996:
547:), a normal crow, and normal sexual and aggressive behaviors. He also had a group with their testes surgically removed, and noticed that their secondary sexual organs were decreased in size, had a weak crow, did not have sexual attraction towards females, and were not aggressive. He realized that this organ was essential for these behaviors, but he did not know how. To test this further, he removed one testis and placed it in the abdominal cavity. The roosters acted and had normal physical
1067:
1323:
40:
1580:
combination between endocrine reflexes and neural reflexes, creating a neuroendocrine pathway. While endocrine pathways produce chemical signals in the form of hormones, the neuroendocrine pathway involves the electrical signals of neurons. In this pathway, the result of the electrical signal produced by a neuron is the release of a chemical, which is the neurohormone
588:), whereas the bending occurs lower down the stem. They proposed that a 'transmissible substance' communicated the direction of light from the tip down to the stem. The idea of a 'transmissible substance' was initially dismissed by other plant biologists, but their work later led to the discovery of the first plant hormone. In the 1920s Dutch scientist
1596:
1604:
The formation of a complex with a binding protein has several benefits: the effective half-life of the bound hormone is increased, and a reservoir of bound hormones is created, which evens the variations in concentration of unbound hormones (bound hormones will replace the unbound hormones when these
1599:
This is a diagram that represents and describer what hormones are and their activity in the bloodstream. Hormones flow in and out of the bloodstream and are able to bind to Target cells to activate the role of the hormone. This is with the help of the bloodstream flow and the secreting cell. Hormones
1070:
The left diagram shows a steroid (lipid) hormone (1) entering a cell and (2) binding to a receptor protein in the nucleus, causing (3) mRNA synthesis which is the first step of protein synthesis. The right side shows protein hormones (1) binding with receptors which (2) begins a transduction pathway.
1326:
Blood glucose levels are maintained at a constant level in the body by a negative feedback mechanism. When the blood glucose level is too high, the pancreas secretes insulin and when the level is too low, the pancreas then secretes glucagon. The flat line shown represents the homeostatic set point.
555:
factor that was involved in the testes that provided these functions. He transplanted a testis from another rooster to a rooster with one testis removed, and saw that they had normal behavior and physical anatomy as well. Berthold determined that the location or genetic factors of the testes do not
1530:
Not only can hormones influence behavior, but also behavior and the environment can influence hormone concentration. Thus, a feedback loop is formed, meaning behavior can affect hormone concentration, which in turn can affect behavior, which in turn can affect hormone concentration, and so on. For
1526:
At the neurological level, behavior can be inferred based on hormone concentration, which in turn are influenced by hormone-release patterns; the numbers and locations of hormone receptors; and the efficiency of hormone receptors for those involved in gene transcription. Hormone concentration does
1407:
Hormones are also regulated by receptor agonists. Hormones are ligands, which are any kinds of molecules that produce a signal by binding to a receptor site on a protein. Hormone effects can be inhibited, thus regulated, by competing ligands that bind to the same target receptor as the hormone in
1579:
Neurohormones are a type of hormone that share a commonality with neurotransmitters. They are produced by endocrine cells that receive input from neurons, or neuroendocrine cells. Both classic hormones and neurohormones are secreted by endocrine tissue; however, neurohormones are the result of a
1509:
A "pharmacologic dose" or "supraphysiological dose" of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally occurring amounts and may be
3078:
671:, which they believed to be due to the nervous system. They cut the nerves to the pancreas in an animal model and discovered that it was not nerve impulses that controlled secretion from the pancreas. It was determined that a factor secreted from the intestines into the
1403:
are considered to act as local hormones. They are considered to be "local" because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation. They also have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distant sites within the body.
1571:
Assuming the travel distance is equivalent, neural signals can be transmitted much more quickly (in the range of milliseconds) than can hormonal signals (in the range of seconds, minutes, or hours). Neural signals can be sent at speeds up to 100 meters per
687:
Hormonal effects are dependent on where they are released, as they can be released in different manners. Not all hormones are released from a cell and into the blood until it binds to a receptor on a target. The major types of hormone signaling are:
114:. Due to the broad definition of a hormone (as a signaling molecule that exerts its effects far from its site of production), numerous kinds of molecules can be classified as hormones. Among the substances that can be considered hormones, are
616:, professor at University College London, collaborated on the physiological effects of adrenal extracts. They first published their findings in two reports in 1894, a full publication followed in 1895. Though frequently falsely attributed to
869:, meaning that they are soluble in water. Due to their hydrophilicity, they can only bind to receptors on the membrane, as travelling through the membrane is unlikely. However, some hormones can bind to intracellular receptors through an
596:(working independently of each other) conclusively showed that asymmetric accumulation of a growth hormone was responsible for this bending. In 1933 this hormone was finally isolated by Kögl, Haagen-Smit and Erxleben and given the name '
2011:
1408:
question. When a competing ligand is bound to the receptor site, the hormone is unable to bind to that site and is unable to elicit a response from the target cell. These competing ligands are called antagonists of the hormone.
1071:
The transduction pathway ends (3) with transcription factors being activated in the nucleus, and protein synthesis beginning. In both diagrams, a is the hormone, b is the cell membrane, c is the cytoplasm, and d is the nucleus.
1531:
example, hormone-behavior feedback loops are essential in providing constancy to episodic hormone secretion, as the behaviors affected by episodically secreted hormones directly prevent the continuous release of sad hormones.
542:
with their testes intact. He decided to run an experiment on male roosters to examine this phenomenon. He kept a group of roosters with their testes intact, and saw that they had normal sized wattles and combs (secondary
1605:
are eliminated). An example of the usage of hormone-binding proteins is in the thyroxine-binding protein which carries up to 80% of all thyroxine in the body, a crucial element in regulating the metabolic rate.
393:. The lack of specialised glands means that the main site of hormone production can change throughout the life of a plant, and the site of production is dependent on the plant's age and environment.
385:
Plants lack specialized organs for the secretion of hormones, although there is spatial distribution of hormone production. For example, the hormone auxin is produced mainly at the tips of young
1204:, and thereby increasing the levels of the proteins encoded by these genes. However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located inside the cell. Some are associated with the
506:
of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for
2019:
1319:
of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an "effect" of the hormone.
280:. Hormones can also act in non-genomic pathways that synergize with genomic effects. Water-soluble hormones (such as peptides and amines) generally act on the surface of target cells via
1575:
Neural signalling is an all-or-nothing (digital) action, whereas hormonal signalling is an action that can be continuously variable as it is dependent upon hormone concentration.
335:, leading to reduced insulin levels. Upon secretion, water-soluble hormones are readily transported through the circulatory system. Lipid-soluble hormones must bond to
300:. Brassinosteroids, a type of polyhydroxysteroids, are a sixth class of plant hormones and may be useful as an anticancer drug for endocrine-responsive tumors to cause
1527:
not incite behavior, as that would undermine other external stimuli; however, it influences the system by increasing the probability of a certain event to occur.
4374:
474:
process: This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a
3871:
3843:
3740:
2666:
1665:
1192:. To bind their receptors, these hormones must first cross the cell membrane. They can do so because they are lipid-soluble. The combined hormone-receptor
347:-protein complexes. Some hormones, such as insulin and growth hormones, can be released into the bloodstream already fully active. Other hormones, called
1600:
regulate: metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, reproduction, etc. This diagram also lists the important hormones in a human body.
1561:
A hormone can perform functions over a larger spatial and temporal scale than can a neurotransmitter, which often acts in micrometer-scale distances.
510:, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal.
995:
3699:
1447:
4779:
1292:
A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through
624:, the substance causing the physiological changes, was the first hormone to be discovered. The term hormone would later be coined by Starling.
1925:
Wang ZY, Seto H, Fujioka S, Yoshida S, Chory J (March 2001). "BRI1 is a critical component of a plasma-membrane receptor for plant steroids".
1544:
The reintroduction of a missing behaviorally dependent hormonal source (or its types of action) is expected to bring back the absent behavior.
3941:
3257:
3224:
3131:
3039:
2986:
2877:
2558:
2463:
2435:
2147:
2114:
2078:
1783:
1750:
264:
proteins in the target cell, resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a
3623:
4621:
3584:
4589:
3556:
1091:
pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.
4367:
3405:
3365:
3332:
3294:
1987:
3446:
Boron WF, Boulpaep EL. Medical physiology: a cellular and molecular approach. Updated 2. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders
Elsevier; 2012.
4044:
1510:
therapeutically useful, though not without potentially adverse side effects. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of
1564:
Hormonal signals can travel virtually anywhere in the circulatory system, whereas neural signals are restricted to pre-existing
1534:
Three broad stages of reasoning may be used to determine if a specific hormone-behavior interaction is present within a system:
3618:
862:
2574:
Heyland A, Hodin J, Reitzel AM (January 2005). "Hormone signaling in evolution and development: a non-model system approach".
4150:
3773:
3709:
3603:
1711:
584:
studied the movement of plants towards light. They were able to show that light is perceived at the tip of a young stem (the
1592:
Hormone transport and the involvement of binding proteins is an essential aspect when considering the function of hormones.
4165:
3633:
3608:
1427:
613:
4774:
4616:
4360:
4222:
4217:
3959:
3674:
44:
3704:
3684:
1371:
1051:
336:
234:
766:
As hormones are defined functionally, not structurally, they may have diverse chemical structures. Hormones occur in
304:
and limit plant growth. Despite being lipid soluble, they nevertheless attach to their receptor at the cell surface.
4435:
4418:
4401:
4330:
4212:
1107:
340:
560:
in the testes being secreted is causing this phenomenon. It was later identified that this factor was the hormone
4631:
4626:
4440:
4335:
3893:
609:
1541:
A hormonally dependent behavior is not expected if the hormonal source (or its types of action) is non-existent.
1538:
The frequency of occurrence of a hormonally dependent behavior should correspond to that of its hormonal source.
4723:
4413:
3964:
3514:
3429:
1553:
Though colloquially oftentimes used interchangeably, there are various clear distinctions between hormones and
1262:
1173:
1117:
proteins. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the
269:
210:
33:
4769:
4551:
4523:
4450:
4430:
4193:
1084:
461:
281:
261:
1397:. These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus.
4764:
4563:
4536:
4039:
4016:
3768:
3549:
1721:
1650:
1443:
1080:
999:
Different types of hormones are secreted in the human body, with different biological roles and functions.
807:
767:
668:
652:
523:
482:
91:
3063:
4689:
4651:
4531:
4477:
4455:
4408:
1584:
Finally, like a classic hormone, the neurohormone is released into the bloodstream to reach its target.
1076:
351:, must be activated in certain cells through a series of steps that are usually tightly controlled. The
344:
2522:
Janssens PM (1987). "Did vertebrate signal transduction mechanisms originate in eukaryotic microbes?".
4660:
4656:
4608:
2822:
2722:
2622:
2238:
1934:
1189:
858:
791:
65:
3111:
551:. He was able to see that location of the testes does not matter. He then wanted to see if it was a
4759:
4718:
4701:
4387:
4325:
3931:
3926:
3898:
3861:
3694:
3679:
3643:
1886:"30 Years of the Mineralocorticoid Receptor: Nongenomic effects via the mineralocorticoid receptor"
1690:
1615:
1122:
1088:
737:
724:
471:
402:
265:
230:
48:
502:
are used to secrete hormones when the endocrine glands are signaled. The hierarchical model is an
3666:
3137:
2791:
2262:
1958:
1824:
1706:
1685:
1467:
1389:, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of
1386:
1283:
795:
589:
503:
437:
379:
359:
238:
214:
2418:
Bayliss WM, Starling EH (1968). "The
Mechanism of Pancreatic Secretion". In Leicester HM (ed.).
1196:
then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific
319:. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals and is often subject to
4754:
4568:
3853:
3542:
3485:
3477:
3411:
3401:
3371:
3361:
3338:
3328:
3300:
3290:
3263:
3253:
3230:
3220:
3191:
3162:"Hormones and the Evolution of Complex Traits: Insights from Artificial Selection on Behavior"
3127:
3045:
3035:
2992:
2982:
2956:
2900:
2873:
2850:
2783:
2748:
2648:
2591:
2554:
2504:
2469:
2459:
2431:
2400:
2351:
2303:
2254:
2207:
2153:
2143:
2120:
2110:
2084:
2074:
1993:
1983:
1950:
1907:
1816:
1779:
1756:
1746:
1635:
1479:
1423:
1308:
320:
246:
3458:"Role of Plasma Proteins in the Binding, Distribution and Metabolism of the Thyroid Hormones"
4694:
4665:
4594:
4490:
4423:
3820:
3815:
3469:
3181:
3173:
3119:
2946:
2938:
2840:
2830:
2775:
2738:
2730:
2638:
2630:
2583:
2531:
2496:
2423:
2390:
2382:
2341:
2333:
2293:
2246:
2197:
2187:
1942:
1897:
1808:
1640:
1554:
1367:
1224:
1185:
1134:
1066:
1017:
951:
933:
711:
593:
454:
408:
352:
316:
293:
186:
2766:
Beato M, Chávez S, Truss M (April 1996). "Transcriptional regulation by steroid hormones".
4573:
4145:
3778:
3573:
3526:
3457:
3093:
Nelson, R. J. (2021). Hormones & behavior. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds),
1417:
1379:
1205:
1193:
1169:
1165:
1142:
1126:
1095:
1021:
838:
660:
636:
632:
367:
308:
273:
182:
135:
620:, found in 1902 by Bayliss and Starling, Oliver and Schäfer's adrenal extract containing
2826:
2726:
2626:
2242:
1938:
4706:
4513:
4383:
4352:
4297:
4266:
4238:
4183:
4078:
3795:
3726:
3283:
3248:
Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB, Campbell NA (2014).
3216:
3186:
3161:
3123:
2951:
2926:
2743:
2710:
2643:
2610:
2427:
2395:
2370:
2346:
2321:
2202:
2175:
1511:
1483:
1459:
1363:
971:
648:
581:
577:
538:. He noticed in castrated roosters that they did not have the same sexual behaviors as
475:
371:
94:
that are sent to distant organs or tissues by complex biological processes to regulate
87:
2845:
2810:
1322:
4748:
4508:
4307:
4083:
3785:
3748:
3521:
2779:
2535:
2500:
1701:
1695:
1655:
1645:
1455:
1242:
1197:
1177:
1146:
1133:
permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as
1114:
1103:
1039:
1033:
963:
959:
499:
458:
412:
289:
194:
119:
77:
3510:
2795:
1828:
4733:
4498:
4494:
4090:
4026:
4011:
3974:
3921:
3888:
3628:
3595:
3141:
2386:
2337:
2266:
2041:
1979:
Miller-Keane
Encyclopedia & dictionary of medicine, nursing & allied health
1962:
1670:
1515:
1487:
1154:
975:
921:
561:
428:
297:
249:
manipulation. In plants, hormones modulate almost all aspects of development, from
242:
193:, hormones are responsible for regulating a wide range of processes including both
175:
52:
3394:
4728:
4541:
4274:
4251:
3753:
3656:
3473:
1716:
1565:
1503:
1471:
1439:
1305:
1293:
1130:
1111:
1055:
967:
783:
672:
479:
332:
324:
250:
163:
143:
123:
39:
2894:
2815:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2691:
1799:
Gibson CL (2010). "Hormones and
Behaviour: A Psychological Approach (review)".
4681:
4302:
4188:
3838:
3790:
3719:
3714:
3234:
2473:
2157:
2124:
1680:
1660:
1630:
1491:
1431:
1400:
1394:
1390:
1312:
1248:
1229:
1158:
1138:
1099:
1013:
947:
929:
887:
870:
866:
842:
750:
640:
621:
585:
527:
495:
348:
254:
206:
198:
190:
139:
115:
95:
3481:
3267:
3049:
2996:
1860:
1820:
1760:
4711:
4445:
4105:
4034:
3916:
3828:
3763:
3689:
3415:
3375:
3342:
3304:
2835:
2690:
Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J (2000).
2068:
1997:
1620:
1499:
1451:
1316:
1277:
1273:
1235:
1181:
1150:
1118:
1047:
917:
899:
895:
787:
644:
573:
544:
375:
363:
312:
301:
226:
222:
202:
56:
3210:
3195:
2960:
2904:
2854:
2752:
2652:
2595:
2404:
2355:
2307:
2258:
2226:
2211:
2192:
2088:
1954:
1911:
1374:(TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the
798:
however there is no agreement that these molecules can be called hormones.
3489:
2787:
2634:
2508:
1311:
control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the
1075:
Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either
4503:
4460:
4256:
4155:
4137:
4095:
4073:
3996:
3988:
3969:
3951:
3880:
3758:
3651:
3613:
3322:
3177:
2298:
2281:
1977:
1625:
1435:
1347:
1258:
925:
916:
hormones are derived from cholesterol. Examples include the sex hormones
891:
846:
729:
Acts on the nearby cells and does not have to enter general circulation.
676:
675:
was stimulating the pancreas to secrete digestive fluids. This was named
656:
617:
557:
552:
535:
390:
171:
131:
99:
3505:
2734:
1902:
1885:
1842:
742:
Affects the cell types that secreted it and causes a biological effect.
580:
was also keenly interested in plants. Through the 1870s, he and his son
17:
4160:
4127:
4122:
4114:
4001:
3936:
3807:
2942:
2587:
1812:
1675:
1495:
1475:
1463:
1375:
1304:
The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a
1269:
1129:
or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in
955:
913:
850:
664:
548:
539:
531:
507:
355:
328:
285:
277:
159:
155:
151:
127:
4284:
4246:
4065:
4006:
2250:
1946:
1352:
1254:
1009:
779:
775:
420:
103:
1595:
716:
Acts on the target cells after being released into the bloodstream.
288:) generally pass through the plasma membranes of target cells (both
3356:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).
1106:
as cell surface receptors, and the majority of these belong to the
331:
synthesis. Insulin then acts to reduce glucose levels and maintain
4317:
4292:
4203:
4175:
3908:
2371:"The Physiological Effects of Extracts of the Suprarenal Capsules"
1594:
1321:
1201:
1043:
994:
771:
597:
416:
218:
147:
111:
107:
60:
2322:"Proceedings of the Physiological Society, March 10, 1894. No. I"
556:
matter in relation to sexual organs and behaviors, but that some
2487:
Lenard J (April 1992). "Mammalian hormones in microbial cells".
386:
4356:
3538:
2972:
2970:
2893:
Campbell M, Jialal I (2019). "Physiology, Endocrine
Hormones".
1346:
Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding
1016:
possess a number of structurally unusual hormones such as the
854:
167:
81:
3534:
2711:"The structure and function of G-protein-coupled receptors"
3098:
3080:
Health & Drugs: Disease, Prescription & Medication
2981:. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.
1268:
preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as
845:
that can range from just 3 to hundreds. Examples include
534:, who, in 1849, had a question about the function of the
1884:
Ruhs S, Nolze A, Hübschmann R, Grossmann C (July 2017).
3327:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates.
1327:
The sinusoidal line represents the blood glucose level.
1087:
that recognize the same hormone but activate different
932:
and hence can cross membranes to bind to intracellular
755:
Acts intracellularly on the cells that synthesized it.
102:. Hormones are required for the correct development of
2811:"The further redefining of steroid-mediated signaling"
1331:
Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by:
978:. They are hydrophobic and act on membrane receptors.
3030:
Silverthorn DU, Johnson BR, Ober WC, Ober CW (2016).
890:
hormones are derived from amino acids, most commonly
260:
Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific
43:
Left: A hormone feedback loop in a female adult. (1)
3400:(6th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
1358:
Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature
4674:
4644:
4607:
4582:
4550:
4522:
4476:
4469:
4394:
4316:
4283:
4265:
4237:
4202:
4174:
4136:
4113:
4104:
4064:
4057:
4025:
3987:
3950:
3907:
3879:
3870:
3852:
3806:
3739:
3665:
3642:
3594:
3583:
3572:
3506:
HMRbase: A database of hormones and their receptors
3289:. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
3025:
3023:
3021:
3019:
3017:
3015:
2709:Rosenbaum DM, Rasmussen SG, Kobilka BK (May 2009).
423:. Hormonal signaling involves the following steps:
3393:
3282:
3209:Pfaff DW, Rubin RT, Schneider JE, Head GA (2018).
2692:"G Protein –Coupled Receptors and Their Effectors"
2611:"Developing a model of plant hormone interactions"
2282:"Understanding phototropism: from Darwin to today"
1184:of the target cell. These receptors belong to the
3009:"Eicosanoids". www.rpi.edu. Retrieved 2017-02-08.
1216:Hormones have the following effects on the body:
894:. They are stored in vesicles. Examples include
3387:
3385:
2872:. India: Partridge Publishing India. p. 1.
2100:
2098:
1776:Hormones and behaviour: a psychological approach
1745:(Second ed.). New York, NY: W. H. Freeman.
2225:Wieland OP, De Ropp RS, Avener J (April 1954).
1366:that stimulate the hormone production of other
478:in hormone production. This is an example of a
432:of a particular hormone in a particular tissue.
3316:
3314:
3281:Siegel A, Sapru H, Hreday N, Siegel H (2006).
3097:Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. Retrieved from
3032:Human physiology : an integrated approach
2927:"Pancreatic regulation of glucose homeostasis"
2449:
2447:
2422:. Harvard University Press. pp. 311–313.
2280:Holland JJ, Roberts D, Liscum E (2009-05-01).
2169:
2167:
2107:Principles of Endocrinology and Hormone Action
928:. Steroids contain four fused rings. They are
4368:
3550:
3160:Garland T, Zhao M, Saltzman W (August 2016).
2176:"Phototropism: bending towards enlightenment"
1743:Biology for a Changing World, with Physiology
572:Although known primarily for his work on the
8:
3034:(Seventh ed.). San Francisco: Pearson.
1434:. The most commonly prescribed hormones are
1385:To release active hormones quickly into the
3360:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
2925:Röder PV, Wu B, Liu Y, Han W (March 2016).
1666:List of investigational sex-hormonal agents
4556:
4473:
4375:
4361:
4353:
4110:
4061:
3876:
3591:
3580:
3557:
3543:
3535:
3513:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
3185:
2950:
2844:
2834:
2742:
2642:
2394:
2345:
2297:
2201:
2191:
1901:
950:hormones are derived from lipids such as
407:Hormone producing cells are found in the
181:Hormones are used to communicate between
3215:(2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom:
3212:Principles of hormone/behavior relations
2553:. Glenview, IL: Pearson Education, Inc.
1982:(6th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
1065:
811:
690:
38:
3112:"Hormones and Behavior: Basic Concepts"
1733:
1200:, regulating the expression of certain
370:secretes its hormones indirectly using
327:(serum glucose concentration) promotes
865:. They are packed in vesicles and are
470:of the received hormonal signal via a
268:pathway that typically activates gene
2931:Experimental & Molecular Medicine
2070:Endocrinology: an integrated approach
1362:One special group of hormones is the
647:, respectively, wanted to see if the
447:of the hormone to the target cell(s).
86:, "setting in motion") is a class of
7:
2174:Whippo CW, Hangarter RP (May 2006).
1849:. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
1801:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
1778:. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
1083:. A cell may have several different
4622:Transcription preinitiation complex
3252:(Tenth ed.). Boston: Pearson.
3166:Integrative and Comparative Biology
2420:Source Book in Chemistry, 1900–1950
2227:"Identity of auxin in normal urine"
2048:. U.S. National Library of Medicine
1220:stimulation or inhibition of growth
663:after the passage of food from the
284:. Lipid soluble hormones, (such as
4590:Signal transducing adaptor protein
3124:10.1016/b978-0-08-045337-8.00236-9
2428:10.4159/harvard.9780674366701.c111
2369:Oliver G, Schäfer EA (July 1895).
1861:"Hormone - The hormones of plants"
63:transport from leaves to roots in
25:
3095:Noba textbook series: Psychology.
2609:Wang YH, Irving HR (April 2011).
1549:Comparison with neurotransmitters
970:. These hormones are produced by
853:. Their sequences are encoded in
790:). These compounds occur also in
659:was involved in the secretion of
568:Charles and Francis Darwin (1880)
4045:5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
2073:. Oxford: Bios Scientific Publ.
1698:, a.k.a. plant growth regulators
1482:. Local preparations for use in
1241:activation or inhibition of the
3462:New England Journal of Medicine
3116:Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior
2105:Belfiore A, LeRoith PE (2018).
1502:creams are used extensively in
863:post-translational modification
3527:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
3392:Purves WK, Kirkwood W (2001).
3321:Purves D, Williams SM (2001).
2615:Plant Signaling & Behavior
2524:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
2489:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
2387:10.1113/jphysiol.1895.sp000564
2338:10.1113/jphysiol.1894.sp000503
2286:Journal of Experimental Botany
2067:Nussey S, Whitehead S (2001).
1712:Sexual motivation and hormones
924:as well as the stress hormone
27:Biological signalling molecule
1:
4780:Human female endocrine system
3456:Oppenheimer JH (1968-05-23).
3358:Molecular biology of the cell
3118:, Elsevier, pp. 97–105,
1522:Hormone-behavior interactions
1102:hormones are embedded in the
813:Hormone types in Vertebrates
519:Arnold Adolph Berthold (1849)
378:function diffuse through the
3396:Life, the science of biology
2780:10.1016/0039-128X(96)00030-X
2536:10.1016/0968-0004(87)90223-4
2501:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90323-2
1976:Miller BF, Keane CB (1997).
1890:The Journal of Endocrinology
1807:(1). Project Muse: 152–155.
1378:, which increases output of
1253:preparation of the body for
1234:induction or suppression of
337:carrier plasma glycoproteins
321:negative feedback regulation
311:are specialized organs that
45:follicle-stimulating hormone
3474:10.1056/NEJM196805232782107
2332:(3–4): i–viii. April 1894.
1372:thyroid-stimulating hormone
1223:wake-sleep cycle and other
1188:family of ligand-activated
1008:Compared with vertebrates,
692:Signaling Types - Hormones
628:Bayliss and Starling (1902)
358:hormones directly into the
4798:
4213:Insulin-like growth factor
2977:Shah SB, Saxena R (2012).
2012:"Plant Hormones/Nutrition"
1415:
1121:of the cell, described as
1108:G protein-coupled receptor
1031:
989:Ethylene and Nitric Oxide
805:
400:
341:thyroxine-binding globulin
317:endocrine signaling system
82:
31:
4559:
2899:. StatPearls Publishing.
2458:. McGraw-Hill Education.
2375:The Journal of Physiology
2326:The Journal of Physiology
2142:. McGraw-Hill Education.
2016:www2.estrellamountain.edu
1149:receptors located in the
604:Oliver and Schäfer (1894)
397:Introduction and overview
382:to nearby target tissue.
272:, resulting in increased
4702:Neuroendocrine signaling
3515:Medical Subject Headings
2809:Hammes SR (March 2003).
2551:Anatomy & physiology
2040:Wisse B (13 June 2021).
1741:Shuster M (2014-03-14).
1422:Many hormones and their
455:associated cell membrane
34:Hormone (disambiguation)
3099:http://noba.to/c6gvwu9m
3077:Sfetcu N (2014-05-02).
2836:10.1073/pnas.0530224100
2667:"Signal relay pathways"
2138:Molina PE, ed. (2018).
1865:Encyclopedia Britannica
1238:(programmed cell death)
1081:intracellular receptors
857:and can be modified by
841:are made of a chain of
768:multicellular organisms
468:Relay and amplification
364:fenestrated capillaries
92:multicellular organisms
4564:cAMP-dependent pathway
4040:N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
4017:Pancreatic polypeptide
3285:Essential neuroscience
2696:Molecular Cell Biology
2193:10.1105/tpc.105.039669
1722:List of human hormones
1651:Environmental hormones
1601:
1444:hormonal contraception
1328:
1110:(GPCR) class of seven
1077:cell surface receptors
1072:
1000:
808:List of human hormones
592:and Russian scientist
524:Arnold Adolph Berthold
483:negative feedback loop
296:) to act within their
235:growth and development
69:
4690:Synaptic transmission
4686:Neurocrine signaling
4609:Transcription factors
4456:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway
2979:Allergy-hormone links
2635:10.4161/psb.6.4.14558
1598:
1472:respiratory disorders
1325:
1190:transcription factors
1069:
1032:Further information:
998:
806:Further information:
792:unicellular organisms
655:. They knew that the
651:had an impact on the
614:Edward Albert Schäfer
498:and other methods of
453:of the hormone by an
401:Further information:
391:shoot apical meristem
323:. For instance, high
42:
2456:Endocrine physiology
2140:Endocrine Physiology
1265:, and other activity
1135:secondary messengers
859:alternative splicing
66:Arabidopsis thaliana
32:For other uses, see
4775:Signal transduction
4719:Mechanotransduction
4707:Exocrine signalling
4514:Signaling molecules
4388:Signal transduction
4326:Natriuretic peptide
3644:Posterior pituitary
3629:Somatostatin (GHIH)
3066:. Cleveland Clinic.
2827:2003PNAS..100.2168H
2735:10.1038/nature08144
2727:2009Natur.459..356R
2627:2011PlSiB...6..494W
2243:1954Natur.173..776W
1939:2001Natur.410..380W
1903:10.1530/JOE-16-0659
1691:Paracrine signaling
1616:Autocrine signaling
1468:autoimmune diseases
1355:and mental activity
1145:also interact with
1123:signal transduction
1094:Receptors for most
1089:signal transduction
962:. Examples include
958:, thromboxanes and
814:
796:signaling molecules
693:
574:Theory of Evolution
472:signal transduction
403:Signal transduction
380:interstitial spaces
266:signal transduction
201:activities such as
88:signaling molecules
49:luteinizing hormone
4729:Ion channel gating
4461:Integrin receptors
4395:Signaling pathways
3667:Anterior pituitary
3530:. Merriam-Webster.
3178:10.1093/icb/icw040
3110:Nelson RJ (2010),
2943:10.1038/emm.2016.6
2588:10.1002/bies.20136
2454:Molina PE (2018).
2299:10.1093/jxb/erp113
2109:. Cham: Springer.
2042:"Endocrine glands"
1813:10.1353/pbm.0.0141
1707:Sex-hormonal agent
1686:Neuroendocrinology
1602:
1428:functional analogs
1329:
1284:reproductive cycle
1125:, often involving
1073:
1001:
812:
691:
683:Types of signaling
608:British physician
590:Frits Warmolt Went
504:oversimplification
500:membrane transport
315:hormones into the
215:sensory perception
142:derivatives (e.g.
70:
4742:
4741:
4724:Phototransduction
4682:Intracrine action
4640:
4639:
4603:
4602:
4491:Neurotransmitters
4350:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4233:
4232:
4053:
4052:
3983:
3982:
3735:
3734:
3468:(21): 1153–1162.
3259:978-0-321-77565-8
3226:978-0-12-802667-0
3133:978-0-08-045337-8
3083:. Nicolae Sfetcu.
3064:"Hormone Therapy"
3041:978-0-321-98122-6
2988:978-93-5025-013-6
2879:978-1-4828-1588-7
2560:978-0-321-86158-0
2549:Marieb E (2014).
2465:978-1-260-01935-3
2437:978-0-674-36670-1
2149:978-1-260-01935-3
2116:978-3-319-44675-2
2080:978-1-85996-252-7
1785:978-0-521-69201-4
1752:978-1-4641-5113-2
1636:Endocrine disease
1555:neurotransmitters
1309:negative feedback
1225:circadian rhythms
1212:Effects in humans
1038:Examples include
993:
992:
934:nuclear receptors
794:, and may act as
759:
758:
612:and physiologist
282:second messengers
16:(Redirected from
4787:
4695:Chemical synapse
4595:Scaffold protein
4557:
4552:Second messenger
4478:Receptor ligands
4474:
4377:
4370:
4363:
4354:
4111:
4106:Digestive system
4062:
3877:
3816:Thyroid hormones
3592:
3581:
3559:
3552:
3545:
3536:
3531:
3494:
3493:
3453:
3447:
3444:
3438:
3437:
3426:
3420:
3419:
3399:
3389:
3380:
3379:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3318:
3309:
3308:
3288:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3250:Campbell biology
3245:
3239:
3238:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3189:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3107:
3101:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3027:
3010:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2974:
2965:
2964:
2954:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2865:
2859:
2858:
2848:
2838:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2746:
2721:(7245): 356–63.
2706:
2700:
2699:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2677:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2646:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2451:
2442:
2441:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2398:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2349:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2301:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2251:10.1038/173776a0
2222:
2216:
2215:
2205:
2195:
2171:
2162:
2161:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2102:
2093:
2092:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2018:. Archived from
2008:
2002:
2001:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1947:10.1038/35066597
1922:
1916:
1915:
1905:
1896:(1): T107–T124.
1881:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1774:Neave N (2008).
1771:
1765:
1764:
1738:
1641:Endocrine system
1588:Binding proteins
1478:is used by many
1380:thyroid hormones
1368:endocrine glands
1335:Other hormones (
1186:nuclear receptor
1172:hormones, their
1143:protein hormones
1098:as well as many
1018:juvenile hormone
952:arachidonic acid
839:Peptide hormones
815:
762:Chemical classes
694:
661:digestive fluids
653:digestive system
594:Nikolai Cholodny
409:endocrine glands
374:. Hormones with
362:, typically via
353:endocrine system
309:endocrine glands
307:In vertebrates,
85:
84:
21:
4797:
4796:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4745:
4744:
4743:
4738:
4670:
4636:
4599:
4578:
4574:Lipid signaling
4546:
4518:
4465:
4390:
4381:
4351:
4342:
4312:
4279:
4261:
4229:
4198:
4170:
4132:
4100:
4049:
4021:
3979:
3946:
3903:
3866:
3848:
3832:
3824:
3802:
3786:Adrenal medulla
3779:Androstenedione
3731:
3661:
3638:
3586:
3575:
3568:
3563:
3520:
3502:
3497:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3445:
3441:
3434:OpenStaxCollege
3428:
3427:
3423:
3408:
3391:
3390:
3383:
3368:
3355:
3354:
3350:
3335:
3320:
3319:
3312:
3297:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3260:
3247:
3246:
3242:
3227:
3208:
3207:
3203:
3159:
3158:
3154:
3146:
3144:
3134:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3092:
3088:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3042:
3029:
3028:
3013:
3008:
3004:
2989:
2976:
2975:
2968:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2909:
2907:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2868:Lall S (2013).
2867:
2866:
2862:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2698:(4th ed.).
2689:
2688:
2684:
2675:
2673:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2466:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2237:(4408): 776–7.
2224:
2223:
2219:
2173:
2172:
2165:
2150:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2117:
2104:
2103:
2096:
2081:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2025:
2023:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1990:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1933:(6826): 380–3.
1924:
1923:
1919:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1869:
1867:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1753:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1611:
1590:
1551:
1524:
1512:glucocorticoids
1490:equivalents of
1442:(as methods of
1420:
1418:Hormone therapy
1414:
1412:Therapeutic use
1370:. For example,
1364:tropic hormones
1302:
1288:hunger cravings
1282:control of the
1214:
1206:plasma membrane
1178:inside the cell
1127:phosphorylation
1064:
1036:
1030:
1022:sesquiterpenoid
1006:
972:cyclooxygenases
810:
804:
764:
685:
637:Ernest Starling
633:William Bayliss
630:
606:
570:
521:
516:
491:of the hormone.
441:of the hormone.
405:
399:
368:exocrine system
343:(TBG)) to form
136:brassinosteroid
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4795:
4794:
4791:
4783:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4770:Cell signaling
4767:
4762:
4757:
4747:
4746:
4740:
4739:
4737:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4704:
4699:
4698:
4697:
4692:
4684:
4678:
4676:
4675:Other concepts
4672:
4671:
4669:
4668:
4663:
4654:
4648:
4646:
4642:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4613:
4611:
4605:
4604:
4601:
4600:
4598:
4597:
4592:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4560:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4528:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4511:
4509:Growth factors
4506:
4501:
4488:
4482:
4480:
4471:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4421:
4411:
4406:
4404:
4398:
4396:
4392:
4391:
4384:Cell signaling
4382:
4380:
4379:
4372:
4365:
4357:
4348:
4347:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4340:
4339:
4338:
4333:
4322:
4320:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4289:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4277:
4271:
4269:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4243:
4241:
4239:Adipose tissue
4235:
4234:
4231:
4230:
4228:
4227:
4226:
4225:
4220:
4209:
4207:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4184:Enteroglucagon
4180:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4142:
4140:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4130:
4125:
4119:
4117:
4108:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4087:
4086:
4084:Beta thymosins
4081:
4070:
4068:
4059:
4055:
4054:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4031:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3993:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3956:
3954:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3913:
3911:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3885:
3883:
3874:
3868:
3867:
3865:
3864:
3858:
3856:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3812:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3798:
3796:Norepinephrine
3793:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3749:Adrenal cortex
3745:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3723:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3671:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3659:
3654:
3648:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3600:
3598:
3589:
3578:
3570:
3569:
3564:
3562:
3561:
3554:
3547:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3518:
3508:
3501:
3500:External links
3498:
3496:
3495:
3448:
3439:
3421:
3406:
3381:
3366:
3348:
3333:
3310:
3295:
3273:
3258:
3240:
3225:
3217:Academic Press
3201:
3152:
3132:
3102:
3086:
3069:
3055:
3040:
3011:
3002:
2987:
2966:
2917:
2885:
2878:
2860:
2821:(5): 2168–70.
2801:
2758:
2701:
2682:
2658:
2621:(4): 494–500.
2601:
2566:
2559:
2541:
2514:
2479:
2464:
2443:
2436:
2410:
2381:(3): 230–276.
2361:
2313:
2292:(7): 1969–78.
2272:
2217:
2180:The Plant Cell
2163:
2148:
2130:
2115:
2094:
2079:
2059:
2032:
2003:
1988:
1968:
1917:
1876:
1852:
1834:
1791:
1784:
1766:
1751:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1696:Plant hormones
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1589:
1586:
1577:
1576:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1523:
1520:
1504:dermatological
1486:often contain
1484:otolaryngology
1460:hypothyroidism
1416:Main article:
1413:
1410:
1360:
1359:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1301:
1298:
1290:
1289:
1286:
1280:
1266:
1251:
1247:regulation of
1245:
1239:
1232:
1227:
1221:
1213:
1210:
1063:
1060:
1029:
1026:
1005:
1002:
991:
990:
987:
984:
980:
979:
960:prostaglandins
945:
942:
938:
937:
911:
908:
904:
903:
885:
879:
875:
874:
836:
830:
826:
825:
822:
819:
803:
800:
763:
760:
757:
756:
753:
748:
744:
743:
740:
735:
731:
730:
727:
722:
718:
717:
714:
709:
705:
704:
701:
698:
684:
681:
649:nervous system
629:
626:
605:
602:
578:Charles Darwin
569:
566:
520:
517:
515:
512:
493:
492:
486:
476:downregulation
465:
448:
442:
433:
411:, such as the
398:
395:
366:, whereas the
197:processes and
120:prostaglandins
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4793:
4792:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4765:Endocrinology
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4752:
4750:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4713:
4710:
4709:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4687:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4673:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4643:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4614:
4612:
4610:
4606:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4561:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4549:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4537:Intracellular
4535:
4533:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4499:Neurohormones
4496:
4495:Neuropeptides
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4475:
4472:
4468:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4446:Fas apoptosis
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4378:
4373:
4371:
4366:
4364:
4359:
4358:
4355:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4315:
4309:
4308:Prostaglandin
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4282:
4276:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4236:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4215:
4214:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4177:
4173:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4139:
4135:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4116:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4103:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4076:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4069:
4067:
4063:
4060:
4056:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3827:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3809:
3805:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3788:
3787:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3751:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3697:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:Hypothalamic–
3582:
3579:
3577:
3571:
3567:
3560:
3555:
3553:
3548:
3546:
3541:
3540:
3537:
3529:
3528:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3452:
3449:
3443:
3440:
3436:. 2013-03-06.
3435:
3431:
3425:
3422:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3407:0-7167-3873-2
3403:
3398:
3397:
3388:
3386:
3382:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3367:0-8153-3218-1
3363:
3359:
3352:
3349:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3334:0-87893-742-0
3330:
3326:
3325:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3296:0-7817-5077-6
3292:
3287:
3286:
3277:
3274:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3255:
3251:
3244:
3241:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3213:
3205:
3202:
3197:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3172:(2): 207–24.
3171:
3167:
3163:
3156:
3153:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3081:
3073:
3070:
3065:
3059:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3033:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3012:
3006:
3003:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2984:
2980:
2973:
2971:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2918:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2897:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2875:
2871:
2864:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2774:(4): 240–51.
2773:
2769:
2762:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2705:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2683:
2672:
2668:
2662:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2552:
2545:
2542:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2495:(4): 147–50.
2494:
2490:
2483:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2414:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2276:
2273:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2186:(5): 1110–9.
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2145:
2141:
2134:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2063:
2060:
2047:
2043:
2036:
2033:
2022:on 2021-01-09
2021:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1989:0-7216-6278-1
1985:
1981:
1980:
1972:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1877:
1866:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1795:
1792:
1787:
1781:
1777:
1770:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1734:
1728:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1702:Semiochemical
1700:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1656:Growth factor
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1646:Endocrinology
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1608:
1606:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1548:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1488:pharmacologic
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1456:levothyroxine
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1419:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1244:
1243:immune system
1240:
1237:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1198:DNA sequences
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1147:intracellular
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1115:transmembrane
1113:
1109:
1105:
1104:cell membrane
1101:
1097:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1068:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1040:abscisic acid
1035:
1034:Plant hormone
1027:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1004:Invertebrates
1003:
997:
988:
985:
982:
981:
977:
976:lipoxygenases
973:
969:
965:
964:prostaglandin
961:
957:
953:
949:
946:
943:
940:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
912:
909:
906:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
886:
884:
880:
877:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
837:
835:
831:
828:
827:
823:
820:
817:
816:
809:
801:
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
761:
754:
752:
749:
746:
745:
741:
739:
736:
733:
732:
728:
726:
723:
720:
719:
715:
713:
710:
707:
706:
702:
699:
696:
695:
689:
682:
680:
679:: a hormone.
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
627:
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
610:George Oliver
603:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
567:
565:
563:
559:
554:
550:
546:
545:sexual organs
541:
537:
533:
529:
526:was a German
525:
518:
513:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
490:
487:
484:
481:
477:
473:
469:
466:
463:
460:
459:intracellular
456:
452:
449:
446:
443:
440:
439:
434:
431:
430:
426:
425:
424:
422:
418:
414:
413:thyroid gland
410:
404:
396:
394:
392:
388:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
270:transcription
267:
263:
258:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
195:physiological
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
79:
75:
68:
67:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
41:
35:
30:
19:
4734:Gap junction
4569:Ca signaling
4532:Cell surface
4485:
4091:Thymopoietin
4027:Pineal gland
4012:Somatostatin
3975:Progesterone
3922:Progesterone
3889:Testosterone
3872:Gonadal axis
3844:Thyroid axis
3741:Adrenal axis
3596:Hypothalamus
3565:
3525:
3465:
3461:
3451:
3442:
3433:
3424:
3395:
3357:
3351:
3324:Neuroscience
3323:
3284:
3276:
3249:
3243:
3211:
3204:
3169:
3165:
3155:
3145:, retrieved
3115:
3105:
3094:
3089:
3079:
3072:
3058:
3031:
3005:
2978:
2934:
2930:
2920:
2908:. Retrieved
2895:
2888:
2869:
2863:
2818:
2814:
2804:
2771:
2767:
2761:
2718:
2714:
2704:
2695:
2685:
2674:. Retrieved
2671:Khan Academy
2670:
2661:
2618:
2614:
2604:
2582:(1): 64–75.
2579:
2575:
2569:
2550:
2544:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2455:
2419:
2413:
2378:
2374:
2364:
2329:
2325:
2316:
2289:
2285:
2275:
2234:
2230:
2220:
2183:
2179:
2139:
2133:
2106:
2069:
2062:
2052:November 18,
2050:. Retrieved
2045:
2035:
2024:. Retrieved
2020:the original
2015:
2006:
1978:
1971:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1893:
1889:
1879:
1868:. Retrieved
1864:
1855:
1846:
1837:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1775:
1769:
1742:
1736:
1671:Metabolomics
1603:
1591:
1581:
1578:
1566:nerve tracts
1552:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1516:inflammation
1514:to suppress
1508:
1470:and several
1440:progestogens
1430:are used as
1421:
1406:
1399:
1384:
1361:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1303:
1291:
1215:
1176:are located
1163:
1093:
1074:
1037:
1007:
944:Eicosanoids
922:testosterone
883:Derivatives
882:
833:
824:Description
765:
703:Description
686:
641:physiologist
631:
607:
571:
562:testosterone
528:physiologist
522:
494:
488:
467:
450:
444:
436:Storage and
435:
429:Biosynthesis
427:
406:
384:
306:
259:
243:reproduction
180:
176:nitric oxide
164:CLE peptides
124:thromboxanes
73:
71:
64:
53:progesterone
29:
4645:By distance
4583:Assistants:
4542:Co-receptor
4275:Osteocalcin
4252:Adiponectin
4079:Thymosin α1
3854:Parathyroid
3754:Aldosterone
3657:Vasopressin
2937:(3): e219.
2910:13 November
2870:Clearopathy
2530:: 456–459.
2046:MedlinePlus
1847:MedlinePlus
1717:Xenohormone
1401:Eicosanoids
1395:prohormones
1387:circulation
1337:stimulating
1306:homeostatic
1294:homeostasis
1230:mood swings
1180:within the
1161:mechanism.
1131:ion channel
1112:alpha helix
1056:gibberellin
1014:crustaceans
968:thromboxane
948:Eicosanoids
881:Amino Acid
873:mechanism.
867:hydrophilic
843:amino acids
802:Vertebrates
784:brown algae
673:bloodstream
480:homeostatic
451:Recognition
389:and in the
360:bloodstream
349:prohormones
333:homeostasis
325:blood sugar
290:cytoplasmic
251:germination
233:induction,
211:respiration
191:vertebrates
144:epinephrine
116:eicosanoids
80:participle
4760:Physiology
4749:Categories
4712:Pheromones
4652:Juxtacrine
4303:Calcitriol
4189:Peptide YY
3839:Calcitonin
3791:Adrenaline
3720:Lipotropin
3715:Endorphins
3430:"Hormones"
3235:1022119040
3147:2021-11-18
2896:StatPearls
2676:2019-11-13
2474:1034587285
2158:1034587285
2125:1021173479
2026:2021-01-07
1870:2021-01-05
1843:"Hormones"
1729:References
1681:Neohormone
1661:Intracrine
1631:Hepatokine
1506:practice.
1492:adrenaline
1432:medication
1424:structural
1343:-hormones)
1313:metabolism
1300:Regulation
1249:metabolism
1159:intracrine
1139:cyclic AMP
1100:eicosanoid
930:lipophilic
888:Amino acid
871:intracrine
832:Proteins/
751:Intracrine
669:intestines
622:adrenaline
586:coleoptile
496:Exocytosis
276:of target
274:expression
255:senescence
207:metabolism
199:behavioral
140:amino acid
96:physiology
76:(from the
4666:Endocrine
4661:Paracrine
4657:Autocrine
4524:Receptors
4504:Cytokines
4074:Thymosins
4035:Melatonin
3917:Estradiol
3764:Cortisone
3690:Prolactin
3587:pituitary
3574:Endocrine
3522:"Hormone"
3482:0028-4793
3268:849822337
3050:890107246
2997:761377585
2576:BioEssays
1821:1529-8795
1761:884499940
1621:Adipokine
1500:vitamin D
1480:diabetics
1452:thyroxine
1436:estrogens
1348:globulins
1341:releasing
1317:excretion
1278:menopause
1274:parenting
1236:apoptosis
1182:cytoplasm
1174:receptors
1151:cytoplasm
1119:cytoplasm
1085:receptors
1062:Receptors
1048:cytokinin
918:estradiol
910:Steroids
900:Thyroxine
896:Melatonin
834:Peptides
788:red algae
738:Autocrine
725:Paracrine
712:Endocrine
645:biologist
532:zoologist
514:Discovery
489:Breakdown
445:Transport
438:secretion
376:paracrine
302:apoptosis
227:lactation
223:excretion
203:digestion
132:oestrogen
59:. Right:
57:estradiol
4755:Hormones
4486:Hormones
4436:JAK-STAT
4424:MAPK/ERK
4419:TGF beta
4267:Skeleton
4257:Resistin
4156:Secretin
4138:Duodenum
4096:Thymulin
3997:Glucagon
3989:Pancreas
3970:Estrogen
3952:Placenta
3759:Cortisol
3652:Oxytocin
3614:Dopamine
3566:Hormones
3511:Hormones
3416:45064683
3376:48122761
3343:44627256
3305:60650938
3196:27252193
2961:26964835
2905:30860733
2855:12606724
2796:20654561
2768:Steroids
2753:19458711
2653:21406974
2596:15612033
2405:16992252
2356:16992168
2308:19357428
2259:13165644
2212:16670442
2089:20821847
1998:36465055
1955:11268216
1912:28348113
1829:72100830
1626:Cytokine
1609:See also
1494:, while
1464:steroids
1259:fighting
1141:). Some
1052:ethylene
956:lipoxins
926:cortisol
892:Tyrosine
847:oxytocin
677:secretin
657:pancreas
618:secretin
558:chemical
540:roosters
464:protein.
462:receptor
356:secretes
286:steroids
278:proteins
262:receptor
239:movement
172:ethylene
156:peptides
128:steroids
100:behavior
18:Hormones
4617:General
4441:Akt/PKB
4161:Motilin
4128:Ghrelin
4123:Gastrin
4115:Stomach
4002:Insulin
3937:Relaxin
3932:Inhibin
3927:Activin
3899:Inhibin
3808:Thyroid
3490:4172185
3187:5964798
3142:7479319
2952:4892884
2823:Bibcode
2788:8733009
2744:3967846
2723:Bibcode
2644:3142376
2623:Bibcode
2509:1585458
2396:1514629
2347:1514529
2267:4225835
2239:Bibcode
2203:1456868
1963:4412000
1935:Bibcode
1676:Myokine
1572:second.
1496:steroid
1476:Insulin
1446:and as
1376:thyroid
1353:Neurons
1270:puberty
1263:fleeing
1194:complex
1170:thyroid
1166:steroid
1155:nucleus
1137:(e.g.,
1096:peptide
1010:insects
914:Steroid
861:and/or
851:insulin
776:animals
667:to the
665:stomach
582:Francis
553:genetic
549:anatomy
508:insulin
417:ovaries
339:(e.g.,
329:insulin
313:secrete
294:nuclear
187:tissues
166:), and
160:insulin
152:protein
104:animals
74:hormone
4470:Agents
4285:Kidney
4247:Leptin
4206:/other
4066:Thymus
4007:Amylin
3881:Testis
3774:DHEA-S
3576:glands
3517:(MeSH)
3488:
3480:
3414:
3404:
3374:
3364:
3341:
3331:
3303:
3293:
3266:
3256:
3233:
3223:
3194:
3184:
3140:
3130:
3048:
3038:
2995:
2985:
2959:
2949:
2903:
2876:
2853:
2846:151311
2843:
2794:
2786:
2751:
2741:
2715:Nature
2651:
2641:
2594:
2557:
2507:
2472:
2462:
2434:
2403:
2393:
2354:
2344:
2306:
2265:
2257:
2231:Nature
2210:
2200:
2156:
2146:
2123:
2113:
2087:
2077:
1996:
1986:
1961:
1953:
1927:Nature
1910:
1827:
1819:
1782:
1759:
1749:
1462:) and
1458:, for
1276:, and
1255:mating
1157:by an
1054:, and
1028:Plants
986:Gases
821:Types
786:, and
772:plants
700:Types
536:testes
421:testes
419:, and
387:leaves
345:ligand
298:nuclei
245:, and
231:stress
183:organs
170:(e.g.
158:(e.g.
130:(e.g.
118:(e.g.
108:plants
55:, (4)
51:, (3)
47:, (2)
4632:TFIIH
4627:TFIID
4451:Hippo
4431:Notch
4318:Heart
4293:Renin
4223:IGF-2
4218:IGF-1
4204:Liver
4194:GLP-1
4176:Ileum
4058:Other
3942:GnSAF
3909:Ovary
3138:S2CID
2792:S2CID
2263:S2CID
1959:S2CID
1825:S2CID
1466:(for
1339:- or
1202:genes
1044:auxin
780:fungi
598:auxin
372:ducts
219:sleep
189:. In
168:gases
148:auxin
112:fungi
83:ὁρμῶν
78:Greek
61:auxin
4402:GPCR
3769:DHEA
3705:ACTH
3700:CLIP
3695:POMC
3624:GHRH
3604:GnRH
3486:PMID
3478:ISSN
3412:OCLC
3402:ISBN
3372:OCLC
3362:ISBN
3339:OCLC
3329:ISBN
3301:OCLC
3291:ISBN
3264:OCLC
3254:ISBN
3231:OCLC
3221:ISBN
3192:PMID
3128:ISBN
3046:OCLC
3036:ISBN
2993:OCLC
2983:ISBN
2957:PMID
2912:2019
2901:PMID
2874:ISBN
2851:PMID
2784:PMID
2749:PMID
2649:PMID
2592:PMID
2555:ISBN
2505:PMID
2470:OCLC
2460:ISBN
2432:ISBN
2401:PMID
2352:PMID
2304:PMID
2255:PMID
2208:PMID
2154:OCLC
2144:ISBN
2121:OCLC
2111:ISBN
2085:PMID
2075:ISBN
2054:2021
1994:OCLC
1984:ISBN
1951:PMID
1908:PMID
1817:ISSN
1780:ISBN
1757:OCLC
1747:ISBN
1498:and
1454:(as
1438:and
1426:and
1391:pre-
1315:and
1164:For
1020:, a
1012:and
974:and
966:and
920:and
898:and
849:and
643:and
639:, a
635:and
530:and
292:and
247:mood
185:and
174:and
162:and
146:and
134:and
122:and
110:and
98:and
4414:RTK
4409:Wnt
4336:BNP
4331:ANP
4298:EPO
4166:VIP
4151:GIP
4146:CCK
3965:HPL
3960:hCG
3894:AMH
3862:PTH
3710:MSH
3685:TSH
3675:FSH
3634:MCH
3619:CRH
3609:TRH
3470:doi
3466:278
3182:PMC
3174:doi
3120:doi
2947:PMC
2939:doi
2841:PMC
2831:doi
2819:100
2776:doi
2739:PMC
2731:doi
2719:459
2639:PMC
2631:doi
2584:doi
2532:doi
2497:doi
2424:doi
2391:PMC
2383:doi
2342:PMC
2334:doi
2294:doi
2247:doi
2235:173
2198:PMC
2188:doi
1943:doi
1931:410
1898:doi
1894:234
1809:doi
1474:).
1450:),
1448:HRT
1393:or
1168:or
1153:or
1079:or
855:DNA
818:SN
697:SN
600:'.
457:or
253:to
178:).
154:or
150:),
138:),
126:),
90:in
4751::
4659:/
4386:/
3727:GH
3680:LH
3524:.
3484:.
3476:.
3464:.
3460:.
3432:.
3410:.
3384:^
3370:.
3337:.
3313:^
3299:.
3262:.
3229:.
3219:.
3190:.
3180:.
3170:56
3168:.
3164:.
3136:,
3126:,
3114:,
3044:.
3014:^
2991:.
2969:^
2955:.
2945:.
2935:48
2933:.
2929:.
2849:.
2839:.
2829:.
2817:.
2813:.
2790:.
2782:.
2772:61
2770:.
2747:.
2737:.
2729:.
2717:.
2713:.
2694:.
2669:.
2647:.
2637:.
2629:.
2617:.
2613:.
2590:.
2580:27
2578:.
2528:12
2526:.
2503:.
2493:17
2491:.
2468:.
2446:^
2430:.
2399:.
2389:.
2379:18
2377:.
2373:.
2350:.
2340:.
2330:16
2328:.
2324:.
2302:.
2290:60
2288:.
2284:.
2261:.
2253:.
2245:.
2233:.
2229:.
2206:.
2196:.
2184:18
2182:.
2178:.
2166:^
2152:.
2119:.
2097:^
2083:.
2044:.
2014:.
1992:.
1957:.
1949:.
1941:.
1929:.
1906:.
1892:.
1888:.
1863:.
1845:.
1823:.
1815:.
1805:53
1803:.
1755:.
1557::
1518:.
1382:.
1296:.
1272:,
1261:,
1257:,
1208:.
1058:.
1050:,
1046:,
1042:,
1024:.
983:5
954:,
941:4
936:.
907:3
902:.
878:2
829:1
782:,
778:,
774:,
747:4
734:3
721:2
708:1
576:,
564:.
415:,
257:.
241:,
237:,
229:,
225:,
221:,
217:,
213:,
209:,
205:,
106:,
72:A
4497:/
4493:/
4376:e
4369:t
4362:v
3831:4
3829:T
3823:3
3821:T
3558:e
3551:t
3544:v
3492:.
3472::
3418:.
3378:.
3345:.
3307:.
3270:.
3237:.
3198:.
3176::
3122::
3052:.
2999:.
2963:.
2941::
2914:.
2882:.
2857:.
2833::
2825::
2798:.
2778::
2755:.
2733::
2725::
2679:.
2655:.
2633::
2625::
2619:6
2598:.
2586::
2563:.
2538:.
2534::
2511:.
2499::
2476:.
2440:.
2426::
2407:.
2385::
2358:.
2336::
2310:.
2296::
2269:.
2249::
2241::
2214:.
2190::
2160:.
2127:.
2091:.
2056:.
2029:.
2000:.
1965:.
1945::
1937::
1914:.
1900::
1873:.
1831:.
1811::
1788:.
1763:.
1582:.
1568:.
770:(
485:.
36:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
