672:
696:
ancestors before
Kalabhras "ignobly seized it" has not been returned so far after numerous generations (lines 103–118). The king sought evidence of past ownership, which he was provided, and thereafter the king restored the grant to the complainant. The inscription ends in Sanskrit with verses from Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism, followed by the engraver's colophon. This inscription has been assumed to be an accurate historical record by some scholars, interpreted to affirm that Kalabhras existed for some period, they conquered some or all parts of the Pandyan kingdom, they seized lands belonging to Brahmin(s) and were defeated by the Pandyas (Pāṇṭiya). Some scholars dismiss the Kalabhra interregnum as for all practical purposes "a myth".
606:
urban elites of the
Brahmanical religious traditions (Hinduism), who then worked to remove the Kalabhras and retaliated against their persecutors after returning to power. In contrast, R.S. Sharma states the opposite theory and considers "Kalabhras as an example for peasant revolt to the state" – with tribal elements, albeit around the 6th century. All these theories are hampered by the fact that there is a "profound lack of evidence for the events or nature of Kalabhra rule", states Rebecca Darley. A few consider the Kalabhras to be a militant branch of the
683:
rays (prowess), destroyed the kings of the extensive earth surrounded by the sea together with (their) strongholds and (their) fame, wielded the sceptre of justice and removed by his strength the evil destiny of the goddess of the earth whose splendour deserved to be under the shade of (his) white umbrella, by terminating by his strength the possession of her under others and establishing her in his own possession in the approved manner and destroyed the shining cities of kings who would not submit to him.
49:
498:
401:
787:
1240:), the Tamil epics, long and short devotional poems. Some of these texts "paint a picture of dialogue and mutual tolerance" between the various Indian religions in the Tamil country, according to Peterson. Other scholars disagree that these are Jain texts, or that the authors of these texts that praise the Vedas, the Brahmins, Hindu gods and goddesses were Jains.
389:, multiple scholars place the 5th-century Buddhadatta in the Chola kingdom near Kaveri river. According to Arunachalam, the Pali manuscripts of this text includes the name Acutavikkante Kalambakulanandane and therefore he states Acutavikkante must have been a Kalabhra king. However, the oldest surviving
755:
until the 5th century, but then suddenly there is no mention of Indian ports in the
Mediterranean texts around mid-6th century. This "dark age" may be related to the conquest of Kalabhras over Tamilakam in the 6th century. This period of violence and the closure of trading ports probably lasted about
1156:
In the lovely
Kaveripattana crowded with hordes of men and women from pure families endowed with all the requisites of a town with crystal clear water flowing in the river, filled with all kinds of precious stones, possessed of many kinds of bazaars, beautified by many gardens, in a beautiful and
737:
A study of unearthed coins of that era show on the two sides of each coin, a range of Brahmi inscriptions in
Prakrit language and images. Typically the coins show tiger, elephant, horse and fish icons. In "rare specimens", states Gupta, one finds an image of a seated Jain muni (monk) or the Buddhist
682:
L 40: After that, like the sun rising from the expansive ocean, the
Pandyadhiraja named Kadungon, the lord of the South of sharp javelin who wore (the cloak of) dignity and was the leader of an army, sprang forth, occupied (the throne), spreading around him the brilliant splendour of (his) expanding
627:
The earliest
Kalabhra inscription available is the Pulankurichi (Tamil Nadu) epigraph of king Chēndan Kurran (Kootran) dated to 270 CE. It is also one of the earliest inscriptions in Tamil and extends to over 15 metres in length. It refers to the administrative divisions of the kingdom and also to
605:
According to Burton Stein, the
Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism). This may have led to persecution of the peasants and
695:
The inscription then recites the generations of Pandya and Chola kings who followed the victorious
Kadungon, and finally to king Nedunjadaiyan who ruled in the year of the inscription (c. 770 CE). The copper plate records that a Brahmin complainant said that the land grant which was given to his
746:
symbol. Other coins of this era have images of Hindu gods and goddesses with inscriptions in Tamil or
Prakrit. According to Gupta, these use of Prakrit language on the coins may reflect the non-Tamil origins of Kalabhra. Other scholars are skeptical of the coin's dating and interpretation, the
367:
According to Kulke and Rothermund, "nothing is known about the origins or tribal affiliations" of the Kalabhras, and their rule is called the "Kalabhra Interregnum". They are reviled in texts written centuries later, particularly by Tamil Hindu scholars. This has led to the inference that the
296:
community, to Kalavar chieftains. This age is generally called "The Augustan age of Tamil Literature", in a 1922 book by the name "Studies in South Indian Jainism" written by M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshagiri Rao. The Kalabhra era is sometimes referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil
376:
during their rule. However, the textual support for these conjectures is unclear. In support of their possible Jaina patronage, is the 10th-century Jain text on grammar which quotes a poem that some scholars attribute to Acchuta Vikkanta, a Kalabhra king. A non-Tamil language Buddhist text
1157:
pleasant vihara built by Kanhadasa, adorned with a mansion as high as the Kailasa, and having different kinds of beautiful entrance-towers on the outer wall, I lived in an old mansion there and wrote this work..
750:
According to Timothy Power – a scholar of Middle East and Mediterranean archaeology and history, coins and texts attest to an on-going trade between the Mediterranean, Middle East and South Indian ports such as
2765:
1295:
who visited the Tamil region about 640 CE along with other parts of the Indian subcontinent. Xuanzang describes a peaceful cosmopolitan region where some 100 monasteries with 10,000 monks were studying
2760:
385:
was composed in the 5th-century Tamil region. According to Shu Hikosaka, Buddhadatta in this Pali language text mentions "Putamarikalam in the Chola country". According to Karl Potter in
1267:
river and up to the Kaveri river by c. 575 CE. To the south of Kaveri, the Pandyas came to power. Cholas became subordinates of Pallavas and they were already ruling Telugu region of
671:
680:
L 39: Then a Kali king named Kalabhran took possession of the extensive earth driving away numberless great kings (adhiraja) and resumed the (village mentioned Velvikudi) above.
1457:
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Calabrians from Rome, might have lived, invaded or were part of Choke peoples (Seljuks).Century
711:. M. Raghava Iyengar, on the other hand, identifies the Kalabhras with the Vellala Kalappalars. Based on the Velvikudi plates inscription above, R. Narasimhacharya and
1902:
1873:
400:
1018:
297:
history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.
1858:
K. A. NILAKANTA SASTRI, M.A., Emeritus Professor of Indian History and Archaeology, University of Madras. Professor of Indology. University of Mysore. (1955).
699:
The passing mention of Kalabhras in some records have led to a number of theories for the identity of the Kalabhras. T. A. Gopinath Rao equates them with the
340:
The origin and identity of the Kalabhras is uncertain. One theory states that they were probably hill tribes that rose out of obscurity to become a power in
1033:
861:
664:. Loaded with myth and exaggerated legends, the inscription has the following few lines about a Kalabhra king and his relatively quick end by Pandya king
1566:
During most of this period , the Tamil country was under the rule of the Kalabhras, said to be tribal invaders from Karnataka following the Jaina faith.
583:
poet of the 10th century CE and the author of the works Yapparungalam and Yapparungalakkarikai, has also written a few verses about Achyuta Vikranta.
1304:
was hosting learned debates with hundreds of heretic Deva (Hindu) temples but no Buddhist institutions. Xuangzang makes no mention of the Kalabhras.
48:
276:. Information about the origin and reign of the Kalabhras is uncertain and scarce. It is believed by historians that the Kalabhras belonged to the
1013:
1008:
304:
states that Shivaskandavarman rise in the 4th century, as evidenced by inscriptions, show Kalabhras were not in power at that time near rivers
2573:
2546:
2519:
2316:
2164:
2056:
2035:
1815:
1776:
1610:
1529:
1492:
1465:
856:
1214:(Buddhist) were written under the patronage of the Kalabhras. During their patronage, states Peterson, Jain scholars formed an academy in
1062:
356:
probably from north of Tamil-speaking region (modern southeast Karnataka), or on etymological grounds may have been the Kalappalars of
2785:
851:
652:
plate inscription of Nedunjadaiyan. It was created at least 200 years after the end of the Kalabhras. It opens with an invocation to
2733:
2604:
2230:
2196:
2005:
1725:
1645:
1559:
1378:
1271:. The Kalabhra rule which had dominated the political scene of the Tamil country for few centuries was defeated and ended by the
871:
841:
505:
228:
214:
189:
175:
2770:
2594:
1842:
1368:
768:
1028:
2780:
2775:
1023:
1003:
998:
806:
632:
indicates that the language of the inscription is almost identical to classical Tamil similar to the one used in the
1263:
had united the Tamil regions, removed Kalabhras and others. Simhavishnu consolidated his kingdom from south of the
590:
Navalar Caritai, a later work, is sometimes identified as glorifying Accuta Vikranta. It describes the three kings
648:
A much-cited and discussed epigraphical evidence for the existence of Kalabhras is the 155-lines-long 8th-century
1096:
611:
866:
429:
328:
consolidated their power. Cholas became subordinates of Pallavas and they were already ruling Telugu region of
1075:
The religious affiliation of Kalabhras is unknown. According to Peterson theory, the Kalabhras patronised the
2790:
1055:
1130:
of Vinayavinicchaya, Buddhatta describes how he wrote the work while staying at the monastery built by one
2647:
Blackburn, Stuart (2000). "Corruption and Redemption: The Legend of Valluvar and Tamil Literary History".
2565:
Buddhism among Tamils in pre-colonial Tamilakam and Īlam: Prologue. The Pre-Pallava and the Pallava period
1283:. This is attested by the numerous inscriptions dated from the 6th century and thereafter, as well as the
881:
811:
1832:
1111:
891:
876:
777:
688:
649:
420:
269:
194:
2402:
By G. John Samuel, Ār. Es Śivagaṇēśamūrti, M. S. Nagarajan, Institute of Asian Studies (Madras, India)
2676:
Cutler, Norman (1992). "Interpreting Tirukkuṟaḷ: The Role of Commentary in the Creation of a Text".
1134:(Vishnudasa) on the banks of the Kaveri in a town called Bhootamangalam. He describes his patron as
1549:
1220:
969:
954:
886:
846:
180:
1118:. The Kalabhras encouraged the building of Buddhist monasteries in places like Bhoothamangala and
368:
Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported
2693:
2664:
2089:
1896:
1867:
1711:
1484:
The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties
1048:
821:
747:
origins of the coins and the impact of trade, and the rareness of Jain and Buddhist iconography.
438:
1248:
It is unknown as to how the Kalabhras rule ended. However, a multitude of evidence affirms that
316:). The Kalabhras dynasty had ended for certain by the last quarter of 6th century when Pallava
2729:
2600:
2569:
2542:
2515:
2312:
2226:
2192:
2160:
2052:
2031:
2001:
1838:
1811:
1772:
1721:
1641:
1606:
1555:
1525:
1488:
1461:
1374:
1237:
1091:). More particularly, states Peterson, the Kalabhras may have supported the Digambara sect of
949:
661:
637:
65:
2509:
2154:
2046:
1482:
2685:
2656:
2081:
1284:
1272:
345:
1313:
1280:
1253:
1218:
and wrote texts in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil. These include classics such as the
487:
452:
349:
285:
221:
207:
1585:
1160:
According to F. E. Hardy, the palace ceremony of Kalabhras was dedicated to a Vishnu or
497:
264:
sometime between the 3rd century and 6th century CE, after the ancient dynasties of the
1276:
1257:
1207:
1203:
1150:
1119:
964:
959:
934:
929:
657:
629:
587:
466:
361:
1686:
801:
2754:
2668:
1707:
1631:
1602:
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century
1264:
974:
944:
834:
393:
manuscript in Pali does not have that name, it has Kalabbha. This could be Kalabhra.
301:
281:
273:
2380:. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1956. p. 52.
2715:
2639:
The Kalabhras in the Pandiya Country and Their Impact on the Life and Letters There
2349:
The Kalabhras in the Pandiya Country and Their Impact on the Life and Letters There
1115:
939:
901:
896:
480:
309:
293:
265:
2719:
2637:
2626:
2615:
2563:
2536:
2306:
2286:
2269:
2220:
2186:
2134:
2025:
1995:
1805:
1766:
1749:
1715:
1635:
1600:
1519:
1455:
1431:
721:. K. R. Venkatarama Iyer suggests that the Kalabhras might have emerged from the
2139:. Archaeological Society of India. pp. 293–294, 306, 308, context: 291–309.
1965:. Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research. p. 73.
1301:
1268:
1249:
1211:
1169:
1103:
1099:
religion that were well established in the Tamil regions by the 3rd century CE.
816:
712:
633:
473:
382:
341:
329:
317:
305:
2288:
Original sources for the history of Tamilnad: from the beginning to c. A.D. 600
2048:
Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History
2027:
Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History
1669:
1579:
786:
2725:
2660:
979:
357:
352:
of Tamil Nadu were the Kalabhras. of the Other theories state that they were
1323:
1318:
1224:
that condemns meat-eating (one of the cornerstones of Jainism as opposed to
1173:
739:
722:
700:
445:
289:
261:
54:
2072:
R.S. Sharma (1988). "Problems of Peasant Protest in Early Medieval India".
539:
In the time of the immortal Accutavikkante, the pride of the Kalamba family
387:
Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Buddhist philosophy from 360 to 650 AD
1297:
1292:
1288:
1260:
1225:
1192:
1165:
1161:
1088:
1080:
743:
726:
717:
665:
459:
369:
353:
325:
277:
110:
96:
17:
2390:
Veermani Pd. Upadhyaya Felicitation Volume by Veermani Prasad Upadhyaya
2334:
Glimpses of Art, Architecture, and Buddhist Literature in Ancient India
2093:
1551:
Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.
1233:
1229:
1215:
1092:
1084:
752:
373:
321:
100:
82:
69:
2697:
571:
born in the lineage of the Kalamba family was ruling the earth.
344:. Historical documents of the Vettuva Gounder community show that the
906:
704:
607:
599:
509:
Location of the Kalabhras and neighbouring polities circa 400-450 CE.
313:
2085:
1837:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 145, map XIV.1 (j).
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
280:
community of warriors who were possibly once the feudatories of the
2689:
1164:(Krishna) temple. This supports the theory that they may have been
2562:
Schalk, Peter; Veluppillai, A.; Nākacāmi, Irāmaccantiran̲ (2002).
1342:
1191:
of the patron king was used in the same context as the epithet of
1123:
670:
653:
595:
591:
79:
1513:
1511:
320:
consolidated his rule up to the Kaveri river, south of which the
2721:
Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History
1143:
580:
86:
1771:
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Limited. pp. 216–217.
1637:
The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300
1433:
Early History of the Deccan and Miscellaneous Historical Essays
1392:
1390:
1197:
Accutassa Nārāyanassa viya vikkantām ettassāti Accutavikkanto
602:
paying obeisance to king Accuta when they were taken captive.
1963:
Madurai Through the Ages From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D
1136:
The Immortal AccutaVikkante, the pride of the Kalamba family
552:
526:
288:. Their proposed roots vary from southeast region of modern
1889:
GEOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS RELATING TO ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
2271:
The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 58
2766:
States and territories disestablished in the 6th century
2429:
Ancient Tamil Country: Its Social and Economic Structure
2311:. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 179–181.
2308:
The Red Sea from Byzantium to the Caliphate: AD 500-1000
614:
and this resulted in their vilification in later times.
2366:. Ganganatha Jha Research Institute, 1954. p. 225.
1102:
Buddhism flourished as is evident from the writings of
2709:(in Tamil) (First ed.). Chennai: Uma Padhippagam.
1436:. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. p. 206.
2761:
States and territories established in the 3rd century
2568:. Almqvist & Wiksell. pp. 287–290, 400–403.
2268:
A. V. Narsimhamurthy; Singh, PN; et al. (1996).
2225:. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 34.
703:
and an inscription in the Vaikunta Perumal temple at
2744:
Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature
2628:
Approach to the study of Kannada language: philology
1354:
756:
75 years, around the first half of the 6th century.
675:
8th Century Velvikudi grant that mentions Kalabhras.
2045:Darley, Rebecca (2019). Himanshu Prabha Ray (ed.).
2024:Darley, Rebecca (2017). Himanshu Prabha Ray (ed.).
557:
Kalambhakulavamsa jāte Accutavikkamanāme Colarājini
138:
128:
116:
106:
92:
75:
61:
34:
2414:International encyclopaedia of Buddhism. 51. Nepal
1918:International encyclopaedia of Buddhism. 51. Nepal
1997:Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India
1106:(5th century) who wrote some of his manuals like
2471:
2300:
2298:
2222:History of Kannada language: readership lectures
1720:(4th ed.). London: Routledge. p. 105.
1685:Superintendent Government Press, Madras (1918).
668:(lines 39–40, translated by H. Krishna Sastri):
523:, verse 3179) identifies his patron as follows:
2483:
2188:Geography from ancient Indian coins & seals
1989:
1987:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1417:
678:
561:ayam vinicchayo mayā āraddho ceva samāpito cāti
2274:. Numismatic Society of India. pp. 10–12.
2191:. New Delhi: Concept Pub. Co. pp. 23–24.
1933:Early Chōla Art: Origin and Emergence of Style
1396:
2495:
2442:Iḷacai Cuppiramaṇiyapiḷḷai Muttucāmi (1994).
2336:. Abhinav Publications, 1987. pp. 93–94.
1688:Madras District Gazetteers Salem Vol I Part I
1176:. King Achyuta worshipped Vaishnava Tirumal.
1056:
8:
2614:Archaeological Society, South India (1955).
2535:Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998).
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
1901:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1872:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1460:. Pearson Education. pp. 485, 557–558.
2446:. Makkal Ilakkia Publications. p. 137.
2148:
2146:
2000:. Oxford University Press. pp. 76–84.
1887:BIMALA CHURN LAW Ph.D., M.A., B.L. (1976).
1791:
1581:Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference
1172:. Their inscriptions include the Hindu god
260:or Kalvar, were rulers of all or parts of
53:Kalabhra conquered parts or all of ancient
2514:. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 97.
2019:
2017:
1584:. South Indian History Congress. pp.
1524:. Asian Educational Services. p. 48.
1149:Buddhadatta vividly describes the capital
1095:and that they "supposedly" suppressed the
1063:
1049:
763:
496:
47:
31:
2461:. Affiliated East-West Press. p. 53.
2416:. Anmol Publications, 1997. p. 4514.
2351:. University of Madras, 1979. p. 53.
1891:. BHARATIYA PUBLISHING HOUSE. p. 59.
1754:. Institute of Asian Studies. p. 24.
1626:
1624:
1622:
549:and once again the tika (colophon) adds:
2678:Journal of the American Oriental Society
2620:. Archaeological Society of South India.
2400:Buddhism in Tamil Nadu: collected papers
2180:
2178:
2176:
2156:The World's Religions After September 11
2051:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 76–77.
1768:Buddhist Philosophy from 350 to 600 A.D.
1751:Buddhism in Tamilnadu: A New Perspective
1702:
1700:
1698:
1543:
1541:
1430:Sir Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1927).
1140:Accut' Accutavikkante Kalambakulanandane
569:when the king of Cholas, Accutavikkaman,
533:mahin samanusāsante āraddho ca samāpito.
531:Accut' Accutavikkante Kalambakulanandane
2599:. Oxford University Press. p. 86.
2444:Tamil Culture as Revealed in Tirukkural
2253:Sastri, Rao Bahadur H. Krishna (1924).
1605:. Pearson Education. pp. 557–558.
1373:. Oxford University Press. p. 86.
1343:Archaeological Society South India 1955
1335:
1236:are described to be meat-eaters in the
775:
644:8th-century Velvikudi grant inscription
2133:Rao Bahadur H. Krishna Sastri (1923).
1980:. New Century Book House. p. 158.
1894:
1865:
656:and many lines in Sanskrit written in
628:Vedic sacrifices and temples. Scholar
567:This work Vinicchaya was accomplised,
137:
127:
123:
7:
2593:Hiltebeitel ·, Alf (6 August 2018).
1554:Chennai, India: Cre-A. p. 136.
1367:Hiltebeitel ·, Alf (6 August 2018).
2459:The Social Philosophy of Tirukkural
2257:. Government of India. p. 295.
1920:. Anmol Publications. p. 4514.
1862:. G. S. Press, Madras. p. 108.
515:Buddhadatta in his manuals (in the
1810:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 156.
541:this work was accomplished.
25:
2111:. Books & Books. p. 146.
1114:among others on the banks of the
729:region early in the 5th century.
1834:A Historical atlas of South Asia
1831:Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978).
785:
707:mentions a Mutharaiyar named as
399:
226:
212:
187:
173:
2541:. Routledge. pp. 114–115.
1976:Civattampi, Kārttikēcu (1981).
1916:Nagendra Kr Singh, ed. (1997).
1521:History of the Kannada Language
660:, followed by Tamil written in
2625:Rā. Ya, Dhāravāḍakara (1968).
2136:Epigraphia Indica, Volume XVII
2109:Studies in Religion and Change
1978:Drama in Ancient Tamil Society
1640:. Penguin Books. p. 327.
27:Ancient dynasty in South India
1:
2431:. Navrang, 1991. p. 233.
2219:Narasimhacharya, R. (1990) .
1807:A Handbook of Pali Literature
1668:S. Velsamy Kavirayar (1934).
42:3rd century CE–6th century CE
2457:Gopalan, Subramania (1979).
1548:Iravatham Mahadevan (2003).
1946:Vidya Dhar Mahajan (1962).
1518:R, Narasimhacharya (1942).
807:Chronology of Tamil history
689:Velvikudi grant inscription
2807:
2508:Pletcher, Kenneth (2010).
2364:Indological Studies, Vol 3
2291:. Ennes. pp. 329–331.
1804:Oskar von Hinüber (2017).
1481:Chakrabarty, D.K. (2010).
742:, or a short sword or the
715:believe them to have been
2786:Jain empires and kingdoms
2714:Peterson, Indira (1998),
2707:Thirukkural: Aratthuppaal
2705:Natarajan, P. R. (2008).
2661:10.1017/S0026749X00003632
2378:The March of India, Vol 8
2185:Gupta, Parmanand (1989).
2030:. Routledge. p. 68.
1860:THE COLAS, SECOND EDITION
1487:. OUP India. p. 84.
1355:Rā. Ya Dhāravāḍakara 1968
612:Historical Vedic religion
559:Colarattham samanusāsante
152:
148:
124:
46:
41:
2636:Arunachalam, M. (1979).
2617:Transactions Volumes 1-5
2285:N. Subrahmanian (1994).
2255:Epigraphia Indica vol.17
2159:. ABC-CLIO. p. 53.
2107:Sen, Madhu, ed. (1983).
1950:. S. Chand. p. 571.
1765:Potter, Karl H. (2003).
1578:T.V. Mahalingam (1981).
1287:language memoirs of the
1183:of Buddhadatta's manual
623:Pulankurichi inscription
610:who were opposed to the
348:, who were a formerly a
2742:Kamil Zvelebil (1992).
2642:. University of Madras.
2305:Power, Timothy (2012).
2153:Sharma, Arvind (2008).
1935:. Navrang. p. -25.
1599:Singh, Upinder (2008).
1454:Singh, Upinder (2008).
760:Religion and literature
1994:Stein, Burton (1994).
1931:Sivaram, Rama (1994).
1748:Hikosaka, Shu (1989).
812:List of Tamil monarchs
693:
676:
650:Velvikudi grant copper
140:• Disestablished
2771:600 disestablishments
2631:. Samāja Pustakālaya.
2472:Stuart Blackburn 2000
778:History of Tamil Nadu
674:
195:Ancient Tamil country
76:Common languages
2649:Modern Asian Studies
2511:The History of India
2484:P. R. Natarajan 2008
1418:Indira Peterson 1998
586:A few verses of the
2596:Freud's Mahabharata
2498:, pp. 555–558.
2474:, pp. 464–465.
2412:Nagendra Kr Singh.
2332:K. Krishna Murthy.
1712:Rothermund, Dietmar
1420:, pp. 166–167.
1397:Kamil Zvelebil 1992
1370:Freud's Mahabharata
955:Vijayanagara Empire
847:Three Crowned Kings
181:Three Crowned Kings
130:• Established
2781:Ancient Tamil Nadu
2776:Dynasties of India
2538:A History of India
2496:Norman Cutler 1992
2362:Bimala Churn Law.
1717:A History of India
1244:End of the dynasty
999:Ancient Tamil Nadu
980:Thondaiman Kingdom
862:Naming conventions
677:
2575:978-91-554-5357-2
2548:978-0-415-15482-6
2521:978-1-61530-122-5
2427:S. Sundararajan.
2318:978-1-61797-350-5
2166:978-0-275-99621-5
2058:978-1-00-022793-2
2037:978-1-317-34130-7
1817:978-3-11-081498-9
1794:, pp. 52–55.
1778:978-81-208-1968-9
1612:978-81-317-1677-9
1531:978-81-206-0559-6
1494:978-0-19-908832-4
1467:978-81-317-1677-9
1238:Sangam literature
1181:Gandhipadavannanā
1179:According to the
1073:
1072:
950:Madurai Sultanate
822:Maritime contacts
662:Vatteluttu script
576:
575:
546:
545:
360:community or the
346:Piramalai Kallars
292:, Kalappalars of
242:
241:
238:
237:
234:
233:
200:
199:
66:Kaveripumpattinam
16:(Redirected from
2798:
2747:
2738:
2710:
2701:
2672:
2643:
2632:
2621:
2610:
2580:
2579:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2487:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2409:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2347:Aruṇācalam, Mu.
2344:
2338:
2337:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2302:
2293:
2292:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2182:
2171:
2170:
2150:
2141:
2140:
2130:
2113:
2112:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2074:Social Scientist
2069:
2063:
2062:
2041:
2021:
2012:
2011:
1991:
1982:
1981:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1961:D. Devakunjari.
1958:
1952:
1951:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1892:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1871:
1863:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1801:
1795:
1792:Arunachalam 1979
1789:
1783:
1782:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1704:
1693:
1692:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1628:
1617:
1616:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1545:
1536:
1535:
1515:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1451:
1438:
1437:
1427:
1421:
1415:
1400:
1394:
1385:
1384:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1185:Vinayavinicchaya
1126:capital. In the
1112:Abhidhammāvatāra
1108:Vinayavinicchaya
1065:
1058:
1051:
970:Kalahasti Nayaks
919:Medieval history
789:
764:
691:
579:Amritasagara, a
553:
527:
521:Vinayavinicchaya
500:
492:
483:
476:
469:
462:
455:
448:
441:
434:
425:
416:
411:
403:
246:Kalabhra dynasty
230:
229:
216:
215:
204:
203:
191:
190:
177:
176:
170:
169:
154:
153:
51:
36:Kalabhra Kingdom
32:
21:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2751:
2750:
2741:
2736:
2713:
2704:
2675:
2646:
2635:
2624:
2613:
2607:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2583:
2576:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2549:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2494:
2490:
2486:, pp. 1–6.
2482:
2478:
2470:
2466:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2411:
2410:
2406:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2331:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2304:
2303:
2296:
2284:
2283:
2279:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2184:
2183:
2174:
2167:
2152:
2151:
2144:
2132:
2131:
2116:
2106:
2105:
2101:
2086:10.2307/3517169
2071:
2070:
2066:
2059:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2023:
2022:
2015:
2008:
1993:
1992:
1985:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1893:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1864:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1845:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1790:
1786:
1779:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1706:
1705:
1696:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1630:
1629:
1620:
1613:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1562:
1547:
1546:
1539:
1532:
1517:
1516:
1509:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1480:
1479:
1475:
1468:
1453:
1452:
1441:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1416:
1403:
1395:
1388:
1381:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1314:Kutruva Nayanar
1310:
1246:
1202:The early twin
1069:
1040:
1039:
1038:
993:
985:
984:
925:Kalabhra Empire
920:
912:
911:
837:
827:
826:
797:
762:
735:
709:Kalavara-Kalvan
692:
687:
681:
646:
625:
620:
577:
570:
568:
562:
560:
558:
547:
540:
534:
532:
513:
512:
511:
510:
507:
502:
501:
494:
493:
489:
486:
484:
479:
477:
472:
470:
465:
463:
458:
456:
451:
449:
444:
442:
437:
435:
431:
428:
426:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
391:Vinayaviniccaya
379:Vinayaviniccaya
338:
227:
222:Pandyan dynasty
213:
208:Pallava dynasty
188:
174:
141:
131:
99:
57:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2804:
2802:
2794:
2793:
2791:Jain dynasties
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2739:
2734:
2711:
2702:
2690:10.2307/604470
2684:(4): 549–566.
2673:
2655:(2): 449–482.
2644:
2633:
2622:
2611:
2605:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2574:
2554:
2547:
2527:
2520:
2500:
2488:
2476:
2464:
2449:
2434:
2419:
2404:
2392:
2383:
2369:
2354:
2339:
2324:
2317:
2294:
2277:
2260:
2245:
2231:
2211:
2197:
2172:
2165:
2142:
2114:
2099:
2064:
2057:
2036:
2013:
2006:
1983:
1968:
1953:
1938:
1923:
1908:
1879:
1850:
1843:
1823:
1816:
1796:
1784:
1777:
1757:
1740:
1726:
1708:Kulke, Hermann
1694:
1677:
1671:குருகுல வரலாறு
1660:
1646:
1632:Thapar, Romila
1618:
1611:
1591:
1570:
1560:
1537:
1530:
1507:
1493:
1473:
1466:
1439:
1422:
1401:
1386:
1379:
1359:
1347:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1309:
1306:
1245:
1242:
1208:Silappatikaram
1151:Kaveripattinam
1120:Kaveripattinam
1097:Vedic-Hinduism
1071:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
995:
994:
991:
990:
987:
986:
983:
982:
977:
972:
967:
965:Tanjore Nayaks
962:
960:Madurai Nayaks
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
935:Pandyan Empire
932:
930:Pallava Empire
927:
921:
918:
917:
914:
913:
910:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
838:
833:
832:
829:
828:
825:
824:
819:
814:
809:
804:
798:
795:
794:
791:
790:
782:
781:
773:
772:
761:
758:
734:
731:
685:
658:Grantha script
645:
642:
630:Kamil Zvelebil
624:
621:
619:
616:
574:
573:
564:
551:
544:
543:
536:
525:
508:
504:
503:
495:
485:
478:
471:
464:
457:
450:
443:
436:
427:
418:
413:
406:
405:
398:
397:
396:
395:
350:criminal tribe
337:
336:Identification
334:
248:, also called
240:
239:
236:
235:
232:
231:
224:
218:
217:
210:
201:
198:
197:
192:
184:
183:
178:
166:
165:
160:
150:
149:
146:
145:
144:6th century CE
142:
139:
136:
135:
134:3rd century CE
132:
129:
126:
125:
122:
121:
118:
114:
113:
108:
104:
103:
94:
90:
89:
77:
73:
72:
63:
59:
58:
52:
44:
43:
39:
38:
35:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2803:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2745:
2740:
2737:
2735:0-7914-3785-X
2731:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2717:
2716:Cort, John E.
2712:
2708:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2634:
2630:
2629:
2623:
2619:
2618:
2612:
2608:
2606:9780190878344
2602:
2598:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2586:
2577:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2558:
2555:
2550:
2544:
2540:
2539:
2531:
2528:
2523:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2504:
2501:
2497:
2492:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2438:
2435:
2430:
2423:
2420:
2415:
2408:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2393:
2387:
2384:
2379:
2373:
2370:
2365:
2358:
2355:
2350:
2343:
2340:
2335:
2328:
2325:
2320:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2281:
2278:
2273:
2272:
2264:
2261:
2256:
2249:
2246:
2234:
2232:9788120605596
2228:
2224:
2223:
2215:
2212:
2200:
2198:9788170222484
2194:
2190:
2189:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2162:
2158:
2157:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2137:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2103:
2100:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2065:
2060:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2039:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2007:9780195635072
2003:
1999:
1998:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1948:Ancient India
1942:
1939:
1934:
1927:
1924:
1919:
1912:
1909:
1904:
1898:
1890:
1883:
1880:
1875:
1869:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1785:
1780:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1761:
1758:
1753:
1752:
1744:
1741:
1729:
1727:9780415329200
1723:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1689:
1681:
1678:
1673:
1672:
1664:
1661:
1649:
1647:9780141937427
1643:
1639:
1638:
1633:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1608:
1604:
1603:
1595:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1574:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1561:9780674012271
1557:
1553:
1552:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1527:
1523:
1522:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1485:
1477:
1474:
1469:
1463:
1459:
1458:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1434:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1399:, p. 93.
1398:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1380:9780190878344
1376:
1372:
1371:
1363:
1360:
1357:, p. 96.
1356:
1351:
1348:
1345:, p. 96.
1344:
1339:
1336:
1329:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
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1222:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1152:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1128:Nigamanagātha
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1066:
1061:
1059:
1054:
1052:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1035:
1034:Ancient sites
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
996:
989:
988:
981:
978:
976:
975:Gingee Nayaks
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
956:
953:
951:
948:
946:
945:Chera Kingdom
943:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
922:
916:
915:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
892:Early Pandyas
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
839:
836:
835:Sangam period
831:
830:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
799:
793:
792:
788:
784:
783:
780:
779:
774:
770:
766:
765:
759:
757:
754:
748:
745:
741:
732:
730:
728:
724:
720:
719:
714:
710:
706:
702:
697:
690:
684:
673:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
643:
641:
639:
635:
631:
622:
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2236:. Retrieved
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2080:(19): 3–16.
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1731:. Retrieved
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1651:. Retrieved
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1483:
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1456:
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1210:(Jaina) and
1201:
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1153:as follows:
1148:
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1122:, the early
1116:Kaveri river
1107:
1101:
1076:
1074:
1024:Inscriptions
1004:Architecture
940:Chola Empire
924:
902:Early Cholas
897:Early Cheras
857:Legal system
776:
749:
736:
716:
708:
701:Mutharaiyars
698:
694:
679:
647:
626:
618:In epigraphs
604:
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538:
530:
520:
516:
514:
481:HEPHTHALITES
390:
386:
378:
366:
364:chieftains.
339:
299:
266:early Cholas
262:Tamil region
257:
253:
249:
245:
243:
163:Succeeded by
162:
157:
29:
2238:8 September
2204:7 September
1733:7 September
1653:7 September
1302:Kanchipuram
1269:Rayalaseema
1250:Simhavishnu
1232:poets like
1212:Manimekalai
1187:, the word
1170:Vaishnavite
1104:Buddhadatta
1079:religions (
817:Wootz steel
733:Numismatics
713:V. Venkayya
634:Tolkappiyam
474:ALCHON HUNS
439:TRAITAKUTAS
383:Buddhadatta
342:South India
330:Rayalaseema
318:Simhavishnu
158:Preceded by
2755:Categories
2726:SUNY Press
1844:0226742210
1500:16 January
1330:References
1300:Buddhism,
1221:Tirukkural
1132:Venhudassa
992:Categories
867:Government
410:400-450 CE
408:South-Asia
312:(close to
300:Historian
254:Kaḷappirar
107:Government
2669:144101632
1897:cite book
1868:cite book
1324:Meykandar
1319:Karanthai
1273:Chalukyas
1256:king and
1019:Monuments
1014:Economies
852:Education
802:Tamiḻakam
740:Manjushri
723:Bangalore
460:SAMATATAS
446:VAKATAKAS
415:KALABHRAS
290:Karnataka
258:Kallupura
93:Religion
55:Tamilakam
18:Kalabhras
2746:. Brill.
1714:(2007).
1634:(2003).
1308:See also
1298:Mahayana
1293:Xuanzang
1291:pilgrim
1289:Buddhist
1281:Pallavas
1261:Kadungon
1226:Hinduism
1193:Narayana
1166:Shaivite
1089:Ajivikas
1081:Buddhism
882:Religion
769:a series
767:Part of
744:Swastika
727:Chittoor
718:Karnatas
686:—
666:Kadungon
488:SASANIAN
453:KADAMBAS
430:SASANIAN
370:Buddhism
354:Karnatas
326:Kadungon
294:Vellalar
286:Pallavas
284:and the
278:Vellalar
250:Kaḷabrar
111:Monarchy
97:Buddhism
2718:(ed.),
2587:Sources
2094:3517169
1285:Chinese
1277:Pandyas
1265:Krishna
1254:Pallava
1234:Kapilar
1230:Brahmin
1216:Madurai
1174:Murugan
1093:Jainism
1085:Jainism
1077:Sramana
1009:Culture
877:Society
872:Economy
842:Sources
753:Muziris
640:texts.
467:VARMANS
421:WESTERN
374:Jainism
362:Kalavar
358:Vellala
324:led by
322:Pandyas
117:History
101:Jainism
83:Prakrit
70:Madurai
62:Capital
2732:
2698:604470
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2545:
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2004:
1841:
1814:
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1724:
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1464:
1377:
1279:, and
1258:Pandya
1252:– the
1206:epics
1189:Accuta
907:Velirs
705:Kanchi
638:Sangam
608:Jainas
600:Pandya
490:EMPIRE
423:GANGAS
314:Kaveri
310:Vellar
306:Penner
282:Cholas
268:, the
120:
2694:JSTOR
2665:S2CID
2090:JSTOR
1204:Tamil
1162:Mayon
1142:) in
1124:Chola
1029:Forts
887:Music
654:Shiva
596:Chola
592:Chera
588:Tamil
274:Chera
80:Tamil
2730:ISBN
2601:ISBN
2570:ISBN
2543:ISBN
2516:ISBN
2313:ISBN
2240:2016
2227:ISBN
2206:2016
2193:ISBN
2161:ISBN
2053:ISBN
2032:ISBN
2002:ISBN
1903:link
1874:link
1839:ISBN
1812:ISBN
1773:ISBN
1735:2016
1722:ISBN
1655:2016
1642:ISBN
1607:ISBN
1588:–34.
1556:ISBN
1526:ISBN
1502:2023
1489:ISBN
1462:ISBN
1375:ISBN
1168:and
1144:Pali
1110:and
796:Main
636:and
598:and
581:Jain
432:HIND
372:and
308:and
272:and
244:The
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