834:
the aromatic interactions. Altering the pH can also have similar effects, an example involved the use of the naphthalene (Nap) modified dipeptides Nap-Gly-Ala, and Nap- Ala-Gly, where a drop in pH induced gelation of the former, but led to crystallisation of the latter. A controlled pH decrease method using glucono-ÎŽ-lactone (GdL), where the GdL is hydrolysed to gluconic acid in water is a recent strategy that has been developed as a way to form homogeneous and reproducible hydrogels. The hydrolysis is slow, which allows for a uniform pH change, and thus resulting in reproducible homogenous gels. In addition to this, the desired pH can be achieved by altering the amount of GdL added. The use of GdL has been used various times for the hydrogelation of Fmoc and Nap-dipeptides. In another direction, Morris et al reported the use of GdL as a 'molecular trigger' to predict and control the order of gelation. Chirality also plays an essential role in gel formation, and even changing the chirality of a single amino acid from its natural L-amino acid to its unnatural D-amino acid can significantly impact the gelation properties, with the natural forms not forming gels. Furthermore, aromatic interactions play a key role in hydrogel formation as a result of Ï- Ï stacking driving gelation, shown by many studies.
1597:
including composition, crosslink density, polymer chain structure, and hydration level. The toughness of a hydrogel is highly dependent on what polymer(s) and crosslinker(s) make up its matrix as certain polymers possess higher toughness and certain crosslinking covalent bonds are inherently stronger. Additionally, higher crosslinking density generally leads to increased toughness by restricting polymer chain mobility and enhancing resistance to deformation. The structure of the polymer chains is also a factor in that, longer chain lengths and higher molecular weight leads to a greater number of entanglements and higher toughness. A good balance (equilibrium) in the hydration of a hydrogel leads is important because too low hydration causes poor flexibility and toughness within the hydrogel, but too high of water content can cause excessive swelling, weakening the mechanical properties of the hydrogel.
886:
1657:(LCST). UCST polymers increase in their water-solubility at higher temperatures, which lead to UCST hydrogels transitioning from a gel (solid) to a solution (liquid) as the temperature is increased (similar to the melting point behavior of pure materials). This phenomenon also causes UCST hydrogels to expand (increase their swell ratio) as temperature increases while they are below their UCST. However, polymers with LCSTs display an inverse (or negative) temperature-dependence, where their water-solubility decreases at higher temperatures. LCST hydrogels transition from a liquid solution to a solid gel as the temperature is increased, and they also shrink (decrease their swell ratio) as the temperature increases while they are above their LCST.
1576:
compression. This causes a decrease in water pressure, which adds additional stress upon compression. Similar to viscoelasticity, this behavior is time dependent, thus poroelasticity is dependent on compression rate: a hydrogel shows softness upon slow compression, but fast compression makes the hydrogel stiffer. This phenomenon is due to the friction between the water and the porous matrix is proportional to the flow of water, which in turn is dependent on compression rate. Thus, a common way to measure poroelasticity is to do compression tests at varying compression rates. Pore size is an important factor in influencing poroelasticity. The
564:
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1628:, as the hydrogel may need to withstand mechanical forces within the body, but also maintain mechanical performance and stability over time. Most typical hydrogels, both natural and synthetic, have a positive correlation between toughness and hysteresis, meaning that the higher the toughness, the longer the hydrogel takes to recover its original shape and vice versa. This is largely due to sacrificial bonds being the source of toughness within many of these hydrogels. Sacrificial bonds are non-covalent interactions such as
1640:, that can break and reform under mechanical stress. The reforming of these bonds takes time, especially when there are more of them, which leads to an increase in hysteresis. However, there is currently research focused on the development of highly entangled hydrogels, which instead rely on the long chain length of the polymers and their entanglement to limit the deformation of the hydrogel, thereby increasing the toughness without increasing hysteresis as there is no need for the reformation of the bonds.
1613:
stored as it deforms in mechanical extension or compression. When the mechanical stress is removed, the hydrogel begins to recover its original shape, but there may be a delay in the recovery process due to factors like viscoelasticity, internal friction, etc. This leads to a difference between the stress-strain curve during loading and unloading. Hysteresis within a hydrogel is influenced by several factors including composition, crosslink density, polymer chain structure, and
592:
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1743:
morphologies and anisotropic mechanical properties. Directional freezing of the hydrogels helps to align and coalesce the polymer chains, creating anisotropic array honeycomb tube-like structures while salting out the hydrogel yielded out a nano-fibril network on the surface of these honeycomb tube-like structures. While maintaining a water content of over 70%, these hydrogels' toughness values are well above those of water-free polymers such as
1719:. One unique processing technique is through the formation of multi-layered hydrogels to create a spatially-varying matrix composition and by extension, mechanical properties. This can be done by polymerizing the hydrogel matrixes in a layer by layer fashion via UV polymerization. This technique can be useful in creating hydrogels that mimic articular cartilage, enabling a material with three separate zones of distinct mechanical properties.
29:
1777:
1809:
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mathematical model for linear viscoelastic response. In this model, viscoelasticity is modeled analogous to an electrical circuit with a
Hookean spring, that represents the Young's modulus, and a Newtonian dashpot that represents the viscosity. A material that exhibit properties described in this model is a
1681:
The mechanical properties of hydrogels can be fine-tuned in many ways beginning with attention to their hydrophobic properties. Another method of modifying the strength or elasticity of hydrogels is to graft or surface coat them onto a stronger/stiffer support, or by making superporous hydrogel (SPH)
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of a hydrogel refers to the ability of the hydrogel to withstand deformation or mechanical stress without fracturing or breaking apart. A hydrogel with high toughness can maintain its structural integrity and functionality under higher stress. Several factors contribute to the toughness of a hydrogel
1660:
Applications can dictate for diverse thermal responses. For example, in the biomedical field, LCST hydrogels are being investigated as drug delivery systems due to being injectable (liquid) at room temp and then solidifying into a rigid gel upon exposure to the higher temperatures of the human body.
833:
residues. The order of amino acids within the sequence is crucial for gelation, as has been shown many times. In one example, a short peptide sequence Fmoc-Phe-Gly readily formed a hydrogel, whereas Fmoc-Gly-Phe failed to do so as a result of the two adjacent aromatic moieties being moved, hindering
587:
three dimensional network of natural or synthetic polymers and a fluid, having absorbed a large amount of water or biological fluids. These properties underpin several applications, especially in the biomedical area. Many hydrogels are synthetic, but some are derived from nature. The term 'hydrogel'
1612:
of a hydrogel refers to the phenomenon where there is a delay in the deformation and recovery of a hydrogel when it is subjected to mechanical stress and relieved of that stress. This occurs because the polymer chains within a hydrogel rearrange, and the water molecules are displaced, and energy is
1583:
Poroelasticity is described by several coupled equations, thus there are few mechanical tests that relate directly to the poroelastic behavior of the material, thus more complicated tests such as indentation testing, numerical or computational models are utilized. Numerical or computational methods
925:
can vary from 10 Pa to 3 MPa, a range of about five orders of magnitude. A similar effect can be seen by altering the crosslinking concentration. This much variability of the mechanical stiffness is why hydrogels are so appealing for biomedical applications, where it is vital for implants to match
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For hydrogels, their elasticity comes from the solid polymer matrix while the viscosity originates from the polymer network mobility and the water and other components that make up the aqueous phase. Viscoelastic properties of a hydrogel is highly dependent on the nature of the applied mechanical
1575:
is a characteristic of materials related to the migration of solvent through a porous material and the concurrent deformation that occurs. Poroelasticity in hydrated materials such as hydrogels occurs due to friction between the polymer and water as the water moves through the porous matrix upon
638:, and chain entanglements (among others). A hydrogel generated through the use of physical crosslinks is sometimes called a 'reversible' hydrogel. Chemical crosslinks consist of covalent bonds between polymer strands. Hydrogels generated in this manner are sometimes called 'permanent' hydrogels.
773:
irradiation, the photoinitiators will cleave and form free radicals, which will begin a polymerization reaction that forms crosslinks between polymer strands. This reaction will cease if the light source is removed, allowing the amount of crosslinks formed in the hydrogel to be controlled. The
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is often performed. Typically, in these measurements the one side of the hydrogel is subjected to a sinusoidal load in shear mode while the applied stress is measured with a stress transducer and the change in sample length is measured with a strain transducer. One notation used to model the
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precursors. The precursors self-assemble into fibers, tapes, tubes, or ribbons that entangle to form non-covalent cross-links. The second mechanism involves non-covalent interactions of cross-linked domains that are separated by water-soluble linkers, and this is usually observed in longer
1742:
is another method in which a directional temperature gradient is applied to the hydrogel is another way to form materials with anisotropic mechanical properties. Utilizing both the freeze-casting and salting-out processing techniques on poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels to induce hierarchical
1492:
Physical models for viscoelasticity attempt to capture the elastic and viscous material properties of a material. In an elastic material, the stress is proportional to the strain while in a viscous material, the stress is proportional to the strain rate. The
Maxwell model is one developed
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the mechanical properties of the surrounding tissues. Characterizing the mechanical properties of hydrogels can be difficult especially due to the differences in mechanical behavior that hydrogels have in comparison to other traditional engineering materials. In addition to its rubber
885:
621:
being cross-linked via disulfide bonds, are non-toxic and are used in numerous medicinal products. Physical hydrogels usually have high biocompatibility, are not toxic, and are also easily reversible by simply changing an external stimulus such as pH, ion concentration
2016:
swelling forces resulting from the exchange of counterions within the gel matrix. Particularly significant is its application in assessing the binding of peptide drugs to biopolymers within the body, as the swelling response of the gel can provide insights into these
2073:, and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) have been implemented extensively for drug delivery to organs such as eye, nose, kidneys, lungs, intestines, skin and brain. Future work is focused on reducing toxicity, improving biocompatibility, expanding assembly techniques
1698:
While a hydrogel's mechanical properties can be tuned and modified through crosslink concentration and additives, these properties can also be enhanced or optimized for various applications through specific processing techniques. These techniques include
778:
a popular choice for fine-tuning hydrogels. This technique has seen considerable use in cell and tissue engineering applications due to the ability to inject or mold a precursor solution loaded with cells into a wound site, then solidify it in situ.
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multi-domain structures. Tuning of the supramolecular interactions to produce a self-supporting network that does not precipitate, and is also able to immobilize water which is vital for to gel formation. Most oligopeptide hydrogels have a
1913:
Environmentally sensitive hydrogels (also known as 'smart gels' or 'intelligent gels'). These hydrogels have the ability to sense changes of pH, temperature, or the concentration of metabolite and release their load as result of such a
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hydrogels are formed by temperature change. A water solution of gelatin forms an hydrogel at temperatures below 37â35 °C, as Van der Waals interactions between collagen fibers become stronger than thermal molecular vibrations.
1501:. In order to describe the time-dependent creep and stress-relaxation behavior of hydrogel, a variety of physical lumped parameter models can be used. These modeling methods vary greatly and are extremely complex, so the empirical
1352:
897:
1424:
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Nguyen LH, Kudva AK, Saxena NS, Roy K (October 2011). "Engineering articular cartilage with spatially-varying matrix composition and mechanical properties from a single stem cell population using a multi-layered hydrogel".
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hydrogels are usually produced by the freeze-thawed technique. In this, the solution is frozen for a few hours, then thawed at room temperature, and the cycle is repeated until a strong and stable hydrogel is formed.
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qualities, giving rise to their wide use of applications, particularly in biomedicine; as such, their physical properties can be fine-tuned in order to maximise their use. Methods to do this are: modulation of the
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Hydrogels have been considered as vehicles for drug delivery. They can also be made to mimic animal mucosal tissues to be used for testing mucoadhesive properties. They have been examined for use as reservoirs in
865:
1478:
846:", hydrogels can encapsulate chemical systems which upon stimulation by external factors such as a change of pH may cause specific compounds such as glucose to be liberated to the environment, in most cases by a
769:, compounds that cleave from the absorption of photons, are added to the precursor solution which will become the hydrogel. When the precursor solution is exposed to a concentrated source of light, usually
5848:
Pupkaite J, Rosenquist J, Hilborn J, Samanta A (September 2019). "Injectable Shape-Holding
Collagen Hydrogel for Cell Encapsulation and Delivery Cross-linked Using Thiol-Michael Addition Click Reaction".
1050:
1648:
The most commonly seen environmental sensitivity in hydrogels is a response to temperature. Many polymers/hydrogels exhibit a temperature dependent phase transition, which can be classified as either an
617:. Chemical hydrogels can result in strong reversible or irreversible gels due to the covalent bonding. Chemical hydrogels that contain reversible covalent cross-linking bonds, such as hydrogels of
762:
peptides have also been reported. The typical mechanism of gelation involves the oligopeptide precursors self-assemble into fibers that become elongated, and entangle to form cross-linked gels.
3825:
Ma M, Kuang Y, Gao Y, et al. (March 2010). "Aromatic-aromatic interactions induce the self-assembly of pentapeptidic derivatives in water to form nanofibers and supramolecular hydrogels".
1726:. Due to this phenomenon, through the addition of salt solution, the polymer chains of a hydrogel aggregate and crystallize, which increases the toughness of the hydrogel. This method, called "
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Thermodynamic electricity generation: When combined with ions allows for heat dissipation for electronic devices and batteries and converting the heat exchange to an electrical charge.
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1151:
1117:
5944:
Mellati A, Dai S, Bi J, et al. (2014). "A biodegradable thermosensitive hydrogel with tuneable properties for mimicking three-dimensional microenvironments of stem cells".
5285:
Youhong Guo; C. M. Dundas; X. Zhou; K. P. Johnston; Guihua Yu (2021). "Molecular
Engineering of Hydrogels for Rapid Water Disinfection and Sustainable Solar Vapor Generation".
1812:
An adhesive bandage with a hydrogel pad, used for blisters and burns. The central gel is clear, the adhesive waterproof plastic film is clear, the backing is white and blue.
976:
In the unswollen state, hydrogels can be modelled as highly crosslinked chemical gels, in which the system can be described as one continuous polymer network. In this case:
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Implanted or injected hydrogels have the potential to support tissue regeneration by mechanical tissue support, localized drug or cell delivery, local cell recruitement or
868:
1272:
1245:
6443:
Gao J, Liu R, Wu J, et al. (May 2012). "The use of chitosan based hydrogel for enhancing the therapeutic benefits of adipose-derived MSCs for acute kidney injury".
3516:
Orbach R, Adler-Abramovich L, Zigerson S, et al. (September 2009). "Self-assembled Fmoc-peptides as a platform for the formation of nanostructures and hydrogels".
3860:
Kwon GH, Jeong GS, Park JY, et al. (September 2011). "A low-energy-consumption electroactive valveless hydrogel micropump for long-term biomedical applications".
3022:
3426:
Fichman G, Gazit E (April 2014). "Self-assembly of short peptides to form hydrogels: design of building blocks, physical properties and technological applications".
3026:
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Leichner, C; Jelkmann, M; Bernkop-SchnĂŒrch, A (2019). "Thiolated polymers: Bioinspired polymers utilizing one of the most important bridging structures in nature".
2020:
Window coating/replacement: Hydrogels are under consideration for reducing infrared light absorption by 75%. Another approach reduced interior temperature using a
583:
solids and at least 10% by weight or volume of interstitial fluid composed completely or mainly by water. In hydrogels the porous permeable solid is a water
2989:
Gdansk
University of Technology, Chemical Faculty, Polymer Technology Department, 80-233 Gdansk, ul Narutowicza 11/12; Gibas, Iwona; Janik, Helena (2010-12-15).
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based on a hydrogel bar (4Ă0.3Ă0.05 mm size) actuated by applied voltage. This pump can be continuously operated with a 1.5 V battery for at least 6 months.
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645:, which can be divided broadly into two categories according to their origin: natural or synthetic polymers. Natural polymers for hydrogel preparation include
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Hydrogels have been investigated for diverse applications. By modifying the polymer concentration of a hydrogel (or conversely, the water concentration), the
938:. These properties are extremely important to consider while performing mechanical experiments. Some common mechanical testing experiments for hydrogels are
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hydrogels. They have replaced hard contact lenses. One of their most attractive properties is oxygen permeability, which is required since the cornea lacks
609:
The crosslinks which bond the polymers of a hydrogel fall under two general categories: physical hydrogels and chemical hydrogels. Chemical hydrogels have
5234:
Youhong Guo; H. Lu; F. Zhao; X. Zhou; W. Shi; Guihua Yu (2020). "Biomass-Derived Hybrid
Hydrogel Evaporators for Cost-Effective Solar Water Purification".
1358:
3735:
Marchesan S, Waddington L, Easton CD, et al. (November 2012). "Unzipping the role of chirality in nanoscale self-assembly of tripeptide hydrogels".
542:
563:
137:
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Liu X, Ma L, Mao Z, Gao C (2011), Jayakumar R, Prabaharan M, Muzzarelli RA (eds.), "Chitosan-Based
Biomaterials for Tissue Repair and Regeneration",
6408:
Ozcelik B, Brown KD, Blencowe A, et al. (May 2013). "Ultrathin chitosan-poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel films for corneal tissue engineering".
1974:
scaffolds. When used as scaffolds, hydrogels may contain human cells to repair tissue. They mimic 3D microenvironment of cells. Materials include
6519:
Ramdas M, Dileep KJ, Anitha Y, et al. (April 1999). "Alginate encapsulated bioadhesive chitosan microspheres for intestinal drug delivery".
2065:. Polymeric drug delivery systems have overcome challenges due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and anti-toxicity. Materials such as
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1801:
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5667:
4554:
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3053:
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2327:
2254:
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Tang Y, Heaysman CL, Willis S, Lewis AL (September 2011). "Physical hydrogels with self-assembled nanostructures as drug delivery systems".
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Water sustainability: Hydrogels have emerged as promising materials platforms for solar-powered water purification, water disinfection, and
1431:
891:
A short-peptide-based hydrogel matrix, capable of holding about one hundred times its own weight in water. Developed as a medical dressing.
3265:
Adelnia, Hossein; Ensandoost, Reza; Shebbrin
Moonshi, Shehzahdi; Gavgani, Jaber Nasrollah; Vasafi, Emad Izadi; Ta, Hang Thu (2022-02-05).
867:
3601:
Chen L, Morris K, Laybourn A, et al. (April 2010). "Self-assembly mechanism for a naphthalene-dipeptide leading to hydrogelation".
1654:
1650:
80:
75:
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Warren DS, Sutherland SP, Kao JY, et al. (2017). "The
Preparation and Simple Analysis of a Clay Nanoparticle Composite Hydrogel".
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salt solution. Some of these processing techniques can be used synergistically with each other to yield optimal mechanical properties.
1690:, have been shown to significantly modify the stiffness and gelation temperature of certain hydrogels used in biomedical applications.
2363:
717:
is usually much lower than synthetic hydrogels. There are also synthetic hydrogels that can be used for medical applications, such as
2760:
Yan, Yonggan; Xu, Shulei; Liu, Huanxi; Cui, Xin; Shao, Jinlong; Yao, Peng; Huang, Jun; Qiu, Xiaoyong; Huang, Chuanzhen (2020-05-20).
2466:
NikoliÄ, LjubiĆĄa B.; ZdravkoviÄ, Aleksandar S.; NikoliÄ, Vesna D.; IliÄ-StojanoviÄ, SneĆŸana S. (2018), Mondal, Md. Ibrahim H. (ed.),
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motion. Thus, the time dependence of these applied forces is extremely important for evaluating the viscoelasticity of the material.
850:
to the liquid state. Chemomechanical polymers are mostly also hydrogels, which upon stimulation change their volume and can serve as
842:
Hydrogels also possess a degree of flexibility very similar to natural tissue due to their significant water content. As responsive "
795:, is dissolved into an aqueous sodium alginate solution, that causes the calcium ions to create ionic bonds between alginate chains.
85:
4984:
4042:
Anseth KS, Bowman CN, Brannon-Peppas L (September 1996). "Mechanical properties of hydrogels and their experimental determination".
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2188:"Harnessing the power of biological macromolecules in hydrogels for controlled drug release in the central nervous system: A review"
307:
122:
4724:
Rose S, Prevoteau A, ElziĂšre P, et al. (January 2014). "Nanoparticle solutions as adhesives for gels and biological tissues".
2000:
The swelling behavior exhibited by charged hydrogels can be used as a valuable tool for investigating interactions between charged
981:
5987:
Malmsten M, Bysell H, Hansson P (2010-12-01). "Biomacromolecules in microgels â Opportunities and challenges for drug delivery".
1947:: Hydrogels that are responsive to specific molecules, such as glucose or antigens, can be used as biosensors, as well as in DDS.
169:
2990:
5132:"Superaerophobic Polyethyleneimine Hydrogels for Improving Electrochemical Hydrogen Production by Promoting Bubble Detachment"
6024:"Ion-Exchange Controls the Kinetics of Deswelling of Polyelectrolyte Microgels in Solutions of Oppositely Charged Surfactant"
535:
6263:
4908:
Hua M, Wu S, Ma Y, et al. (February 2021). "Strong tough hydrogels via the synergy of freeze-casting and salting out".
1580:
has been used to predict pore size by relating the pressure drop to the difference in stress between two compression rates.
3463:"Nanostructured Hydrogels for Three-Dimensional Cell Culture Through Self-Assembly of FluorenylmethoxycarbonylâDipeptides"
292:
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Physically crosslinked hydrogels can be prepared by different methods depending on the nature of the crosslink involved.
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1600:
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There are two suggested mechanisms behind physical hydrogel formation, the first one being the gelation of nanofibrous
90:
4667:"Injectable Hydrogels Based on Pluronic/Water Systems Filled with Alginate Microparticles for Biomedical Applications"
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The toughness and hysteresis of a hydrogel are especially important in the context of biomedical applications such as
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954:
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thereof. Whereas natural hydrogels are usually non-toxic, and often provide other advantages for medical use, such as
322:
117:
112:
6201:
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1165:
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Discher DE, Janmey P, Wang YL (November 2005). "Tissue cells feel and respond to the stiffness of their substrate".
4407:"Tough double network hydrogels with rapid self-reinforcement and low hysteresis based on highly entangled networks"
3048:. Monographs in supramolecular chemistry. Vol. 11. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 93â124.
2186:
Ghosh, Shampa; Ghosh, Soumya; Sharma, Hitaishi; Bhaskar, Rakesh; Han, Sung Soo; Sinha, Jitendra Kumar (2024-01-01).
765:
One notable method of initiating a polymerization reaction involves the use of light as a stimulus. In this method,
737:
5065:
Jeon, Dasom; Park, Jinwoo; Shin, Changhwan; Kim, Hyunwoo; Jang, Ji-Wook; Lee, Dong Woog; Ryu, Jungki (2020-04-10).
1954:. Hydrogels with reversible chemistry are required to allow for fluidization during injection/printing followed by
317:
146:
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Wanselius, Marcus; Searle, Sean; Rodler, Agnes; Tenje, Maria; Abrahmsén-Alami, Susanna; Hansson, Per (June 2022).
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1997:
systems. Ionic strength, pH and temperature can be used as a triggering factor to control the release of the drug.
1950:
Cell carrier: Injectable hydrogels can be used to carry drugs or cells for applications in tissue regeneration or
1498:
70:
4618:"Effect of crosslinker length on the elastic and compression modulus of poly(acrylamide) nanocomposite hydrogels"
1987:
1497:. Another physical model used is called the Kelvin-Voigt Model and a material that follow this model is called a
528:
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3228:
285:
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Schmid, Julian; Armstrong, Tobias; Dickhardt, Fabian J.; Iqbal, SK Rameez; Schutzius, Thomas M. (2023-12-22).
2856:"Hydrogels based on pH-responsive reversible carbonânitrogen double-bond linkages for biomedical applications"
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There are many other stimuli that hydrogels can be responsive to, including: pH, glucose, electrical signals,
903:
Photo of the same short-peptide-based hydrogel, held in forceps to demonstrate its stiffness and transparency.
1934:
Air bubble-repellent (superaerophobicity). Can improve the performance and stability of electrodes for water
6637:"Three-dimensional porous biodegradable polymeric scaffolds fabricated with biodegradable hydrogel porogens"
934:, hydrogels have an additional time dependent deformation mechanism which is dependent on fluid flow called
387:
382:
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Hadjichristidis, Nikos; Gnanou, Yves; Matyjaszewski, Krzysztof; Muthukumar, Murugappan, eds. (2022-03-07).
5612:
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706:
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6289:"Electro-active polymer hydrogels exhibit emergent memory when embodied in a simulated game environment"
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Wanselius, Marcus; Rodler, Agnes; Searle, Sean S.; Abrahmsén-Alami, Susanna; Hansson, Per (2022-09-15).
5189:"Nanofibrillar hydrogels outperform Pt/C for hydrogen evolution reactions under high-current conditions"
3553:"The delicate balance between gelation and crystallisation: structural and computational investigations"
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hydrogels are formed by ionic interactions between alginate and double-charged cations. A salt, usually
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302:
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Cook MT, Khutoryanskiy VV (November 2015). "Mucoadhesion and mucosa-mimetic materials--A mini-review".
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5540:"Superaerophobic hydrogels for enhanced electrochemical and photoelectrochemical hydrogen production"
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5067:"Superaerophobic hydrogels for enhanced electrochemical and photoelectrochemical hydrogen production"
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4311:"Influence of the Degree of Swelling on the Stiffness and Toughness of Microgel-Reinforced Hydrogels"
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in which G' is the real (elastic or storage) modulus, G" is the imaginary (viscous or loss) modulus.
943:
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726:
151:
45:
5188:
3641:"Relationship between molecular structure, gelation behaviour and gel properties of Fmoc-dipeptides"
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1722:
Another emerging technique to optimize hydrogel mechanical properties is by taking advantage of the
847:
5617:
5338:"Scalable super hygroscopic polymer films for sustainable moisture harvesting in arid environments"
4777:"Exploring the Role of Nanoparticles in Enhancing Mechanical Properties of Hydrogel Nanocomposites"
1804:
Human mesenchymal stem cell interacting with 3D hydrogel - imaged with label-free live cell imaging
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492:
60:
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Hua M, Wu D, Wu S, et al. (March 2021). "4D Printable Tough and
Thermoresponsive Hydrogels".
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composites, in which a cross-linkable matrix swelling additive is added. Other additives, such as
6544:
6480:"Sealing effect of rapidly curable gelatin-poly (L-glutamic acid) hydrogel glue on lung air leak"
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5874:
5744:"Injectable hydrogels delivering therapeutic agents for disease treatment and tissue engineering"
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properties of a hydrogel are highly dependent on the type and quantity of its crosslinks, making
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5700:"Holographic sensors: three-dimensional analyte-sensitive nanostructures and their applications"
4472:"Hydrogels of arrested phase separation simultaneously achieve high strength and low hysteresis"
2100:
914:
6071:"Responsive Hyaluronic AcidâEthylacrylamide Microgels Fabricated Using Microfluidics Technique"
3788:"Exploiting CH-Ï interactions in supramolecular hydrogels of aromatic carbohydrate amphiphiles"
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5410:
5375:
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5259:
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4706:
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3157:
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3049:
2963:
2924:
2875:
2836:
2828:
2781:
2742:
2734:
2695:
2677:
2619:
2588:
2531:
2483:
2413:
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2323:
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2250:
2207:
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1723:
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6380:
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6325:
6296:
6209:
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5916:
5908:
5858:
5817:
5809:
5765:
5755:
5711:
5622:
5567:
5559:
5510:
5500:
5459:
5449:
5402:
5365:
5357:
5302:
5251:
5200:
5151:
5102:
5086:
5037:
5021:
4972:
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3610:
3572:
3525:
3482:
3435:
3398:
3343:
3294:
3286:
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3191:
3147:
3139:
3090:
3082:
3002:
2955:
2914:
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2773:
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2611:
2578:
2570:
2521:
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2403:
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2315:
2281:
2242:
2199:
2141:
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1886:
1752:
1494:
813:
809:
792:
722:
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965:
931:
922:
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5001:
4921:
4737:
4682:
4633:
4512:
4487:
4471:
4447:
4422:
4406:
4359:
4261:
4206:
3925:
3748:
3703:
3656:
3568:
3478:
3394:
3282:
3241:
3135:
2665:
2234:
2137:
2121:
1347:{\displaystyle \sigma _{t}=G_{\textrm {swollen}}\left(\lambda ^{2}-\lambda ^{-1}\right)}
6661:
6636:
6456:
6385:
6360:
6105:
6070:
5921:
5896:
5822:
5797:
5770:
5743:
5572:
5539:
5515:
5488:
5464:
5429:
5370:
5337:
5107:
5066:
4840:
4803:
4776:
4701:
4666:
4286:
4245:
4016:
3991:
3152:
3119:
3095:
3070:
2919:
2894:
2690:
2649:
2583:
2558:
2408:
2383:
2246:
1962:
1951:
1917:
1836:
1823:
1739:
1731:
1716:
1572:
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766:
694:
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3502:
3316:
2975:
2943:
2793:
2631:
2543:
2452:
2219:
2082:
2062:
1994:
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1712:
1687:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1059:
918:
631:
610:
407:
216:
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1419:{\displaystyle \sigma _{e}=G_{\textrm {swollen}}\left(\lambda -\lambda ^{-2}\right)}
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947:
788:
750:
741:
Simplified scheme to show the self-assembly process involved in hydrogel formation.
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4375:
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2895:"Designing degradable hydrogels for orthogonal control of cell microenvironments"
2508:
Summonte, S; Racaniello, GF; Lopedota, A; Denora, N; Bernkop-SchnĂŒrch, A (2021).
2467:
1505:
description is commonly used to describe the viscoelastic behavior in hydrogels.
6806:
6287:
Strong, Vincent; Holderbaum, William; Hayashi, Yoshikatsu (September 18, 2024).
6000:
5912:
5430:"Bioinspired mechanically active adhesive dressings to accelerate wound closure"
4309:
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4123:
2021:
1789:
1760:
1727:
1708:
1704:
1614:
1584:
attempt to simulate the three dimensional permeability of the hydrogel network.
770:
759:
514:
460:
248:
236:
6532:
6301:
5862:
5361:
4929:
4430:
4162:
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2673:
2615:
2574:
2399:
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Coatings for gas evolution reaction electrodes for efficient bubble detachment
1776:
630:); they are also used for medical applications. Physical crosslinks consist of
6652:
6214:
5760:
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2959:
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1944:
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1609:
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584:
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357:
337:
179:
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6621:
6612:
6595:
6361:"Defining and designing polymers and hydrogels for neural tissue engineering"
6153:
6130:"Microfluidics platform for studies of peptide â polyelectrolyte interaction"
6096:
6047:
6023:
6008:
5973:
5212:
5165:
5098:
5033:
4651:
4503:
4438:
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2785:
2738:
2681:
2650:"The design of reversible hydrogels to capture extracellular matrix dynamics"
2309:
2275:
2211:
2153:
1968:
Provide absorption, desloughing and debriding of necrotic and fibrotic tissue
5813:
5626:
3992:"Strain rate viscoelastic analysis of soft and highly hydrated biomaterials"
3007:
2808:
2714:
2319:
2285:
2070:
1876:
1840:
1808:
1593:
950:
876:
851:
686:
332:
263:
253:
206:
50:
6766:
6721:
6670:
6540:
6505:
6464:
6429:
6394:
6337:
6161:
6114:
6055:
5930:
5870:
5831:
5779:
5725:
5634:
5581:
5563:
5524:
5473:
5454:
5414:
5379:
5314:
5306:
5263:
5255:
5156:
5131:
5116:
5090:
5051:
5025:
4945:
4883:
4875:
4848:
4812:
4753:
4710:
4602:
4521:
4495:
4456:
4391:
4344:
4327:
4310:
4295:
4269:
4230:
4214:
4025:
3881:
3846:
3772:
3721:
3622:
3537:
3486:
3447:
3363:
3347:
3205:
3161:
3104:
2928:
2840:
2746:
2699:
2623:
2592:
2535:
2417:
591:
4063:
3196:
3179:
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5673:
5505:
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3764:
2066:
1922:
1898:
1832:
1785:
1508:
In order to measure the time-dependent viscoelastic behavior of polymers
658:
650:
576:
487:
465:
327:
6571:
6087:
4793:
4745:
4007:
3403:
3378:
3299:
6702:
6685:
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5965:
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3687:
3576:
3552:
2910:
2871:
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2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1975:
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Culturing cells: Hydrogel-coated wells have been used for cell culture.
1854:
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642:
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1473:{\displaystyle \lambda =l_{\textrm {current}}/l_{\textrm {original}}}
1220:
In a simple uniaxial extension or compression test, the true stress,
855:
666:
504:
4246:"Concurrent stiffening and softening in hydrogels under dehydration"
1879:
are excellent for helping to create or maintain a moist environment.
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562:
554:
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1730:", has been applied to poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels by adding a
5798:"Injectable hydrogels for cartilage and bone tissue engineering"
2766:
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2468:"Synthetic Hydrogels and Their Impact on Health and Environment"
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For the swollen state, a perfect gel network can be modeled as:
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Controlled release of agrochemicals (pesticides and fertilizer)
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1045:{\displaystyle G=N_{p}kT={\rho RT \over {\overline {M}}_{c}}}
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Peptide hydrogel formation shown by the inverted vial method.
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Hydrogels have two main regimes of mechanical properties:
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5489:"Smart hydrogels for advanced drug delivery systems"
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3551:Adams DJ, Morris K, Chen L, et al. (2010).
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4969:Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
2348:Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
2103: by Jessica Hutchinson available under the
2044:Computational tasks, including emergent memory.
1889:medical electrodes using hydrogels composed of
1211:{\displaystyle G_{\textrm {swollen}}=GQ^{-1/3}}
5890:
5888:
2807:Monteiro, O. A.; Airoldi, C. (November 1999).
2715:"Thermosensitive sol-gel reversible hydrogels"
2057:, or encapsulation of nanoparticles for local
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4360:"Fatigue Fracture of Self-Recovery Hydrogels"
808:Peptides based hydrogels possess exceptional
536:
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3217:
3215:
3173:
3171:
3075:ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering
3025:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2311:Polymer Science: A Comprehensive Reference
2012:. This response arises due to fluctuating
641:Hydrogels are prepared using a variety of
543:
529:
18:
6756:
6711:
6701:
6660:
6611:
6495:
6478:Otani Y, Tabata Y, Ikada Y (April 1999).
6384:
6300:
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6104:
6086:
5920:
5821:
5769:
5759:
5715:
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5616:
5571:
5514:
5504:
5463:
5453:
5369:
5155:
5106:
5041:
4903:
4901:
4802:
4792:
4700:
4690:
4641:
4511:
4446:
4326:
4285:
4015:
3711:
3402:
3298:
3249:
3195:
3151:
3094:
3006:
2918:
2689:
2582:
2525:
2407:
2081:; particularly ionic drugs, delivered by
1521:
1463:
1462:
1453:
1446:
1445:
1433:
1402:
1380:
1379:
1366:
1360:
1330:
1317:
1301:
1300:
1287:
1281:
1258:
1252:
1231:
1225:
1198:
1191:
1174:
1173:
1167:
1137:
1127:
1124:
1103:
1093:
1090:
1034:
1024:
1010:
995:
983:
138:Nitroxide-mediated radical polymerization
3827:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2472:Cellulose-Based Superabsorbent Hydrogels
1153:can be calculated from the swell ratio,
758:, and assemble to form fibers, although
4105:
4103:
4088:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
4037:
4035:
2112:
1990:, and other naturally derived polymers.
946:(confined or unconfined), indentation,
860:
21:
6737:International Journal of Pharmaceutics
6134:International Journal of Pharmaceutics
4864:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
3634:
3632:
3596:
3594:
3014:
5843:
5841:
5791:
5789:
5737:
5735:
4622:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
4576:
4574:
4572:
4570:
4568:
4566:
4184:
4182:
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3907:
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2643:
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2375:
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2179:
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2173:
2171:
669:. Common synthetic polymers include
6641:Tissue Engineering. Part C, Methods
6200:Miller, Brittney J. (8 June 2022).
6028:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B
4315:Macromolecular Rapid Communications
2995:Chemistry & Chemical Technology
1958:of the original hydrogel structure.
1655:lower critical solution temperature
1651:upper critical solution temperature
1146:{\displaystyle {\overline {M}}_{c}}
1112:{\displaystyle {\overline {M}}_{c}}
6457:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.01.061
4841:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.06.014
2277:Fundamental Biomaterials: Polymers
2247:10.1016/b978-0-323-91248-8.00012-x
613:, whereas physical hydrogels have
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4086:Modules in Mechanics of Materials
3222:CalĂł E, Khutoryanskiy VV (2015).
749:assemblies, usually observed for
123:Controlled radical polymerization
5193:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
3042:"Peptide and Protein Hydrogels."
2099: This article incorporates
2094:
1817:Scalephobicity and antifouling
896:
884:
863:
6318:Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery
6202:"How smart windows save energy"
4079:""Engineering viscoelasticity""
3914:International Materials Reviews
3291:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110974
3251:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2014.11.024
3087:10.1021/acsbiomaterials.5b00051
3040:Dooling LJ, Tirrell DA (2013).
2022:temperature-responsive hydrogel
1085:is the ideal gas constant, and
829:, and increasing the number of
595:IUPAC definition for a hydrogel
6484:The Annals of Thoracic Surgery
6175:Irving, Michael (2022-08-31).
4971:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4643:10.1088/1742-6596/790/1/012037
4583:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
4151:Accounts of Materials Research
3934:10.1179/1743280413Y.0000000022
2778:10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.124622
2719:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
2608:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
2480:10.1007/978-3-319-76573-0_61-1
2241:, Elsevier, pp. 129â150,
2204:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127708
1:
6787:Journal of Chemical Education
6749:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.09.064
6497:10.1016/S0003-4975(99)00153-8
6293:Cell Reports Physical Science
6146:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121785
5407:10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.09.011
5395:Journal of Controlled Release
4595:10.1016/S0169-409X(01)00203-4
4547:10.1002/9783527815562.mme0043
2860:Materials Chemistry Frontiers
2825:10.1016/s0141-8130(99)00068-9
2731:10.1016/s0169-409x(01)00242-3
2527:10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.12.037
2514:Journal of Controlled Release
1909:Encapsulation of quantum dots
86:FloryâHuggins solution theory
6594:Wu ZL, Gong JP (June 2011).
6564:Chitosan for Biomaterials II
6422:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.01.020
6377:10.1016/j.neures.2011.12.005
6330:10.1517/17425247.2011.588205
4376:10.1021/acsmacrolett.8b00045
4056:10.1016/0142-9612(96)87644-7
3440:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.08.013
2388:Journal of Advanced Research
1132:
1098:
1029:
611:covalent cross-linking bonds
6807:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00389
6262:Lavars, Nick (2022-12-15).
6001:10.1016/j.cocis.2010.05.016
5913:10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00179
4124:10.1016/j.jtice.2018.02.017
2948:Journal of Polymer Research
1848:Atmospheric water generator
1510:dynamic mechanical analysis
1267:{\displaystyle \sigma _{e}}
1240:{\displaystyle \sigma _{t}}
1066:is the Boltzmann constant,
955:dynamic mechanical analysis
152:Condensation polymerization
118:Free-radical polymerization
113:Chain-growth polymerization
16:Soft water-rich polymer gel
6864:
6533:10.1177/088532829901300402
6302:10.1016/j.xcrp.2024.102151
5863:10.1021/acs.biomac.9b00769
5656:Schneider HJ, ed. (2015).
5362:10.1038/s41467-022-30505-2
4930:10.1038/s41586-021-03212-z
4431:10.1038/s41467-024-45485-8
4163:10.1021/accountsmr.2c00026
2674:10.1038/natrevmats.2015.12
2616:10.1016/j.addr.2019.04.007
2575:10.1021/acs.biomac.0c00663
2400:10.1016/j.jare.2013.07.006
1247:, and engineering stress,
727:polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
147:Step-growth polymerization
6653:10.1089/ten.TEC.2008.0642
6215:10.1146/knowable-060822-3
5761:10.1186/s40824-018-0138-6
5659:Chemoresponsive Materials
5136:Advanced Energy Materials
3336:Macromolecular Bioscience
2960:10.1007/s10965-017-1278-4
1988:elastin-like polypeptides
1867:Dressings for healing of
1554:{\displaystyle G=G'+iG''}
719:polyethylene glycol (PEG)
6613:10.1038/asiamat.2010.200
5742:Lee JH (December 2018).
3271:European Polymer Journal
3229:European Polymer Journal
2899:Chemical Society Reviews
2654:Nature Reviews Materials
1638:hydrophobic interactions
1604:Model of Hysteresis Loop
1588:Toughness and Hysteresis
1274:, can be calculated as:
804:Peptides based hydrogels
709:of nearby tissue, their
636:hydrophobic interactions
6690:Chemical Communications
5814:10.1038/boneres.2017.14
5627:10.1126/science.1116995
3008:10.23939/chcht04.04.297
2382:Ahmed EM (March 2015).
2320:10.1016/c2009-1-28406-1
2286:10.1016/c2016-0-03544-1
157:Addition polymerization
91:Coilâglobule transition
5564:10.1126/sciadv.aaz3944
5455:10.1126/sciadv.aaw3963
5307:10.1002/adma.202102994
5256:10.1002/adma.201907061
5157:10.1002/aenm.202201452
5091:10.1126/sciadv.aaz3944
5026:10.1126/sciadv.adj0324
4876:10.1021/acsami.0c17532
4496:10.1126/sciadv.adh7742
4328:10.1002/marc.202200864
4270:10.1126/sciadv.ade3240
4215:10.1002/adma.202206577
3487:10.1002/adma.200501522
3348:10.1002/mabi.200600069
1931:moisture in arid areas
1871:or other hard-to-heal
1813:
1805:
1781:
1644:Environmental response
1605:
1578:KozenyâCarman equation
1555:
1480: is the stretch.
1474:
1420:
1348:
1268:
1241:
1212:
1147:
1113:
1046:
742:
596:
568:
560:
269:Self-healing hydrogels
32:
6365:Neuroscience Research
5748:Biomaterials Research
5342:Nature Communications
4541:(1 ed.). Wiley.
4411:Nature Communications
3692:Nature Communications
3197:10.2144/btn-2018-0083
2079:topical drug delivery
1927:Granules for holding
1811:
1803:
1779:
1694:Processing techniques
1603:
1556:
1499:KelvinâVoigt material
1475:
1421:
1349:
1269:
1242:
1213:
1148:
1114:
1047:
909:Mechanical properties
740:
594:
566:
558:
483:Cookware and bakeware
435:Industrial production
303:X-ray crystallography
31:
5952:(109): 63951â63961.
5506:10.3390/ijms23073665
2610:. 151â152: 191â221.
2059:photothermal therapy
2031:Water gel explosives
1903:polyvinylpyrrolidone
1745:polydimethylsiloxane
1736:Directional freezing
1520:
1432:
1359:
1280:
1251:
1224:
1166:
1123:
1089:
982:
588:was coined in 1894.
6833:Colloidal chemistry
6799:2017JChEd..94.1772W
6696:(77): 14447â14450.
6572:10.1007/12_2011_118
6088:10.3390/gels8090588
6034:(50): 23843â23856.
5958:2014RSCAd...463951M
5710:(20): 10654â10696.
5609:2005Sci...310.1139D
5603:(5751): 1139â1143.
5556:2020SciA....6.3944J
5446:2019SciA....5.3963B
5354:2022NatCo..13.2761G
5299:2021AdM....3302994G
5248:2020AdM....3207061G
5148:2022AdEnM..1201452B
5083:2020SciA....6.3944J
5018:2023SciA....9J.324S
4922:2021Natur.590..594H
4870:(11): 12689â12697.
4794:10.3390/nano8110882
4746:10.1038/nature12806
4738:2014Natur.505..382R
4683:2019Mate...12.1083C
4634:2017JPhCS.790a2037Z
4488:2023SciA....9H7742Z
4423:2024NatCo..15.1344Z
4262:2023SciA....9E3240X
4207:2022AdM....3406577N
4008:10.1002/jbm.a.34914
3926:2014IMRv...59...44O
3749:2012Nanos...4.6752M
3704:2013NatCo...4.1480M
3657:2010SMat....6.1971A
3569:2010SMat....6.4144A
3479:2006AdM....18..611J
3404:10.1557/mrc.2017.92
3395:2017MRSCo...7..416J
3283:2022EurPJ.16410974A
3242:2015EurPJ..65..252C
3136:2009NatMa...8..596B
2666:2016NatRM...115012R
2138:1960Natur.185..117W
1772:Soft contact lenses
776:photopolymerization
705:effect and improve
679:sodium polyacrylate
675:polyethylene glycol
643:polymeric materials
456:Protective Coatings
71:MarkâHouwink theory
6703:10.1039/C5CC02428E
6600:NPG Asia Materials
6410:Acta Biomaterialia
5966:10.1039/C4RA12215A
5287:Advanced Materials
5236:Advanced Materials
5205:10.1039/D2TA08775H
4977:10.1002/0471238961
4692:10.3390/ma12071083
4195:Advanced Materials
3969:. Academic Press.
3874:10.1039/C1LC20288J
3804:10.1039/c0sc00621a
3757:10.1039/c2nr32006a
3713:10.1038/ncomms2499
3577:10.1039/c0sm00409j
3467:Advanced Materials
3428:Acta Biomaterialia
3383:MRS Communications
2911:10.1039/C3CS60040H
2872:10.1039/C8QM00317C
2445:10.1007/BF01830147
2314:. Elsevier. 2012.
1993:Sustained-release
1972:Tissue engineering
1895:polyethylene oxide
1857:where they absorb
1814:
1806:
1782:
1634:ionic interactions
1622:tissue engineering
1606:
1551:
1470:
1416:
1344:
1264:
1237:
1208:
1143:
1109:
1042:
848:gelâsol transition
743:
626:) or temperature (
615:non-covalent bonds
597:
569:
561:
33:
6793:(11): 1772â1779.
6581:978-3-642-24061-4
6451:(14): 3673â3681.
6206:Knowable Magazine
6040:10.1021/jp054835d
5851:Biomacromolecules
5717:10.1021/cr500116a
5669:978-1-78262-242-0
4916:(7847): 594â599.
4835:(29): 6946â6952.
4732:(7483): 382â385.
4556:978-3-527-34455-0
4364:ACS Macro Letters
4050:(17): 1647â1657.
4002:(10): 3352â3360.
3976:978-0-12-812278-5
3868:(17): 2910â2915.
3839:10.1021/ja9088764
3743:(21): 6752â6760.
3615:10.1021/la903694a
3530:10.1021/bm900584m
3518:Biomacromolecules
3055:978-1-84973-561-2
2905:(17): 7335â7372.
2866:(10): 1765â1778.
2563:Biomacromolecules
2489:978-3-319-76573-0
2350:. pp. 1â20.
2329:978-0-08-087862-1
2256:978-0-323-91248-8
2132:(4706): 117â118.
1724:Hofmeister series
1466:
1449:
1383:
1304:
1177:
1135:
1101:
1040:
1032:
972:Rubber elasticity
962:rubber elasticity
870:
784:Polyvinyl alcohol
756:ÎČ-sheet structure
683:acrylate polymers
671:polyvinyl alcohol
553:
552:
466:Consumer products
6855:
6818:
6771:
6770:
6760:
6732:
6726:
6725:
6715:
6705:
6681:
6675:
6674:
6664:
6632:
6626:
6625:
6615:
6591:
6585:
6584:
6559:
6553:
6552:
6516:
6510:
6509:
6499:
6475:
6469:
6468:
6440:
6434:
6433:
6416:(5): 6594â6605.
6405:
6399:
6398:
6388:
6356:
6350:
6349:
6324:(9): 1141â1159.
6313:
6307:
6306:
6304:
6284:
6278:
6277:
6275:
6274:
6259:
6253:
6252:
6250:
6248:
6243:. April 22, 2020
6233:
6227:
6226:
6224:
6222:
6217:
6197:
6191:
6190:
6188:
6187:
6172:
6166:
6165:
6125:
6119:
6118:
6108:
6090:
6066:
6060:
6059:
6019:
6013:
6012:
5984:
5978:
5977:
5941:
5935:
5934:
5924:
5901:Chemical Reviews
5892:
5883:
5882:
5857:(9): 3475â3484.
5845:
5836:
5835:
5825:
5793:
5784:
5783:
5773:
5763:
5739:
5730:
5729:
5719:
5704:Chemical Reviews
5691:
5685:
5684:
5682:
5681:
5672:. Archived from
5653:
5647:
5646:
5620:
5592:
5586:
5585:
5575:
5550:(15): eaaz3944.
5544:Science Advances
5535:
5529:
5528:
5518:
5508:
5484:
5478:
5477:
5467:
5457:
5434:Science Advances
5425:
5419:
5418:
5390:
5384:
5383:
5373:
5333:
5327:
5326:
5282:
5276:
5275:
5231:
5225:
5224:
5199:(4): 1658â1665.
5184:
5178:
5177:
5159:
5127:
5121:
5120:
5110:
5077:(15): eaaz3944.
5071:Science Advances
5062:
5056:
5055:
5045:
5012:(51): eadj0324.
5006:Science Advances
4997:
4991:
4990:
4964:
4958:
4957:
4905:
4896:
4895:
4859:
4853:
4852:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4806:
4796:
4772:
4766:
4765:
4721:
4715:
4714:
4704:
4694:
4662:
4656:
4655:
4645:
4613:
4607:
4606:
4578:
4561:
4560:
4532:
4526:
4525:
4515:
4482:(26): eadh7742.
4476:Science Advances
4467:
4461:
4460:
4450:
4402:
4396:
4395:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4330:
4321:(16): e2200864.
4306:
4300:
4299:
4289:
4250:Science Advances
4241:
4235:
4234:
4186:
4175:
4174:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4107:
4098:
4097:
4095:
4093:
4083:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4039:
4030:
4029:
4019:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3960:
3954:
3953:
3909:
3886:
3885:
3857:
3851:
3850:
3833:(8): 2719â2728.
3822:
3816:
3815:
3792:Chemical Science
3783:
3777:
3776:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3715:
3683:
3677:
3676:
3665:10.1039/b921863g
3636:
3627:
3626:
3609:(7): 5232â5242.
3598:
3589:
3588:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3524:(9): 2646â2651.
3513:
3507:
3506:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3434:(4): 1671â1682.
3423:
3417:
3416:
3406:
3374:
3368:
3367:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3302:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3219:
3210:
3209:
3199:
3175:
3166:
3165:
3155:
3144:10.1038/nmat2479
3124:Nature Materials
3115:
3109:
3108:
3098:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3020:
3012:
3010:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2939:
2933:
2932:
2922:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2819:(2â3): 119â128.
2804:
2798:
2797:
2757:
2751:
2750:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2693:
2645:
2636:
2635:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2586:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2529:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2379:
2370:
2369:
2343:
2334:
2333:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2183:
2166:
2165:
2146:10.1038/185117a0
2117:
2098:
2055:immunomodulation
1863:sanitary napkins
1753:synthetic rubber
1701:electro-spinning
1560:
1558:
1557:
1552:
1550:
1536:
1495:Maxwell material
1479:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1457:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1447:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1381:
1371:
1370:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1322:
1321:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1302:
1292:
1291:
1273:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1263:
1262:
1246:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1175:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1141:
1136:
1128:
1118:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1094:
1081:is the density,
1070:is temperature,
1051:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1025:
1022:
1011:
1000:
999:
900:
888:
872:
871:
814:biodegradability
810:biocompatibility
793:calcium chloride
695:biodegradability
691:biocompatibility
545:
538:
531:
449:Applied coatings
286:Characterization
19:
6863:
6862:
6858:
6857:
6856:
6854:
6853:
6852:
6843:Water chemistry
6823:
6822:
6821:
6784:
6780:
6778:Further reading
6775:
6774:
6734:
6733:
6729:
6683:
6682:
6678:
6634:
6633:
6629:
6593:
6592:
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6561:
6560:
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6472:
6442:
6441:
6437:
6407:
6406:
6402:
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6357:
6353:
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6314:
6310:
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6285:
6281:
6272:
6270:
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6260:
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6021:
6020:
6016:
5986:
5985:
5981:
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5942:
5938:
5894:
5893:
5886:
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5846:
5839:
5795:
5794:
5787:
5741:
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5733:
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5692:
5688:
5679:
5677:
5670:
5655:
5654:
5650:
5594:
5593:
5589:
5537:
5536:
5532:
5486:
5485:
5481:
5440:(7): eaaw3963.
5427:
5426:
5422:
5392:
5391:
5387:
5335:
5334:
5330:
5293:(35): 2102994.
5284:
5283:
5279:
5242:(11): 1907061.
5233:
5232:
5228:
5186:
5185:
5181:
5142:(29): 2201452.
5129:
5128:
5124:
5064:
5063:
5059:
4999:
4998:
4994:
4987:
4966:
4965:
4961:
4907:
4906:
4899:
4861:
4860:
4856:
4825:
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4773:
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4659:
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4469:
4468:
4464:
4404:
4403:
4399:
4357:
4356:
4352:
4308:
4307:
4303:
4256:(1): eade3240.
4243:
4242:
4238:
4188:
4187:
4178:
4144:
4143:
4139:
4109:
4108:
4101:
4091:
4089:
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4071:
4041:
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3989:
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3957:
3911:
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3889:
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3858:
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3785:
3784:
3780:
3734:
3733:
3729:
3685:
3684:
3680:
3638:
3637:
3630:
3600:
3599:
3592:
3550:
3549:
3545:
3515:
3514:
3510:
3460:
3459:
3455:
3425:
3424:
3420:
3376:
3375:
3371:
3329:
3328:
3324:
3264:
3263:
3259:
3221:
3220:
3213:
3177:
3176:
3169:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3039:
3038:
3034:
3013:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2759:
2758:
2754:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2647:
2646:
2639:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2556:
2555:
2551:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2494:
2492:
2490:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2366:
2345:
2344:
2337:
2330:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2185:
2184:
2169:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2091:
2051:
1980:methylcellulose
1837:polyacrylamides
1824:Breast implants
1798:
1774:
1769:
1696:
1679:
1646:
1590:
1570:
1543:
1529:
1518:
1517:
1486:
1484:Viscoelasticity
1458:
1441:
1430:
1429:
1398:
1391:
1387:
1375:
1362:
1357:
1356:
1326:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1296:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1254:
1249:
1248:
1227:
1222:
1221:
1187:
1169:
1164:
1163:
1126:
1121:
1120:
1092:
1087:
1086:
1075:
1023:
1012:
991:
980:
979:
974:
966:viscoelasticity
932:viscoelasticity
923:storage modulus
915:Young's modulus
911:
904:
901:
892:
889:
880:
873:
864:
844:smart materials
840:
806:
767:photoinitiators
735:
647:hyaluronic acid
607:
602:
549:
520:
519:
431:
423:
422:
353:
345:
344:
288:
278:
277:
195:Polyisobutylene
176:Functional type
172:
162:
161:
108:
98:
97:
41:
22:Polymer science
17:
12:
11:
5:
6861:
6859:
6851:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6835:
6825:
6824:
6820:
6819:
6781:
6779:
6776:
6773:
6772:
6743:(2): 991â998.
6727:
6676:
6647:(4): 583â594.
6627:
6586:
6580:
6554:
6527:(4): 290â296.
6511:
6490:(4): 922â926.
6470:
6435:
6400:
6371:(3): 199â213.
6351:
6308:
6279:
6254:
6228:
6192:
6167:
6120:
6061:
6014:
5995:(6): 435â444.
5979:
5936:
5907:(2): 834â873.
5884:
5837:
5785:
5731:
5686:
5668:
5648:
5618:10.1.1.318.690
5587:
5530:
5479:
5420:
5385:
5328:
5277:
5226:
5179:
5122:
5057:
4992:
4985:
4959:
4897:
4854:
4818:
4767:
4716:
4657:
4608:
4589:(3): 321â339.
4562:
4555:
4527:
4462:
4397:
4370:(3): 312â317.
4350:
4301:
4236:
4176:
4157:(2): 101â114.
4137:
4099:
4069:
4031:
3982:
3975:
3955:
3887:
3852:
3817:
3778:
3727:
3678:
3628:
3590:
3543:
3508:
3473:(5): 611â614.
3453:
3418:
3389:(3): 416â426.
3369:
3342:(8): 623â633.
3322:
3257:
3211:
3167:
3130:(7): 596â600.
3110:
3081:(6): 431â439.
3061:
3054:
3032:
3001:(4): 297â304.
2981:
2934:
2885:
2846:
2799:
2752:
2705:
2637:
2598:
2549:
2500:
2488:
2458:
2439:(7): 213â214.
2423:
2394:(2): 105â121.
2371:
2365:978-0471238966
2364:
2335:
2328:
2301:
2294:
2267:
2255:
2225:
2167:
2111:
2110:
2090:
2087:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2042:
2036:
2033:
2028:
2025:
2018:
1998:
1991:
1969:
1966:
1963:holotomography
1959:
1952:3D bioprinting
1948:
1942:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1880:
1865:
1851:
1844:
1829:Contact lenses
1826:
1821:
1818:
1797:
1794:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1740:freeze-casting
1732:sodium sulfate
1717:freeze-casting
1695:
1692:
1688:microparticles
1678:
1675:
1645:
1642:
1630:hydrogen bonds
1589:
1586:
1573:Poroelasticity
1569:
1568:Poroelasticity
1566:
1562:
1561:
1549:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1525:
1485:
1482:
1461:
1456:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1414:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1342:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1299:
1295:
1290:
1286:
1261:
1257:
1234:
1230:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1183:
1172:
1140:
1134:
1131:
1106:
1100:
1097:
1073:
1037:
1031:
1028:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1009:
1006:
1003:
998:
994:
990:
987:
973:
970:
936:poroelasticity
910:
907:
906:
905:
902:
895:
893:
890:
883:
881:
874:
862:
839:
836:
805:
802:
734:
731:
632:hydrogen bonds
606:
605:Classification
603:
601:
598:
551:
550:
548:
547:
540:
533:
525:
522:
521:
518:
517:
512:
510:Plastic bottle
507:
502:
497:
496:
495:
493:Food Container
490:
480:
479:
478:
468:
463:
458:
453:
452:
451:
446:
436:
432:
429:
428:
425:
424:
421:
420:
415:
410:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
354:
351:
350:
347:
346:
343:
342:
341:
340:
335:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
289:
284:
283:
280:
279:
276:
275:
274:
273:
272:
271:
256:
251:
246:
242:
241:
240:
239:
234:
229:
224:
217:Vinyl polymers
214:
209:
204:
199:
198:
197:
192:
187:
177:
173:
170:Classification
168:
167:
164:
163:
160:
159:
154:
149:
143:
142:
141:
140:
135:
130:
120:
115:
109:
104:
103:
100:
99:
96:
95:
94:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
66:Phase behavior
63:
58:
53:
48:
42:
39:
38:
35:
34:
24:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6860:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6839:
6836:
6834:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6816:
6812:
6808:
6804:
6800:
6796:
6792:
6788:
6783:
6782:
6777:
6768:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6731:
6728:
6723:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6695:
6691:
6687:
6680:
6677:
6672:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6654:
6650:
6646:
6642:
6638:
6631:
6628:
6623:
6619:
6614:
6609:
6605:
6601:
6597:
6590:
6587:
6583:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6565:
6558:
6555:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6526:
6522:
6515:
6512:
6507:
6503:
6498:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6474:
6471:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6439:
6436:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6404:
6401:
6396:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6355:
6352:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6312:
6309:
6303:
6298:
6294:
6290:
6283:
6280:
6269:
6265:
6258:
6255:
6242:
6238:
6232:
6229:
6216:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6196:
6193:
6182:
6178:
6171:
6168:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6131:
6124:
6121:
6116:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6080:
6076:
6072:
6065:
6062:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6018:
6015:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5980:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5940:
5937:
5932:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5898:
5891:
5889:
5885:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5844:
5842:
5838:
5833:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5802:Bone Research
5799:
5792:
5790:
5786:
5781:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5738:
5736:
5732:
5727:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5690:
5687:
5676:on 2017-10-29
5675:
5671:
5665:
5661:
5660:
5652:
5649:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5591:
5588:
5583:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5534:
5531:
5526:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5483:
5480:
5475:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5424:
5421:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5389:
5386:
5381:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5329:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5281:
5278:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5237:
5230:
5227:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5183:
5180:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5126:
5123:
5118:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5061:
5058:
5053:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4996:
4993:
4988:
4986:9780471484943
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4963:
4960:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4904:
4902:
4898:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4858:
4855:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4822:
4819:
4814:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4781:Nanomaterials
4778:
4771:
4768:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4720:
4717:
4712:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4661:
4658:
4653:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4628:(1): 012037.
4627:
4623:
4619:
4612:
4609:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4577:
4575:
4573:
4571:
4569:
4567:
4563:
4558:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4539:
4531:
4528:
4523:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4466:
4463:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4401:
4398:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4354:
4351:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4305:
4302:
4297:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4240:
4237:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4185:
4183:
4181:
4177:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4141:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4106:
4104:
4100:
4087:
4080:
4073:
4070:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3986:
3983:
3978:
3972:
3968:
3967:
3959:
3956:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3908:
3906:
3904:
3902:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3862:Lab on a Chip
3856:
3853:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3821:
3818:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3782:
3779:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3765:11368/2841344
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3731:
3728:
3723:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3682:
3679:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3635:
3633:
3629:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3547:
3544:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3512:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3457:
3454:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3422:
3419:
3414:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3373:
3370:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3326:
3323:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3261:
3258:
3252:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3207:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3184:BioTechniques
3181:
3174:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3114:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3062:
3057:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3036:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3018:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2982:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2938:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2756:
2753:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2709:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2599:
2594:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2553:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2501:
2491:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2462:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2312:
2305:
2302:
2297:
2295:9780081021941
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2278:
2271:
2268:
2258:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2083:iontophoresis
2080:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2063:brachytherapy
2060:
2056:
2048:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2017:interactions.
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1995:drug delivery
1992:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1802:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1778:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1713:self-assembly
1710:
1706:
1702:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1684:nanoparticles
1676:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1626:drug delivery
1623:
1618:
1616:
1611:
1602:
1598:
1595:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1579:
1574:
1567:
1565:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1523:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1483:
1481:
1459:
1454:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1426:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1388:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1354:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1275:
1259:
1255:
1232:
1228:
1218:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1170:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1138:
1129:
1104:
1095:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1060:shear modulus
1057:
1052:
1035:
1026:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1007:
1004:
1001:
996:
992:
988:
985:
977:
971:
969:
967:
963:
958:
956:
952:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
924:
920:
919:shear modulus
916:
908:
899:
894:
887:
882:
878:
861:
859:
857:
853:
849:
845:
837:
835:
832:
828:
824:
820:
815:
811:
803:
801:
798:
794:
790:
785:
780:
777:
772:
768:
763:
761:
757:
752:
748:
739:
732:
730:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
639:
637:
633:
629:
625:
620:
616:
612:
604:
599:
593:
589:
586:
582:
578:
574:
565:
557:
546:
541:
539:
534:
532:
527:
526:
524:
523:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
494:
491:
489:
486:
485:
484:
481:
477:
474:
473:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
450:
447:
445:
442:
441:
440:
437:
434:
433:
427:
426:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
355:
349:
348:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
290:
287:
282:
281:
270:
267:
266:
265:
262:
261:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
244:
243:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
219:
218:
215:
213:
212:Polycarbonate
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
196:
193:
191:
190:Polypropylene
188:
186:
183:
182:
181:
178:
175:
174:
171:
166:
165:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
144:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
125:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
110:
107:
102:
101:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
68:
67:
64:
62:
59:
57:
54:
52:
49:
47:
44:
43:
37:
36:
30:
26:
25:
20:
6790:
6786:
6740:
6736:
6730:
6693:
6689:
6679:
6644:
6640:
6630:
6606:(6): 57â64.
6603:
6599:
6589:
6563:
6557:
6524:
6520:
6514:
6487:
6483:
6473:
6448:
6445:Biomaterials
6444:
6438:
6413:
6409:
6403:
6368:
6364:
6354:
6321:
6317:
6311:
6292:
6282:
6271:. Retrieved
6267:
6257:
6245:. Retrieved
6240:
6231:
6219:. Retrieved
6205:
6195:
6184:. Retrieved
6180:
6170:
6137:
6133:
6123:
6078:
6074:
6064:
6031:
6027:
6017:
5992:
5988:
5982:
5949:
5945:
5939:
5904:
5900:
5854:
5850:
5808:(1): 17014.
5805:
5801:
5751:
5747:
5707:
5703:
5694:Yetisen AK,
5689:
5678:. Retrieved
5674:the original
5658:
5651:
5600:
5596:
5590:
5547:
5543:
5533:
5496:
5492:
5482:
5437:
5433:
5423:
5398:
5394:
5388:
5345:
5341:
5331:
5290:
5286:
5280:
5239:
5235:
5229:
5196:
5192:
5182:
5139:
5135:
5125:
5074:
5070:
5060:
5009:
5005:
4995:
4968:
4962:
4913:
4909:
4867:
4863:
4857:
4832:
4829:Biomaterials
4828:
4821:
4784:
4780:
4770:
4729:
4725:
4719:
4674:
4670:
4660:
4625:
4621:
4611:
4586:
4582:
4537:
4530:
4479:
4475:
4465:
4414:
4410:
4400:
4367:
4363:
4353:
4318:
4314:
4304:
4253:
4249:
4239:
4198:
4194:
4154:
4150:
4140:
4115:
4111:
4090:. Retrieved
4085:
4077:Roylance D.
4072:
4047:
4044:Biomaterials
4043:
3999:
3995:
3985:
3965:
3958:
3920:(1): 44â59.
3917:
3913:
3865:
3861:
3855:
3830:
3826:
3820:
3795:
3791:
3781:
3740:
3736:
3730:
3695:
3691:
3681:
3648:
3644:
3606:
3602:
3563:(17): 4144.
3560:
3556:
3546:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3470:
3466:
3456:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3386:
3382:
3372:
3339:
3335:
3325:
3300:10072/417476
3274:
3270:
3260:
3233:
3227:
3190:(1): 40â53.
3187:
3183:
3127:
3123:
3113:
3078:
3074:
3064:
3045:
3035:
3017:cite journal
2998:
2994:
2984:
2951:
2947:
2937:
2902:
2898:
2888:
2863:
2859:
2849:
2816:
2812:
2802:
2769:
2765:
2755:
2725:(1): 37â51.
2722:
2718:
2708:
2660:(2): 15012.
2657:
2653:
2607:
2601:
2569:(1): 24â56.
2566:
2562:
2552:
2517:
2513:
2503:
2493:, retrieved
2471:
2461:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2391:
2387:
2347:
2310:
2304:
2276:
2270:
2260:, retrieved
2238:
2228:
2195:
2191:
2129:
2125:
2115:
2093:
2092:
2075:
2069:, chitosan,
2052:
2049:Biomaterials
1956:self-healing
1936:electrolysis
1891:cross-linked
1783:
1767:Applications
1721:
1697:
1680:
1673:, and more.
1659:
1647:
1619:
1607:
1591:
1582:
1571:
1563:
1507:
1503:Prony Series
1491:
1487:
1427:
1355:
1276:
1219:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1053:
978:
975:
959:
912:
841:
807:
781:
764:
751:oligopeptide
744:
723:polyacrylate
707:regeneration
640:
608:
572:
570:
500:Vinyl record
444:Blow molding
430:Applications
202:Polyurethane
185:Polyethylene
46:Architecture
6848:Soft matter
5696:Naydenova I
5499:(7): 3665.
5348:(1): 2761.
4787:(11): 882.
4677:(7): 1083.
4417:(1): 1344.
4118:: 118â122.
3798:(7): 1349.
3698:(1): 1480.
3651:(9): 1971.
3645:Soft Matter
3557:Soft Matter
3236:: 252â267.
2520:: 470â482.
1853:Disposable
1835:hydrogels,
1790:vasculature
1761:spider silk
1728:salting out
1709:4D printing
1615:temperature
944:compression
771:ultraviolet
733:Preparation
515:Plastic bag
461:3D printing
249:Homopolymer
237:Polystyrene
61:Degradation
6827:Categories
6758:2299/16856
6713:2299/16512
6273:2022-12-25
6186:2022-09-26
6140:: 121785.
6081:(9): 588.
5680:2019-04-17
3277:: 110974.
2954:(7): 112.
2772:: 124622.
2495:2023-01-17
2262:2023-01-16
2198:: 127708.
2089:References
1984:hyaluronan
1965:microscopy
1945:Biosensors
1893:polymers (
1877:Wound gels
1653:(UCST) or
1610:hysteresis
928:elasticity
821:sequence,
819:amino acid
703:antifungal
699:antibiotic
687:copolymers
476:Whitewalls
398:Staudinger
368:MacDiarmid
352:Scientists
338:Viscometry
180:Polyolefin
56:Morphology
40:Properties
6815:0021-9584
6622:1884-4057
6268:New Atlas
6247:April 23,
6181:New Atlas
6154:0378-5173
6097:2310-2861
6048:1520-6106
6009:1359-0294
5974:2046-2069
5879:199574808
5754:(1): 27.
5613:CiteSeerX
5323:236174198
5272:211036014
5221:254387206
5213:2050-7496
5174:249355500
5166:1614-6832
5099:2375-2548
5034:2375-2548
4954:232048202
4892:227258845
4762:205236639
4671:Materials
4652:1742-6588
4504:2375-2548
4439:2041-1723
4384:2161-1653
4337:1022-1336
4278:2375-2548
4223:0935-9648
4171:2643-6728
4132:103246330
3950:136844625
3942:0950-6608
3812:2041-6520
3737:Nanoscale
3673:1744-683X
3585:1744-683X
3503:136880479
3495:0935-9648
3413:2159-6867
3356:1616-5187
3317:245576810
3309:0014-3057
2976:136085690
2968:1022-9760
2880:2052-1537
2833:0141-8130
2794:213116098
2786:0927-7757
2739:0169-409X
2682:2058-8437
2632:135464452
2544:229694027
2453:197928622
2220:264944892
2212:0141-8130
2154:0028-0836
2105:CC BY 3.0
2071:cellulose
1841:polymacon
1677:Additives
1594:toughness
1436:λ
1404:−
1400:λ
1396:−
1393:λ
1364:σ
1332:−
1328:λ
1324:−
1315:λ
1285:σ
1256:σ
1229:σ
1193:−
1133:¯
1099:¯
1030:¯
1014:ρ
951:rheometry
877:micropump
852:actuators
827:chirality
760:α-helical
711:stability
600:Chemistry
585:insoluble
581:permeable
439:Extrusion
418:Braconnot
408:Baekeland
388:de Gennes
373:Shirakawa
333:Rheometry
264:Hydrogels
254:Copolymer
245:Structure
207:Polyester
106:Synthesis
51:Tacticity
6767:26440734
6722:26221632
6671:19216632
6549:31364133
6541:10340211
6506:10320229
6465:22361096
6430:23376126
6395:22192467
6346:24843309
6338:21619469
6241:Phys.org
6162:35500690
6115:36135299
6056:16375370
5931:35930422
5871:31408340
5832:28584674
5780:30275970
5726:25211200
5635:16293750
5582:32300656
5525:35409025
5474:31355332
5415:26374941
5401:: 8â17.
5380:35589809
5315:34292641
5264:32022974
5117:32300656
5052:38117897
5043:10732533
4946:33627812
4884:33263991
4849:21723599
4813:30380606
4754:24336207
4711:30986948
4603:11744175
4522:37390216
4513:10313164
4457:38350981
4448:10864390
4392:35632906
4345:36809684
4296:36598986
4231:36126085
4026:23946054
3882:21761057
3847:20131781
3773:22955637
3722:23403581
3623:19921840
3603:Langmuir
3538:19705843
3448:23958781
3364:16881042
3206:30730212
3162:19543314
3105:26240838
2929:23609001
2841:10517518
2747:11755705
2700:29214058
2624:31028759
2593:32567846
2536:33359581
2418:25750745
2280:. 2018.
2107:license.
2067:collagen
2010:proteins
2006:peptides
2002:polymers
1899:polyAMPS
1861:, or in
1833:silicone
1796:Research
1786:siloxane
1747:(PDMS),
1671:antigens
1669:, ions,
1667:pressure
1548:″
1534:′
1465:original
831:aromatic
789:Alginate
715:strength
659:alginate
651:chitosan
628:gelatine
624:alginate
619:thiomers
573:hydrogel
488:Bakelite
403:Goodyear
328:Rheology
6795:Bibcode
6662:2819712
6386:3408056
6221:15 July
6106:9498840
5954:Bibcode
5946:RSC Adv
5922:9881015
5823:5448314
5771:6158836
5643:9036803
5605:Bibcode
5597:Science
5573:7148083
5552:Bibcode
5516:8998863
5465:6656537
5442:Bibcode
5371:9120194
5350:Bibcode
5295:Bibcode
5244:Bibcode
5144:Bibcode
5108:7148083
5079:Bibcode
5014:Bibcode
4938:1774154
4918:Bibcode
4804:6265757
4734:Bibcode
4702:6479463
4679:Bibcode
4630:Bibcode
4484:Bibcode
4419:Bibcode
4287:9812377
4258:Bibcode
4203:Bibcode
4064:8866026
4017:4304325
3922:Bibcode
3745:Bibcode
3700:Bibcode
3653:Bibcode
3565:Bibcode
3475:Bibcode
3391:Bibcode
3279:Bibcode
3238:Bibcode
3153:2869032
3132:Bibcode
3096:4517957
2920:3762890
2691:5714327
2662:Bibcode
2584:7805012
2409:4348459
2162:4211987
2134:Bibcode
2014:osmotic
1976:agarose
1914:change.
1855:diapers
1448:current
1382:swollen
1303:swollen
1176:swollen
1058:is the
940:tension
856:sensors
797:Gelatin
747:peptide
663:gelatin
655:heparin
413:Hayward
393:Ziegler
383:Edwards
6813:
6765:
6720:
6669:
6659:
6620:
6578:
6547:
6539:
6504:
6463:
6428:
6393:
6383:
6344:
6336:
6160:
6152:
6113:
6103:
6095:
6054:
6046:
6007:
5972:
5929:
5919:
5877:
5869:
5830:
5820:
5778:
5768:
5724:
5666:
5641:
5633:
5615:
5580:
5570:
5523:
5513:
5472:
5462:
5413:
5378:
5368:
5321:
5313:
5270:
5262:
5219:
5211:
5172:
5164:
5115:
5105:
5097:
5050:
5040:
5032:
4983:
4952:
4944:
4936:
4910:Nature
4890:
4882:
4847:
4811:
4801:
4760:
4752:
4726:Nature
4709:
4699:
4650:
4601:
4553:
4520:
4510:
4502:
4455:
4445:
4437:
4390:
4382:
4343:
4335:
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