
1558:
1548:
1513:
1509:
1499:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1411:
1407:
1397:
1364:
1360:
1354:
1319:
1315:
1305:
1272:
1268:
1262:
1217:
1213:
1203:
1170:
1164:
1155:
1133:(2): 193–7.
1130:
1126:
1120:
1111:
1086:(1): 35–46.
1083:
1079:
1069:
1034:
1030:
1020:
985:
981:
971:
936:
932:
922:
887:
883:
873:
828:
824:
814:
781:
775:
769:
761:
718:
714:
704:
667:
664:BMC Genomics
663:
653:
620:
616:
606:
571:
567:
557:
546:. Retrieved
542:
534:
491:
487:
477:
447:
434:
432:
421:
417:
407:
406:
358:
354:X chromosome
338:
319:human genome
297:
293:Y-chromosome
270:
252:
240:
230:
214:
185:X-chromosome
166:
147:
107:
88:
69:
39:
33:
27:
19:
18:
1990:Polycentric
1980:Monocentric
1963:Holocentric
1958:Acrocentric
1953:Telocentric
1943:Metacentric
1821:Euchromatin
1781:chromosomes
1652:(1): 40–9.
1414:(8): 1657.
397:replication
173:centromeres
153:euchromatin
80:centromeres
50:turned over
2282:Categories
2142:Centromere
2073:Structures
2052:Polyploidy
2042:Aneuploidy
1843:Nucleosome
1833:Chromosome
1166:Chromosoma
770:Drosophila
670:(1): 143.
548:2016-04-30
470:References
393:DNA repair
391:response,
389:DNA damage
381:epigenetic
309:Schematic
291:, and the
222:DNA repair
218:cell cycle
162:epigenetic
76:repetitive
2094:Protamine
2001:Processes
1985:Dicentric
1838:Chromatid
1816:Chromatin
1797:Karyotype
1187:1432-0886
847:2296-634X
798:0959-437X
414:eukaryote
377:chromatin
375:regulate
333:Karyotype
323:G banding
311:karyogram
277:expressed
249:Insulator
181:Barr body
177:telomeres
149:Chromatin
136:Structure
124:-related
84:telomeres
2238:See also
2080:Telomere
2047:Euploidy
1975:Acentric
1872:allosome
1864:Autosome
1790:concepts
1719:11181992
1676:12011336
1618:19942857
1540:16204182
1491:22636283
1483:15947136
1440:28758948
1381:16983375
1346:11157758
1297:26350729
1289:11498594
1254:12154228
1195:24439936
1147:11893493
1108:31811880
1100:17173056
1061:10835392
1031:Genetics
982:Genetics
963:21487388
914:21527910
865:33072761
753:30606806
696:19335899
645:15674132
637:17700626
598:28751582
518:12193640
458:See also
220:arrest,
191:Function
91:silenced
2250:Plasmid
2104:Histone
2015:Meiosis
2010:Mitosis
1697:Bibcode
1689:Science
1667:1540225
1609:2797062
1531:1240039
1463:Bibcode
1455:Science
1431:5578047
1389:1671107
1269:Science
1222:Bibcode
1052:1461102
1012:8375654
1003:1205583
954:3098477
905:3098493
856:7530337
806:8722176
744:6664818
723:Bibcode
715:Science
687:2667539
589:5646685
568:Science
526:2613813
496:Bibcode
488:Science
257:spp.).
233:mitosis
164:marks.
158:nucleus
122:H3K9me3
1811:Genome
1802:Ploidy
1717:
1674:
1664:
1616:
1606:
1565:
1538:
1528:
1489:
1481:
1438:
1428:
1387:
1379:
1344:
1337:133458
1334:
1295:
1287:
1252:
1245:139905
1242:
1193:
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1106:
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1010:
1000:
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951:
912:
902:
863:
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845:
804:
796:
751:
741:
694:
684:
643:
635:
596:
586:
524:
516:
452:RevCen
321:using
2088:TINF2
1857:Types
1788:Basic
1737:4 May
1487:S2CID
1385:S2CID
1293:S2CID
1191:S2CID
1104:S2CID
641:S2CID
522:S2CID
439:siRNA
315:human
313:of a
1870:(or
1739:2015
1715:PMID
1672:PMID
1614:PMID
1563:ISBN
1536:PMID
1479:PMID
1436:PMID
1377:PMID
1342:PMID
1285:PMID
1250:PMID
1183:ISSN
1143:PMID
1096:PMID
1057:PMID
1008:PMID
959:PMID
910:PMID
861:PMID
843:ISSN
802:PMID
794:ISSN
749:PMID
692:PMID
633:PMID
594:PMID
514:PMID
428:RNAi
373:PRC2
371:and
369:PRC1
365:Xist
175:and
118:H3K9
112:and
103:RNAi
60:and
52:via
38:and
2122:H2B
2117:H2A
1705:doi
1693:291
1662:PMC
1654:doi
1650:129
1604:PMC
1596:doi
1526:PMC
1518:doi
1471:doi
1459:309
1426:PMC
1416:doi
1369:doi
1332:PMC
1324:doi
1277:doi
1273:293
1240:PMC
1230:doi
1175:doi
1135:doi
1088:doi
1047:PMC
1039:doi
1035:155
998:PMC
990:doi
986:134
949:PMC
941:doi
900:PMC
892:doi
851:PMC
833:doi
786:doi
739:PMC
731:doi
719:363
682:PMC
672:doi
625:doi
584:PMC
576:doi
572:357
504:doi
492:297
344:or
241:cis
114:tri
110:di-
97:or
82:or
62:OsO
26:or
24:DNA
2284::
2165:C2
2160:C1
2132:H4
2127:H3
2112:H1
2082::
1779::
1730:.
1713:.
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780:.
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668:10
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283:,
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211:).
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2220:Q
2215:P
2210:O
2205:N
2200:M
2195:K
2190:J
2185:I
2180:H
2175:F
2170:E
2155:B
2150:A
2090:)
2086:(
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1866:/
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