624:-based catalyst in a short-contact time vertical or upward-sloped pipe called the "riser". Pre-heated feed is sprayed into the base of the riser via feed nozzles where it contacts extremely hot fluidized catalyst at 1,230 to 1,400 °F (666 to 760 °C). The hot catalyst vaporizes the feed and catalyzes the cracking reactions that break down the high-molecular weight oil into lighter components including LPG, gasoline, and diesel. The catalyst-hydrocarbon mixture flows upward through the riser for a few seconds, and then the mixture is separated via
554:, on the reactor walls. Since coke degrades the efficiency of the reactor, great care is taken to design reaction conditions to minimize its formation. Nonetheless, a steam cracking furnace can usually only run for a few months between de-cokings. "Decokes" require the furnace to be isolated from the process and then a flow of steam or a steam/air mixture is passed through the furnace coils. This decoking is essentially combustion of the carbons, converting the hard solid carbon layer to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
275:
wishing to invalidate the Burton–Humphreys patent. In the event
Shukhov satisfied the Americans that in principle Burton's method closely resembled his 1891 patents, though his own interest in the matter was primarily to establish that "the Russian oil industry could easily build a cracking apparatus according to any of the described systems without being accused by the Americans of borrowing for free".
33:
1473:
592:, which undergo processes of rearrangement and scission of C-C bonds. Relative to thermal cracking, cat cracking proceeds at milder temperatures, which saves energy. Furthermore, by operating at lower temperatures, the yield of undesirable alkenes is diminished. Alkenes cause instability of hydrocarbon fuels.
569:
710:, hydrocracking uses hydrogen to break C–C bonds (hydrotreatment is conducted prior to hydrocracking to protect the catalysts in a hydrocracking process). In 2010, 265 million tons of petroleum was processed with this technology. The main feedstock is vacuum gas oil, a heavy fraction of petroleum.
328:
Modern high-pressure thermal cracking operates at absolute pressures of about 7,000 kPa. An overall process of disproportionation can be observed, where "light", hydrogen-rich products are formed at the expense of heavier molecules which condense and are depleted of hydrogen. The actual reaction is
274:
visited
Shukhov. Sinclair Oil apparently wished to suggest that the patent of Burton and Humphreys, in use by Standard Oil, was derived from Shukhov's patent for oil cracking, as described in the Russian patent. If that could be established, it could strengthen the hand of rival American companies
483:
is diluted with steam and briefly heated in a furnace without the presence of oxygen. Typically, the reaction temperature is very high, at around 850 °C, but the reaction is only allowed to take place very briefly. In modern cracking furnaces, the residence time is reduced to milliseconds to
775:
The hydrocracking process depends on the nature of the feedstock and the relative rates of the two competing reactions, hydrogenation and cracking. Heavy aromatic feedstock is converted into lighter products under a wide range of very high pressures (1,000–2,000 psi) and fairly high temperatures
639:
During the trip up the riser, the cracking catalyst is "spent" by reactions which deposit coke on the catalyst and greatly reduce activity and selectivity. The "spent" catalyst is disengaged from the cracked hydrocarbon vapors and sent to a stripper where it contacts steam to remove hydrocarbons
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was being explored and developed and soon replaced most of the purely thermal cracking processes in the fossil fuel processing industry. The replacement was not complete; many types of cracking, including pure thermal cracking, still are in use, depending on the nature of the feedstock and the
262:, a Russian engineer, invented and patented, the first in 1891 (Russian Empire, patent no. 12926, November 7, 1891). One installation was used to a limited extent in Russia, but development was not followed up. In the first decade of the 20th century the American engineers
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266:
and Robert E. Humphreys independently developed and patented a similar process as U.S. patent 1,049,667 on June 8, 1908. Among its advantages was that both the condenser and the boiler were continuously kept under pressure.
609:. During WWII, the Allied Forces had plentiful supplies of the materials in contrast to the Axis Forces, which suffered severe shortages of gasoline and artificial rubber. Initial process implementations were based on low activity
286:, the Soviet Union was desperate to develop industry and earn foreign exchange. The Soviet oil industry eventually did obtain much of their technology from foreign companies, largely American ones. At about that time,
190:
More loosely, outside the field of petroleum chemistry, the term "cracking" is used to describe any type of splitting of molecules under the influence of heat, catalysts and solvents, such as in processes of
495:
The products produced in the reaction depend on the composition of the feed, the hydrocarbon-to-steam ratio, and on the cracking temperature and furnace residence time. Light hydrocarbon feeds such as
270:
In its earlier versions it was a batch process, rather than continuous, and many patents were to follow in the US and Europe, though not all were practical. In 1924, a delegation from the
American
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developed one of the earliest thermal cracking processes in 1912 which operated at 700–750 °F (370–400 °C) and an absolute pressure of 90 psi (620 kPa) and was known as the
978:
in 78. Oil and
Natural Gas, Kraus, Richard S., Editor, Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, Jeanne Mager Stellman, Editor-in-Chief. International Labor Organization, Geneva. 2011.
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Because C−C bond energy is so high (377 kJ/mol), this reaction is not observed under laboratory conditions. More common examples of cracking reactions involve retro-
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507:. Heavier hydrocarbon (full range and heavy naphthas as well as other refinery products) feeds give some of these, but also give products rich in
348:. Two extremes of the thermal cracking in terms of the product range are represented by the high-temperature process called "steam cracking" or
187:. Simply put, hydrocarbon cracking is the process of breaking long-chain hydrocarbons into short ones. This process requires high temperatures.
644:) is used to burn off the coke to restore catalyst activity and also provide the necessary heat for the next reaction cycle, cracking being an
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Company, developed a somewhat more advanced thermal cracking process which operated at 750–860 °F (400–460 °C) and was known as the
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remaining in the catalyst pores. The "spent" catalyst then flows into a fluidized-bed regenerator where air (or in some cases air plus
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Thermal cracking is currently used to "upgrade" very heavy fractions or to produce light fractions or distillates, burner fuel and/or
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U.S. Supreme Court Cases & Opinions, Volume 322, UNIVERSAL OIL PRODUCTS CO. V. GLOBE OIL & REFINING CO., 322 U. S. 471 (1944)
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are broken down into smaller, often unsaturated, hydrocarbons. It is the principal industrial method for producing the lighter
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is thermally cracked through the use of steam in a bank of pyrolysis furnaces to produce lighter hydrocarbons.
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catalyst and a reactor where the catalyst particles were suspended in a rising flow of feed hydrocarbons in a
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303:; more sophisticated forms of thermal cracking have since been developed for various purposes. These include
717:; depending on the reaction conditions (temperature, pressure, catalyst activity) these products range from
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207:
456:). Steam cracker units are facilities in which a feedstock such as naphtha, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
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products required to satisfy market demands. Thermal cracking remains important, for example, in producing
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Fluid catalytic cracking is a commonly used process, and a modern oil refinery will typically include a
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Comparison of lumping approaches to predict the product yield in a dual bed VGO hydrocracker.
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1171:
Weitkamp, Jens (2012). "Catalytic
Hydrocracking-Mechanisms and Versatility of the Process".
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776:(750–1,500 °F, 400–800 °C), in the presence of hydrogen and special catalysts.
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are broken down into simpler molecules such as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of
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give product streams rich in the lighter alkenes, including ethylene, propylene, and
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Hydrocracking is a catalytic cracking process assisted by the presence of added
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Process whereby complex organic molecules are broken down into simpler molecules
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but is less chemically stable compared to other gasoline components due to its
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861:
Alfke, Gunter; Irion, Walther W.; Neuwirth, Otto S. (2007). "Oil
Refining".
768:. In the US, fluid catalytic cracking is more common because the demand for
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Among several variants of thermal cracking methods (variously known as the "
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179:. Cracking is the breakdown of large hydrocarbons into smaller, more useful
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364:(ca. 500 °C) which can produce, under the right conditions, valuable
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Outside of the industrial sector, cracking of C−C and C−H bonds are rare
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1257:, International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering, 9, art. no. A4.
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Discovery, Innovation, and Risk: Case
Studies in Science and Technology
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258:", "Burton–Humphreys cracking process", and "Dubbs cracking process")
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601:, particularly at refineries in the US, due to the high demand for
352:(ca. 750 °C to 900 °C or higher) which produces valuable
337:, which are the basis for the economically important production of
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profile. Olefins in gasoline are responsible for the formation of
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605:. The process was first used around 1942 and employs a powdered
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of cracking and the end products are strongly dependent on the
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26:
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In steam cracking, a gaseous or liquid hydrocarbon feed like
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until the early 1940s when catalytic cracking came into use.
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In newer designs, cracking takes place using a very active
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The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of
534:(also referred to as severity) favors the production of
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The gasoline produced in the FCC unit has an elevated
628:. The catalyst-free hydrocarbons are routed to a main
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improve yield, resulting in gas velocities up to the
542:, whereas lower severity produces higher amounts of
721:, LPG to heavier hydrocarbons consisting mostly of
572:
Schematic flow diagram of a fluid catalytic cracker
57:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
202:Fluid catalytic cracking produces a high yield of
406:. The Dubbs process was used extensively by many
1208:Heavy and Extra-heavy Oil Upgrading Technologies
1058:Speight, James G. (2011). "Catalytic Cracking".
1310: — Vladimir Grigorievich Shukhov biography
902:Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry
894:
892:
690:process and the production of polymers such as
492:or inside a quenching header using quench oil.
996:Speight, James G. (2011). "Thermal Cracking".
864:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
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632:for separation into fuel gas, LPG, gasoline,
8:
1246:Sadighi, S., Ahmad, A., Shirvani, M. (2011)
1093:Petroleum Refining: Technology and Economics
1091:James H. Gary and Glenn E. Handwerk (2001).
1206:Speight, James G. (2013). "Hydrocracking".
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511:and hydrocarbons suitable for inclusion in
210:, while hydrocracking is a major source of
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816:. Illustrative is the thermal cracking of
748:The major products from hydrocracking are
588:. The catalysts promote the formation of
1118:The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum
856:
854:
278:At that time, just a few years after the
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
671:. The FCC LPG is an important source of
1302:Information on cracking in oil refining
958:"American Cracking for Soviet Refining"
850:
1270:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
951:
949:
7:
1472:
1143:Fluid Catalytic Cracking is Handbook
926:Newton Copp; Andrew Zanella (1993).
55:adding citations to reliable sources
788:. In principle, ethane can undergo
308:
1216:10.1016/B978-0-12-404570-5.00005-3
1068:10.1016/B978-0-8155-2041-2.10006-2
1006:10.1016/B978-0-8155-2041-2.10005-0
905:. Scarecrow Press. pp. 459–.
519:. Typical product streams include
25:
1273:(87th ed.). Boca Raton, FL:
1145:(2nd ed.). Gulf Publishing.
713:The products of this process are
686:that are essential feeds for the
1471:
899:M. S. Vassiliou (2 March 2009).
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392:. Shortly thereafter, in 1921,
148:is the process whereby complex
42:needs additional citations for
729:as well as adding hydrogen to
1:
873:10.1002/14356007.a18_051.pub2
360:, and the milder-temperature
356:and other feedstocks for the
1308:www.shukhov.org/shukhov.html
1267:Lide, David R., ed. (2006).
976:"Petroleum Refining Process"
932:. MIT Press. pp. 172–.
1120:(4th ed.). CRC Press.
1095:(4th ed.). CRC Press.
1041:"Ethylene Technology Sheet"
428:process in which saturated
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1116:James. G. Speight (2006).
1060:The Refinery of the Future
998:The Refinery of the Future
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1141:Reza Sadeghbeigi (2000).
66:"Cracking" chemistry
1390:Atmospheric distillation
956:Yury Evdoshenko (2012).
564:Fluid catalytic cracking
558:Fluid catalytic cracking
288:fluid catalytic cracking
272:Sinclair Oil Corporation
252:Shukhov cracking process
236:Shukhov cracking process
222:, and again yields LPG.
193:destructive distillation
867:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
256:Burton cracking process
167:in the precursors. The
1361:List of oil refineries
1304:from howstuffworks.com
1185:10.1002/cctc.201100315
715:saturated hydrocarbons
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398:Universal Oil Products
384:William Merriam Burton
358:petrochemical industry
319:Cracking methodologies
264:William Merriam Burton
247:
1425:Hydrodesulphurisation
814:Diels–Alder reactions
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509:aromatic hydrocarbons
396:, an employee of the
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1440:Solvent deasphalting
1062:. pp. 181–208.
1000:. pp. 147–180.
663:deposits in storage
646:endothermic reaction
578:solid acid catalysts
424:Steam cracking is a
51:improve this article
1405:Catalytic reforming
1395:Vacuum distillation
1210:. pp. 95–128.
839:Catalytic reforming
234:Refinery using the
226:History and patents
165:carbon–carbon bonds
1519:Chemical processes
1514:Russian inventions
1455:Amine gas treating
1400:Catalytic cracking
1345:Petroleum refining
1253:2013-12-14 at the
982:2013-07-24 at the
974:Kraus, Richard S.
786:chemical reactions
727:hydrocarbon chains
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530:A higher cracking
521:pyrolysis gasoline
280:Russian Revolution
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1509:Organic reactions
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912:978-0-8108-6288-3
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667:, fuel ducts and
331:homolytic fission
284:Russian Civil War
142:organic chemistry
138:petroleum geology
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68: –
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63:
62:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
40:This article
38:
34:
29:
28:
19:
1499:Oil refining
1268:
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780:Fundamentals
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762:contaminants
747:
723:isoparaffins
712:
708:hydrotreater
701:
682:olefins and
650:
638:
630:fractionator
619:
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590:carbocations
575:
550:, a form of
529:
523:(pygas) and
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430:hydrocarbons
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380:industries.
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244:Soviet Union
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189:
161:hydrocarbons
145:
131:
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107:October 2023
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
18:Hydrocracker
1445:Visbreaking
1173:ChemCatChem
820:to produce
772:is higher.
737:to produce
598:cat cracker
532:temperature
366:needle coke
305:visbreaking
216:diesel fuel
173:temperature
1493:Categories
1430:Sweetening
1410:Alkylation
845:References
760:and other
739:naphthenes
688:alkylation
580:, usually
408:refineries
394:C.P. Dubbs
370:electrodes
77:newspapers
1504:Pyrolysis
1385:Desalting
1375:Processes
1356:Petroleum
1275:CRC Press
1234:241694860
790:homolysis
731:aromatics
684:isobutane
669:injectors
661:polymeric
544:propylene
505:butadiene
454:propylene
378:aluminium
350:pyrolysis
329:known as
197:pyrolysis
177:catalysts
153:molecules
1251:Archived
1193:93129166
980:Archived
828:See also
770:gasoline
766:kerosene
750:jet fuel
704:hydrogen
657:olefinic
626:cyclones
607:catalyst
603:gasoline
586:zeolites
536:ethylene
517:fuel oil
513:gasoline
446:ethylene
372:for the
354:ethylene
339:polymers
212:jet fuel
157:kerogens
155:such as
146:cracking
1478:Commons
743:alkanes
735:olefins
634:naphtha
622:zeolite
611:alumina
540:benzene
501:naphtha
473:naphtha
462:propane
450:propene
438:olefins
434:alkenes
335:alkenes
297:gas oil
293:naphtha
220:naphtha
185:alkenes
181:alkanes
150:organic
91:scholar
1476:
1450:Coking
1281:
1232:
1222:
1191:
1149:
1124:
1099:
1074:
1012:
936:
909:
879:
804:→ 2 CH
758:sulfur
754:diesel
719:ethane
642:oxygen
552:carbon
497:ethane
481:ethane
466:butane
458:ethane
448:) and
442:ethene
313:coking
311:, and
299:, and
246:, 1934
204:petrol
93:
86:
79:
72:
64:
1230:S2CID
1189:S2CID
665:tanks
374:steel
98:JSTOR
84:books
1279:ISBN
1220:ISBN
1147:ISBN
1122:ISBN
1097:ISBN
1072:ISBN
1010:ISBN
934:ISBN
907:ISBN
877:ISBN
752:and
741:and
733:and
584:and
548:coke
538:and
452:(or
444:(or
376:and
301:coke
282:and
254:", "
240:Baku
206:and
183:and
169:rate
140:and
70:news
1212:doi
1181:doi
1064:doi
1002:doi
869:doi
525:BTX
515:or
479:or
477:LPG
464:or
208:LPG
195:or
132:In
53:by
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