Microfossil - Knowledge (XXG)

2852: 2372: 2418: 3450: 2387: 2755: 2719: 2474: 1463:, also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or dating fossils, are the fossilized remains or traces of particular plants or animals that are characteristic of a particular span of geologic time or environment, and can be used to identify and date the containing rocks. To be practical, index fossils must have a limited vertical time range, wide geographic distribution, and rapid evolutionary trends. Rock formations separated by great distances but containing the same index fossil species are thereby known to have both formed during the limited time that the species lived. 2356: 3288: 2922: 1520:, rather than an individual species — this allows greater precision as the time span in which all of the species in the assemblage existed together is narrower than the time spans of any of the members. Further, if only one species is present in a sample, it can mean either that (1) the strata were formed in the known fossil range of that organism; or (2) that the fossil range of the organism was incompletely known, and the strata extend the known fossil range. If the fossil is easy to preserve and easy to identify, more precise time estimating of the 2696: 2324: 3431: 2458: 1533: 2737: 3115: 1977: 3487: 2436: 3258: 3477: 2787: 2774: 169: 1883: 1513:. Different fossils work well for sediments of different ages. To work well, the fossils used must be widespread geographically, so that they can be found in many different places. They must also be short lived as a species, so that the period of time during which they could be incorporated in the sediment is relatively narrow. The longer lived the species, the poorer the stratigraphic precision, so fossils that evolve rapidly. 2681: 834: 3511: 2339: 2091:) usually produce simple fossils of a very small size, eukaryotic unicellular fossils are usually larger and more complex, with external morphological projections and ornamentation such as spines and hairs that only eukaryotes can produce; as most acritarchs have external projections (e.g., hair, spines, thick cell membranes, etc.), they are predominantly eukaryotes, although simple eukaryote acritarchs also exist. 1416: 2642: 2133: 2521:, found in some plant tissues and persisting after the decay of the plant. These plants take up silica from the soil, whereupon it is deposited within different intracellular and extracellular structures of the plant. Phytoliths come in varying shapes and sizes. The term "phytolith" is sometimes used to refer to all mineral secretions by plants, but more commonly refers to siliceous plant remains. 2955:. Since the worms themselves were soft-bodied and hence extremely rarely preserved in the fossil record, their jaws constitute the main evidence of polychaetes in the geological past, and the only way to restore the evolution of this important group of animals. Small size of scolecodonts, usually less than 1 mm, puts them into a microfossil category. They are common by-product of conodont, 3193: 1764: 2813: 5820: 4964: 2658: 33: 3309: 2549:) are usually deposited in shallow water near land, since the carbonate is precipitated by marine organisms that need land-derived nutrients. Generally speaking, the farther from land sediments fall, the less calcareous they are. Some areas can have interbedded calcareous sediments due to storms, or changes in ocean currents. 2224:. Siliceous oozes are the least common of the deep sea sediments, and make up approximately 15% of the ocean floor. Oozes are defined as sediments which contain at least 30% skeletal remains of pelagic microorganisms. Siliceous oozes are largely composed of the silica based skeletons of microscopic marine organisms such as 2894:

The element array constituted a feeding apparatus that is radically different from the jaws of modern animals. They are now termed "conodont elements" to avoid confusion. The three forms of teeth (i.e., coniform cones, ramiform bars, and pectiniform platforms) probably performed different functions.

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The ecology of chitinozoa is also open to speculation; some may have floated in the water column, where others may have attached themselves to other organisms. Most species were particular about their living conditions, and tend to be most common in specific paleoenvironments. Their abundance also

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is devoted to the study of pollen, which can be used both for biostratigraphy and to gain information about the abundance and variety of plants alive — which can itself yield important information about paleoclimates. Also, pollen analysis has been widely used for reconstructing past changes in

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stage of their lifecycle. These dinocyst stages are known to occur in 84 of the 350 described freshwater dinoflagellate species, and in about 10% of the known marine species. Dinocysts have a long geological record with geochemical markers suggest a presence that goes back to the

3543:, and paleoceanographic markers. Their widespread presence around the world and physical toughness makes microfossils important for biostratigraphy, while the manner in which they have reacted to environmental changes makes them helpful when reconstructing past environments. 2386: 2905:, fossils used to define and identify geological periods and date strata. Conodonts elements can be used to estimate the temperatures rocks have been exposed to, which allows the thermal maturation levels of sedimentary rocks to be determined, which is important for 3152:, as part of their lifecycles. Dinoflagellates are mainly represented in the fossil record by these dinocysts, typically 15 to 100 micrometres in diameter, which accumulate in sediments as microfossils. Organic-walled dinocysts have resistant cell walls made out of 3449: 1802:, which affords it some resistance to the rigours of the fossilisation process that destroy weaker objects. It is produced in huge quantities. There is an extensive fossil record of pollen grains, often disassociated from their parent plant. The discipline of 2951:- a diverse and abundant group of worms which has been inhabiting different marine environments in the past 500 million years. Composed of highly resistant organic substance, the scolecodonts are frequently found as fossils from the rocks as old as the late 3535:. In micropaleontology, what would otherwise be distinct categories are grouped together based solely on their size, including microscopic organisms and minute parts of larger organisms. Numerous sediments have microfossils, which serve as significant 5927:

Yang, Ben; Steiner, Michael; Zhu, Maoyan; Li, Guoxiang; Liu, Jianni; Liu, Pengju (2016). "Transitional Ediacaran–Cambrian small skeletal fossil assemblages from South China and Kazakhstan: Implications for chronostratigraphy and metazoan evolution".

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Wu, Kui; Tian, Li; Liang, Lei; Metcalfe, Ian; Chu, Daoliang; Tong, Jinnan (2019). "Recurrent biotic rebounds during the Early Triassic: Biostratigraphy and temporal size variation of conodonts from the Nanpanjiang Basin, South China".

2191:, filamentous microfossils have diameters typically less than 5 micrometres and have a length that can range from tens of micrometres to 100 micrometres, and spindle-like microfossils can be as long as 50 micrometres. 5402:

Moheimani, N.R.; Webb, J.P.; Borowitzka, M.A. (2012), "Bioremediation and other potential applications of coccolithophorid algae: A review. . Bioremediation and other potential applications of coccolithophorid algae: A review",

2718: 2057:, increasing in abundance, diversity, size, complexity of shape, and especially size and number of spines. Their increasingly spiny forms in the last 1 billion years may indicate an increased need for defence against predation. 4111: 6049:

Smith, E.F.; Nelson, L.L.; Strange, M.A.; Eyster, A.E.; Rowland, S.M.; Schrag, D.P.; MacDonald, F.A. (2016). "The end of the Ediacaran: Two new exceptionally preserved body fossil assemblages from Mount Dunfee, Nevada, USA".

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For many years, conodonts were known only from enigmatic tooth-like microfossils (200 micrometres to 5 millimetres in length) which occur commonly, but not always in isolation, and were not associated with any other fossil.

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A microfossil is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is just at or below the level at which the fossil can be analyzed by the naked eye. A commonly applied cutoff point between "micro" and

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on some specimens. Current scientific opinion is divided between classifying them as polychaetes and regarding it as unsafe to classify them as members of any broader grouping. In 2020, a new study showed the presence of

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affinities have all been entertained. The organisms have been better understood as improvements in microscopy facilitated the study of their fine structure, and it has been suggested that they represent either the

2125:, and other analytic techniques to the study of the ultrastructure, life history, and systematic affinities of mineralized, but originally organic-walled microfossils, have shown some acritarchs are fossilized 4777:

Marshall, C.; Javaux, E.; Knoll, A.; Walter, M. (2005). "Combined micro-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and micro-Raman spectroscopy of Proterozoic acritarchs: A new approach to Palaeobiology".

2187:, or degrades into oil and gas hydrocarbons. There are three main types of cell morphologies. Though there is no established range of sizes for each type, spheroid microfossils can be as small as about 8 2006:

to the present. Acritarchs are not a specific biological taxon, but rather a group with uncertain or unknown affinities. Most commonly they are composed of thermally altered acid insoluble carbon compounds

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has been a puzzle for more than a century. It has been hypothesized that the first mechanism of chordate tissue mineralization began either in the oral skeleton of conodont or the dermal skeleton of early

742:(geologists who study fossils) are interested in these microfossils because they can use them to determine how environments and climates have changed in the past, and where oil and gas can be found today. 706:

Microfossils are found in rocks and sediments as the microscopic remains of what were once life forms such as plants, animals, fungus, protists, bacteria and archaea. Terrestrial microfossils include

2232:. Other components of siliceous oozes near continental margins may include terrestrially derived silica particles and sponge spicules. Siliceous oozes are composed of skeletons made from opal silica 4846:

Schopf, J. William; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Sergeev, Vladimir N. (2010). "Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Raman imagery of the late Neoproterozoic Chichkan microbiota of South Kazakhstan".

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in Greek) are tiny, extinct jawless fish that resemble eels. For many years, they were known only from tooth-like microfossils found in isolation and now called conodont elements. The evolution of

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Era and when other fossils are not available. Because most acritarchs are thought to be marine (pre-Triassic), they are also useful for palaeoenvironmental interpretation. The Archean and earliest

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specimens from China bear the marks of multiple attacks, which suggests they survived at least a few of them. The holes made by predators are approximately proportional to the size of the

4107: 3430: 2080:. In theory, when the biological source (taxon) of an acritarch does become known, that particular microfossil is removed from the acritarchs and classified with its proper group. 2851: 5839:"Fossil Reveals Earth's Oldest Known Animal Guts - The find in a Nevada desert revealed an intestine inside a creature that looks like a worm made of a stack of ice cream cones" 4515:

Colbath, G.Kent; Grenfell, Hugh R. (1995). "Review of biological affinities of Paleozoic acid-resistant, organic-walled eukaryotic algal microfossils (including "acritarchs")".

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Colbath, G.Kent; Grenfell, Hugh R. (1995). "Review of biological affinities of Paleozoic acid-resistant, organic-walled eukaryotic algal microfossils (Including "acritarchs")".

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Gabbott, S.E.; Aldridge, R.J.; Theron, J.N. (1998). "Chitinozoan chains and cocoons from the Upper Ordovician Soom Shale lagerstatte, South Africa; implications for affinity".

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Cloudinids had a wide geographic range, reflected in the present distribution of localities in which their fossils are found, and are an abundant component of some deposits.

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Bohrmann, Gerhard; Abelmann, Andrea; Gersonde, Rainer; Hubberten, Hans; Kuhn, Gerhard (1994). "Pure siliceous ooze, a diagenetic environment for early chert formation".

3929: 2417: 2252:. Distance from land masses, water depth and ocean fertility are all factors that affect the opal silica content in seawater and the presence of siliceous oozes. 5096:

Oehler, D.Z.; Robert, F.; Mostefaoui, S.; Meibom, A.; Selo, M.; McKay, D.S. (2006). "Chemical Mapping of Proterozoic Organic Matter at Submicron Spatial Resolution".

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Kempe, A.; Wirth, R.; Altermann, W.; Stark, R.; Schopf, J.; Heckl, W. (2005). "Focussed ion beam preparation and in situ nanoscopic study of Precambrian acritarchs".

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microfossils termed "acritarchs" may actually be prokaryotes. The earliest eukaryotic acritarchs known (as of 2020) are from between 1950 and 2150 million years ago.

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fossils, which are often found in the same beds, have so far shown no such holes. These two points suggest that predators attacked in a selective manner, and the

3032:, growing new cones to avoid being buried by silt. However no specimens have been found embedded in mats, and their mode of life is still an unresolved question. 3686: 4981:

Philp, R.P.; Calvin, M. (1976). "Possible origin for insoluble organic (kerogen) debris in sediments from insoluble cell-wall materials of algae and bacteria".

2150: 4607:"MONTENARI, M. & LEPPIG, U. (2003): The Acritarcha: their classification morphology, ultrastructure and palaeoecological/palaeogeographical distribution". 6085:

Mertens KN, Rengefors K, Moestrup Ø, Ellegaard M (2012). "A review of recent freshwater dinoflagellate cysts: Taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology and palaeocology".

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Liang, Yan; Hints, Olle; Tang, Peng; Cai, Chenyang; Goldman, Daniel; Nõlvak, Jaak; Tihelka, Erik; Pang, Ke; Bernardo, Joseph; Wang, Wenhui (1 December 2020).

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Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; slack, John F.; Rittner, Martin; Pirajno, Franco; O'Neil, Jonathan; Little, Crispin T. S. (2 March 2017).

3369:, in the context of a marine sediment, does not refer to the consistency of the sediment but to its biological origin. The term ooze was originally used by 2076:. The nature of the organisms associated with older acritarchs is generally not well understood, though many are probably related to unicellular marine 339: 1440: 2102:

but are occasionally extracted from carbonate-rich rocks. They are excellent candidates for index fossils used for dating rock formations in the

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Walsh, M. (1991). "Microfossils and possible microfossils from the early Archean Onverwacht Group, Barberton mountain land, South Africa".

2736: 2435: 3365:(single-celled plankton and benthos microorganisms). Much smaller amounts of precipitated minerals and meteoric dust can also be present. 809:

4.54 billion years ago. Nonetheless, life may have started even earlier, at nearly 4.5 billion years ago, as claimed by some researchers.

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are the earliest vertebrate teeth found in the fossil record, and some conodont teeth are the sharpest that have ever been recorded.

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Cloudinids are important in the history of animal evolution for two reasons. They are among the earliest and most abundant of the

2129:. In the end, it may well be, as Moczydłowska et al. suggested in 2011, that many acritarchs will, in fact, turn out to be algae. 354: 3296:

Within each colored area, the type of material shown is what dominates, although other materials are also likely to be present.

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that is generally between 0.001 mm and 1 mm in size, the visual study of which requires the use of light or electron

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Betts, Holly C.; Putick, Mark N.; Clark, James W.; Williams, Tom A.; Donoghue, Philip C.J.; Pisani, Davide (20 August 2018).

3161: 2561:. Below this depth, calcium carbonate begins to dissolve in the ocean, and only non-calcareous sediments are stable, such as 2060:

Acritarchs may include the remains of a wide range of quite different kinds of organisms—ranging from the egg cases of small

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is 1 mm. Microfossils may either be complete (or near-complete) organisms in themselves (such as the marine plankters

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Coccolithophores are the largest global source of biogenic calcium carbonate, and significantly contribute to the global

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Moldowan JM, Talyzina NM (August 1998). "Biogeochemical evidence for dinoflagellate ancestors in the Early Cambrian".

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Castellani, Christopher; Maas, Andreas; Eriksson, Mats E.; Haug, Joachim T.; Haug, Carolin; Waloszek, Dieter (2018).

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Piperno, Dolores R. (2006). Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Paleoecologists. AltaMira Press

4488: 3925:"The Microfossil Record of Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 1970–1984" 6309:

Wierer, U.; Arrighi, S.; Bertola, S.; Kaufmann, G.; Baumgarten, B.; Pedrotti, A.; Pernter, P.; Pelegrin, J. (2018).

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but are classified by fine skeletal details of the small individuals of the colony. As another example, many fossil

4644:"Microfossils from the Paleoproterozoic Hutuo Group, Shanxi, North China: Early evidence for eukaryotic metabolism" 2355: 1420: 1367: 658: 3703: 2533:

can be applied to a fossil, sediment, or sedimentary rock which is formed from, or contains a high proportion of,

3758: 3593: 2012: 1940: 1595: 1361: 1020: 798: 536: 485: 465: 5202: 4932:"A Mineralized Alga and Acritarch Dominated Microbiota from the Tully Formation (Givetian) of Pennsylvania, USA" 5687: 4293:"The Weng'an Biota (Doushantuo Formation): An Ediacaran window on soft-bodied and multicellular microorganisms" 3456: 3313: 3072: 2869: 2323: 1815:

period, but at that time it is indistinguishable from spores. It increases in abundance until the present day.

802: 508: 382: 38: 5484:"New species of Mesozoic benthic foraminifera from the former British Petroleum micropalaeontology collection" 3975: 1869:

are not part of a sexual cycle but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions.

2906: 2114: 1532: 1143: 626: 503: 2457: 2248:). Silica (Si) is a bioessential element and is efficiently recycled in the marine environment through the 1466:

Index fossils were originally used to define and identify geologic units, then became a basis for defining

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is entirely artificial, it is not without merit, as the form taxa show traits similar to those of genuine

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and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the

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Trotter, Julie A. (2006). "Chemical systematics of conodont apatite determined by laser ablation ICPMS".

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Bengtson, S. (2002). "Origins and early evolution of predation". In Kowalewski, M.; Kelley, P.H. (eds.).

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Jones, David; Evans, Alistair R.; Siu, Karen K. W.; Rayfield, Emily J.; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2012).

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DeMaster, David J. (October 1981). "The supply and accumulation of silica in the marine environment".

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Tegelaar, E.W.; deLeeuw, J.W.; Derenne, S.; Largeau, C. (1989). "A reappraisal of kerogen formation".

3028:, which are limited to shallow water, and it has been suggested that cloudinids lived embedded in the 6322: 6180: 6059: 6007: 5972: 5937: 5883: 5713: 5640: 5546: 5495: 5300: 5225: 5190: 5105: 5061: 5033: 4990: 4943: 4902: 4855: 4787: 4751: 4696: 4655: 4571: 4524: 4461: 4371: 4327: 4304: 4255: 4208: 4146: 4061: 3938: 3718: 3627: 3343: 3335: 3068: 1960:

or juvenile stage of a marine animal. However, recent research has suggested that they represent the

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periods (i.e. the mid-Paleozoic), the millimetre-scale organisms are abundant in almost all types of

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on land, transported by rivers and land runoff, windborne dust, volcanoes, or grinding by glaciers.

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Cunningham, John A.; Vargas, Kelly; Yin, Zongjun; Bengtson, Stefan; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2017).

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cones nested within one another; the appearance of the organism itself remains unknown. The name

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Acritarch diversity reflects major ecological events such as the appearance of predation and the

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across the globe. This wide distribution, and their rapid pace of evolution, makes them valuable

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containing radiolarians, calcispheres, calpionellids and a few sponge spicules. The presence of

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samples, but sometimes they occur in the sediments where other fossils are very rare or absent.

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Environmental Micropaleontology : the Application of Microfossils to Environmental Geology

3616:"Cochleatina: an enigmatic Ediacaran–Cambrian survivor among small carbonaceous fossils (SCFs)" 6487: 6477: 6434: 6424: 6385: 6375: 6350: 6293: 6267: 6235: 6196: 6153: 6023: 5909: 5793: 5611: 5583: 5464: 5384: 5344: 5326: 5260: 5162: 5131: 5078: 4724: 4589: 4540: 4399: 4273: 4179: 4089: 4028: 3905: 3822: 3736: 3645: 3563: 3532: 3526: 3243: 2666: 2647: 2607: 2534: 2099: 1646: 1538: 1517: 1474: 1387: 1297: 966: 900: 825: 787: 746: 601: 586: 541: 475: 397: 334: 105: 97: 5149:

Mulder, Thierry; Hüneke, Heiko; Van Loon, A.J. (2011), "Progress in Deep-Sea Sedimentology",

801:, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" (in a geological time-scale), after 6340: 6330: 6227: 6188: 6143: 6133: 6094: 6067: 6015: 5980: 5945: 5899: 5891: 5783: 5775: 5721: 5648: 5554: 5513: 5503: 5454: 5444: 5414: 5374: 5316: 5308: 5251:

Hasle, Grethe R.; Syvertsen, Erik E.; Steidinger, Karen A.; Tangen, Karl (25 January 1996).

5233: 5198: 5154: 5121: 5113: 5070: 5041: 4998: 4951: 4910: 4863: 4826: 4795: 4759: 4714: 4704: 4663: 4616: 4579: 4532: 4469: 4426: 4389: 4379: 4322: 4312: 4263: 4216: 4154: 4079: 4069: 4020: 3992: 3946: 3895: 3887: 3878: 3726: 3635: 3536: 3437: 3422: 3386: 3331: 3327: 3321: 3212: 2986: 2979: 2566: 2464: 2400: 2214: 2200: 2176: 2172: 2132: 1933: 1906: 1619: 1347: 1337: 1317: 939: 934: 854: 806: 758: 696: 616: 344: 281: 251: 168: 101: 4815:"Spore-Like Bodies in Some Early Paleozoic Acritarchs: Clues to Chlorococcalean Affinities" 4050:"Pollen Organ Telangiopsis sp. of Late Devonian Seed Plant and Associated Vegetative Frond" 1882: 1509:

are amongst the many species have been identified as index fossils that are widely used in

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account for the other 55% of the total sediment, and originate in the skeletal remains of

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is a form of calcium carbonate derived from planktonic organisms that accumulates on the

2050:. Precambrian marine diversity was dominated by acritarchs. They underwent a boom around 695:) of larger animals or plants. Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of 6326: 6184: 6063: 6011: 5998:

Porter, S.M. (1 June 2007). "Seawater Chemistry and Early Carbonate Biomineralization".

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is at best weakly mineralized, whilst sharing the same "funnel-in-funnel" construction.

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and ecological reconstruction difficult. Since their discovery in 1931, suggestions of

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Germs, G.J.B. (October 1972). "New shelly fossils from Nama Group, South West Africa".

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Slater, Ben J.; Harvey, Thomas H. P.; Bekker, Andrey; Butterfield, Nicholas J. (2020).

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Sediments at the bottom of the ocean have two main origins, terrigenous and biogenous.

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tubes, whose original mineral composition is unknown, Cloudinids comprise two genera:

833: 6516: 5733: 5433:"A voltage-gated H+ channel underlying pH homeostasis in calcifying coccolithophores" 5237: 5074: 5045: 4915: 4890: 4875: 4628: 4536: 4473: 4438: 4228: 3583: 3503: 3145: 3090: 3029: 3025: 3002: 2839: 2791: 2669:

of a planktic foraminiferan. There are about 10,000 living species of foraminiferans

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account for about 45% of the total marine sediment, and originate in the erosion of

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because their cell walls are made of proteins which convert to the organic material

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Kempe, A.; Schopf, J. W.; Altermann, W.; Kudryavtsev, A. B.; Heckl, W. M. (2002).

6471: 6335: 5449: 5252: 4074: 4019:. Topics in Geobiology, 28. Vol. 28. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 199–227. 6231: 5418: 4889:

Moczydłowska, Małgorzata; Landing, ED; Zang, Wenlong; Palacios, Teodoro (2011).

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for the silica deposits of radiolarian shells brought to the surface during the

3300: 3231: 3192: 2956: 2933: 2744: 2480: 2349: 2229: 2221: 2156: 2107: 2088: 2065: 1824: 1790: 1692: 1327: 1270: 1184: 951: 883: 735: 680: 561: 276: 117: 113: 93: 81: 70: 44: 5895: 5824: 5312: 4968: 4956: 4931: 3389:

containing at least 30 per cent from the skeletal remains of marine organisms.

2072:

represent various stages of the life cycle of algae that were ancestral to the

6491: 5608:

Your Inner Fish: A Journey into the 3.5 Billion Year History of the Human Body

5379: 5362: 3891: 3495: 3216: 3153: 3040: 2994: 2941: 2726: 2725:

Calcareous microfossils from marine sediment consisting mainly of star-shaped

2576: 2510: 2188: 2126: 2103: 2016: 1984: 1921: 1898: 1803: 1771: 1723: 1715: 1703: 1642: 1615: 1599: 1591: 1575: 1559: 1555: 1482: 1478: 922: 912: 907: 775: 692: 611: 480: 129: 66: 6438: 6389: 6239: 4544: 4277: 4220: 3997: 3649: 6019: 5126: 4159: 4134: 3460: 3197: 3061: 3053: 3044: 2983: 2972: 2960: 2898: 2884: 2686: 2663: 2622: 2618: 2554: 2546: 2542: 2396: 2164: 2084: 2069: 1992: 1763: 1672: 1653: 1627: 1571: 1563: 1494: 1265: 1258: 1152: 956: 621: 531: 447: 125: 121: 92:

environments, but also occur in brackish water, fresh water and terrestrial

49: 17: 6354: 6157: 6027: 5913: 5797: 5779: 5508: 5483: 5468: 5431:

Taylor, A.R.; Chrachri, A.; Wheeler, G.; Goddard, H.; Brownlee, C. (2011).

5388: 5330: 5135: 5117: 5082: 4728: 4709: 4593: 4403: 4093: 3951: 3924: 3909: 3740: 6200: 5984: 5688:

Study of microfossils maps extreme global warming and environmental change

4831: 4814: 4384: 3704:"Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates" 2812: 6311:"The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use" 4244:"Fossilized reproductive modes reveal a protistan affinity of Chitinozoa" 3850: 3791: 3464: 3408: 3224: 3220: 3172: 3149: 3120: 3080: 3075: 2990: 2976: 2952: 2948: 2861: 2857: 2822: 2778: 2404: 2329: 2180: 2098:. They are typically isolated from siliciclastic sedimentary rocks using 2094:

Acritarchs are found in sedimentary rocks from the present back into the

2061: 2028: 1925: 1862: 1812: 1676: 1665: 1607: 1547: 1486: 1253: 1243: 1059: 978: 961: 85: 5725: 5518: 5482:

Fox, Lyndsey R.; Stukins, Stephen; Hill, Tom; Bailey, Haydon W. (2018).

4317: 4292: 3731: 3039:

of the cloudinids has proved difficult: they were initially regarded as

2657: 2490: 718:

are the most common microfossils. Everywhere in the oceans, microscopic

32: 5819: 5559: 5534: 4963: 4620: 3960: 3818: 3640: 3615: 3491: 3468: 3403: 3251: 3176: 3048: 3006: 2944: 2830: 2614: 2538: 2218: 2160: 2137: 2095: 2052: 2040: 2008: 2001: 1944: 1753: 1611: 1248: 1173: 1094: 983: 869: 750: 6122:"Towards an Ecological Understanding of Dinoflagellate Cyst Functions" 3976:"The human impact imprint on modern pollen spectra of the Mayan lands" 1807:

vegetation and their associated drivers. Pollen is first found in the

104:

is represented in the microfossil record, the most abundant forms are

6071: 5535:"First record of Cyanobacteria in Cambrian Orsten deposits of Sweden" 5002: 4867: 4268: 4243: 3441: 2901:

are globally widespread in sediments.Their many forms are considered

2626: 2518: 2408: 2317: 2300: 2296: 2244:, which are made from skeletons of calcium carbonate organisms (i.e. 2225: 2184: 1952: 1858: 1808: 1795: 1731: 1711: 1707: 1623: 1587: 1583: 1551: 1502: 1498: 1382: 1277: 1089: 998: 707: 183: 137: 133: 62: 6098: 4584: 4559: 4490:

The fossil record of predation. The Paleontological Society Papers 8

797:

of Quebec, Canada that may be as old as 4.28 billion years old, the

6214:

Jones, Adam C.; Blum, James E.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (8 August 2005).

4891:"Proterozoic phytoplankton and timing of Chlorophyte algae origins" 2989:

about 550 million years ago, and became extinct at the base of the

3846:"A timescale for the origin and evolution of all of life on Earth" 3509: 3499: 3485: 3475: 3307: 3286: 3256: 3113: 2993:. They formed small millimetre size conical fossils consisting of 2920: 2910: 2850: 2811: 2785: 2772: 2630: 2489: 2312: 2304: 2168: 2131: 2020: 1975: 1948: 1902: 1881: 1854: 1850: 1830: 1762: 1684: 1531: 993: 762: 711: 89: 31: 5823:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

4967:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

3455:

Marble can contain microfossil foraminiferans, coccolithophores,

2833:

shell. There are about 70,000 known species, 13,000 of which are

2068:(green algae). It is likely that most acritarch species from the 3759:"Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest" 3691:

Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand". Accessed 11 May 2021.

2825:

are widespread crustaceans, generally small, sometimes known as

2308: 2233: 2077: 1688: 1111: 1050: 6473:

Marvelous microfossils : creators, timekeepers, architects

3815:"Canadian bacteria-like fossils called oldest evidence of life" 5610:(reprint ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 85–86. 4930:

Chamberlain, John; Chamberlain, Rebecca; Brown, James (2016).

3227:, providing structural support and defense against predators. 2705:. They are the main constituent of chalk deposits such as the 3373:, the "father of modern oceanography", who proposed the term 4685:"Atomic force microscopy of Precambrian microscopic fossils" 1781:

Green: spore tetrad. Blue: spore with Y-shaped trilete mark.

1546:

Microfossils can be classified by their composition as: (a)

5814: 5203:

10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0207:psoade>2.3.co;2

5817:

Institute of Geology at Tallinn University of Technology.

1679:(tiny oral structures of an extinct chordate group), some 3234:

spicules can become microfossils, and are referred to as

3098:

which this indicates is commonly cited as a cause of the

2557:. This can only occur if the ocean is shallower than the 5768:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1718:(thought to be the egg cases of marine invertebrates), 5868:

Schiffbauer, James D.; et al. (10 January 2020).

5825:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

4969:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

3238:. Larger spicules visible to the naked eye are called 3223:. The meshing of many spicules serves as the sponge's 2887:. Conodont elements are made of a phosphatic mineral, 27:

Fossil that requires the use of a microscope to see it

4174:

Jansonius, J.; Jenkins, W.A.M. (1978). "Chitinozoa".

2606: 2288: 1917:

microfossils produced by an as yet unknown organism.

5289:"Phytoliths in selected broad-leaved trees in China" 5287:

Ge, Yong; Lu, Houyuan; Wang, Can; Gao, Xing (2020).

3436:

Opal can include microfossil diatoms, radiolarians,

3005:. Fossils consist of a series of stacked vase-like 1999:, are organic-walled microfossils, known from about 5363:"Diversity, Nomenclature, and Taxonomy of Protists" 1516:Often biostratigraphic correlations are based on a 769:, which are protists are known from shells (called 6220:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 3923:Gray, J.; Chaloner, W. G.; Westoll, T. S. (1985). 3506:, which are extinct, was used to date this dagger. 3264:images of various microscleres and megascleres of 1964:of a group of protists with uncertain affinities. 3930:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 4015:Traverse, Alfred (2007). "Devonian Palynology". 2843:being too large to be regarded as microfossils. 2163:as the cell breaks down after death. Kerogen is 5863: 5861: 5574:Richard C. Brusca & Gary J. Brusca (2003). 4689:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4496:. The Paleontological Society. pp. 289–317 4417:Martin, Francine (1993). "Acritarchsa Review". 4364:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4048:Wang, De-Ming; Meng, Mei-Cen; Guo, Yun (2016). 3254:. They are found in a range of symmetry types. 3024:is usually found in association with microbial 773:) that were as big as coins, such as the genus 5257:Identifying Marine Diatoms and Dinoflagellates 3293:Distribution of sediment types on the seafloor 1778:provide the earliest evidence of life on land. 5747:Scientists Discover Sharpest Teeth in History 5601: 5599: 4010: 4008: 2764:), usually made of calcium carbonate, from a 2344:diatom microfossil from 40 million years ago 2151:Archean life in the Barberton Greenstone Belt 2087:. While archaea, bacteria and cyanobacteria ( 1441: 691:) or component parts (such as small teeth or 659: 8: 6263:Voyage of the Challenger : The Atlantic 5809: 5807: 4813:Kaźmierczak, Józef; Kremer, Barbara (2009). 3974:Franco-Gaviria, Felipe; et al. (2018). 3219:. They provide structural support and deter 2794:remains of an annulated tubular microfossil 2517:) are rigid, microscopic structures made of 703:to assist in the correlation of rock units. 6368:Armstrong, Howard; Brasier, Martin (2013). 3787:"Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found" 2403:made up of microfossils in the form of the 1783:Spores are about 30–35 μm across 699:information, and are also commonly used by 6504:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6451:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6402:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6282: 6280: 5815:Scolecodonts — jaws of polychaete annelids 3167:Dinocysts are produced by a proportion of 3140:Dinoflagellate § Dinoflagellate cysts 1448: 1434: 816: 666: 652: 151: 6344: 6334: 6147: 6137: 5903: 5787: 5558: 5517: 5507: 5458: 5448: 5378: 5320: 5125: 4955: 4914: 4830: 4718: 4708: 4667: 4583: 4393: 4383: 4328:1983/d874148a-f20e-498a-97d2-379b3feaa18a 4326: 4316: 4267: 4158: 4083: 4073: 3996: 3984:Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 3950: 3899: 3730: 3639: 76:Microfossils are a common feature of the 6289:Introduction to Marine Micropaleontology 4178:. Elsevier, New York. pp. 341–357. 4176:Introduction to marine micropaleontology 3191: 2571: 2377:elaborate silica shell of a radiolarian 2254: 1470:, and then for faunal stages and zones. 3606: 3426: 3060:, the oldest on record, supporting the 2928:from the Ordovician and Silurian 2714: 2382: 824: 726:which readily fossilise. These include 159: 6497: 6444: 6395: 6286:Haq B.U. and Boersma A. (Eds.) (1998) 6266:Cambridge University Press, page235. 3215:are structural elements found in most 803:ocean formation 4.41 billion years ago 786:, or microfossils, were discovered in 88:. They are most common in deposits of 6120:Bravo I, Figueroa RI (January 2014). 4517:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 4454:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 722:multiply prolifically, and many grow 7: 4114:from the original on 5 February 2018 3531:The study of microfossils is called 3362: 2179:. Over time, it is mineralised into 3665:"Discovering Devonian Microfossils" 1698:Organic microfossils: The study of 5259:. Academic Press. pp. 5–385. 5159:10.1016/b978-0-444-53000-4.00001-9 4431:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1993.tb01241.x 2064:to resting cysts of many kinds of 25: 5706:Journal of the Geological Society 4297:Journal of the Geological Society 4201:Journal of the Geological Society 3148:, called dinoflagellate cysts or 2495:Phytolith from a leaf of the tree 6260:Thomson, Charles Wyville (2014) 5818: 4962: 4916:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01054.x 4560:"Early life: Ancient acritarchs" 3448: 3429: 2856:Conodont element found from the 2753: 2735: 2717: 2694: 2679: 2656: 2640: 2472: 2456: 2434: 2416: 2407:(shells) of centric and pennate 2385: 2370: 2354: 2337: 2322: 1981:Acritarch from the Weng'an biota 1415: 1414: 832: 745:Some microfossils are formed by 167: 5950:10.1016/j.precamres.2016.09.016 5837:Joel, Lucas (10 January 2020). 5361:Ald, S.M.; et al. (2007). 5218:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 5026:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4800:10.1016/j.precamres.2005.05.006 4764:10.1016/j.precamres.2005.07.002 4669:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105650 3685:Campbell, Hamish (12 Jun 2006) 3158:calcareous dinoflagellate cysts 3047:on the basis of what look like 3013:itself is mineralized, whereas 2729:with a sprinkling of coccoliths 1798:has an outer sheath, called a 1706:. Organic microfossils include 1662:calcareous dinoflagellate cysts 1179:microbial calcite precipitation 757:), which have relatively large 714:. Marine microfossils found in 229:List of human evolution fossils 5255:. In Tomas, Carmelo R. (ed.). 4642:Yin, Leiming (February 2020). 3785:Ghosh, Pallab (1 March 2017). 3162:siliceous dinoflagellate cysts 3043:worms, and then as coral-like 2155:Cells can be preserved in the 799:oldest record of life on Earth 1: 6193:10.1126/science.281.5380.1168 6139:10.3390/microorganisms2010011 5653:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2006.03.004 5488:Journal of Micropalaeontology 4819:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 3813:Dunham, Will (1 March 2017). 3579:Protists in the fossil record 3481:Thickness of marine sediments 3144:Some dinoflagellates produce 1691:remains (collectively called 1139:marine biogenic calcification 6336:10.1371/journal.pone.0198292 5450:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001085 5238:10.1016/0016-7037(81)90006-5 5075:10.1016/0301-9268(92)90074-X 5046:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90191-9 4609:Paläontologische Zeitschrift 4537:10.1016/0034-6667(94)00148-d 4474:10.1016/0034-6667(94)00148-D 4075:10.1371/journal.pone.0147984 3262:Scanning electron microscope 2768:ooze on the deep ocean floor 2559:carbonate compensation depth 2334:0.002 to 0.2 mm 2083:Acritarchs were most likely 1939:Their bizarre form has made 224:List of transitional fossils 6232:10.1016/j.jembe.2005.02.009 5965:American Journal of Science 5419:10.1016/j.algal.2012.06.002 5153:, Elsevier, pp. 1–24, 4025:10.1007/978-1-4020-5610-9_8 3196:Six-pointed spicule from a 2940:in Latin) are tiny jaws of 2781:benthic foraminifera 2599: 2281: 1687:spines and teeth and other 1368:Biomineralising polychaetes 1134:amorphous calcium carbonate 820:Part of a series related to 340:Mammalian auditory ossicles 6539: 6470:De Wever, Patrick (2020). 6417:Martin, Ronald E. (2000). 5896:10.1038/s41467-019-13882-z 5313:10.1038/s41598-020-72547-w 4957:10.3390/geosciences6040057 4108:"Tree of Life Web Project" 3524: 3420: 3325: 3319: 3275: 3205: 3133: 2867: 2367:0.1 to 0.2 mm 2198: 2148: 1822: 1788: 1747: 1574:, as in the study of some 1400:Burgess Shale preservation 5380:10.1080/10635150701494127 4133:Gary Lee Mullins (2000). 3892:10.1038/s41559-018-0644-x 3594:Small carbonaceous fossil 3299:For further information, 2691:under 0.1 mm 2602: 2574: 2284: 2257: 1968:varied with the seasons. 1671:Phosphatic microfossils: 1641:Calcareous microfossils: 1362:Cupriavidus metallidurans 805:, and not long after the 537:Invertebrate paleontology 486:Biological classification 466:Introduction to evolution 367:Evolution of various taxa 4221:10.1144/gsjgs.155.3.0447 3998:10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a4 3844:Staff (20 August 2018). 3687:"Fossils - Microfossils" 3515:Some marine microfossils 3457:calcareous nannoplankton 3314:Carbonate-silicate cycle 2870:Conodont biostratigraphy 2545:. Calcareous sediments ( 1841:that may be adapted for 1606:Siliceous microfossils: 1083:Teeth, scales, tusks etc 521:Branches of paleontology 509:Timeline of paleontology 39:carbonaceous microfossil 6020:10.1126/science.1137284 4848:Journal of Paleontology 4160:10.1111/1475-4983.00131 3667:. Iowa State University 3498:. The blade is made of 2982:that lived in the late 2907:hydrocarbon exploration 2115:atomic force microscopy 2055: million years ago 2004: million years ago 1894:showing its flask shape 1702:microfossils is called 1652:) microfossils include 1144:calcareous nannofossils 940:Choanoflagellate lorica 627:Vertebrate paleontology 504:History of paleontology 498:History of paleontology 219:Lagerstätte fossil beds 5780:10.1098/rspb.2012.0147 5509:10.5194/jm-37-395-2018 5118:10.1089/ast.2006.6.838 4710:10.1073/pnas.142310299 3952:10.1098/rstb.1985.0077 3517: 3507: 3483: 3317: 3305: 3268: 3203: 3131: 3096:evolutionary arms race 2930: 2865: 2819: 2804: 2796:Oscillatoriopsis longa 2783: 2507: 2213:is a type of biogenic 2141: 2113:Recent application of 1989: 1895: 1786: 1543: 1333:Magnetotactic bacteria 1158:oolitic aragonite sand 1016:scaly-foot snail shell 807:formation of the Earth 547:Molecular paleontology 96:deposits. While every 54: 45:Cochleatina canilovica 5985:10.2475/ajs.272.8.752 5875:Nature Communications 5606:Shubin, Neil (2009). 4832:10.4202/app.2008.0060 4385:10.1073/pnas.49.3.298 4358:Evitt, W. R. (1963). 3569:Gunflint microfossils 3513: 3494:who lived during the 3489: 3479: 3421:Further information: 3379:Challenger expedition 3344:Terrigenous sediments 3326:Further information: 3311: 3290: 3260: 3195: 3117: 2924: 2854: 2815: 2789: 2776: 2707:white cliffs of Dover 2653:many under 1 mm 2493: 2199:Further information: 2135: 1979: 1890:chitinozoan from the 1885: 1766: 1748:Further information: 1675:microfossils include 1610:microfossils include 1535: 287:Timeline of evolution 35: 5930:Precambrian Research 5062:Precambrian Research 4780:Precambrian Research 4744:Precambrian Research 4648:Precambrian Research 4558:Buick, R. . (2010). 3467:, calpionellids and 3336:Marine isotope stage 3272:Freshwater sediments 3110:Dinoflagellate cysts 3069:small shelly fossils 2817:Ostracod microfossil 2446:(bilateral symmetry) 2136:Three main types of 1839:asexual reproduction 1728:dinoflagellate cysts 1537:Microfossils from a 1522:stratigraphic layers 782:In 2017, fossilized 304:Organs and processes 214:List of fossil sites 6327:2018PLoSO..1398292W 6185:1998Sci...281.1168M 6064:2016Geo....44..911S 6012:2007Sci...316.1302P 5977:1972AmJS..272..752G 5942:2016PreR..285..202Y 5888:2020NatCo..11..205S 5813:Hints, Olle (2016) 5774:(1739): 2849–2854. 5726:10.1144/jgs2019-065 5718:2019JGSoc.176.1232W 5645:2006ChGeo.233..196T 5551:2018Palgy..61..855C 5500:2018JMicP..37..395F 5305:2020NatSR..1015577G 5230:1981GeCoA..45.1715D 5195:1994Geo....22..207B 5110:2006AsBio...6..838O 5038:1989GeCoA..53.3103T 4995:1976Natur.262..134P 4948:2016Geosc...6...57C 4907:2011Palgy..54..721M 4860:2010JPal...84..402S 4792:2005PreR..138..208M 4756:2005PreR..140...36K 4701:2002PNAS...99.9117K 4660:2020PreR..342j5650Y 4576:2010Natur.463..885B 4529:1995RPaPa..86..287C 4466:1995RPaPa..86..287C 4376:1963PNAS...49..298E 4318:10.1144/jgs2016-142 4309:2017JGSoc.174..793C 4260:2020Geo....48.1200L 4213:1998JGSoc.155..447G 4151:2000Palgy..43..359M 4066:2016PLoSO..1147984W 3943:1985RSPTB.309..167G 3732:10.1038/nature21377 3723:2017Natur.543...60D 3632:2020Palgy..63..733S 3359:Biogenous sediments 2880:mineralized tissues 2119:confocal microscopy 2023:— for example the ' 2015:of acritarchs into 1811:record in the late 1060:Vertebrate skeleton 850:Mineralized tissues 638:Paleontology Portal 292:Transitional fossil 262:Geologic time scale 155:Part of a series on 5844:The New York Times 5580:Sinauer Associates 5560:10.1111/pala.12374 5293:Scientific Reports 5151:Deep-Sea Sediments 4621:10.1007/bf03004567 4419:Biological Reviews 3641:10.1111/pala.12484 3589:Scale microfossils 3541:paleoenvironmental 3518: 3508: 3484: 3394:Diatomaceous earth 3318: 3306: 3269: 3204: 3132: 3100:Cambrian explosion 2931: 2866: 2860:to the end of the 2820: 2805: 2784: 2742:Illustration of a 2508: 2499:Cornus controversa 2411:(click to magnify) 2393:Diatomaceous earth 2142: 2123:Raman spectroscopy 2048:Cambrian explosion 1990: 1896: 1787: 1544: 1224:diatomaceous earth 1190:Great Calcite Belt 1107:Scale microfossils 1100:otolithic membrane 1011:small shelly fauna 984:echinoderm stereom 860:Biocrystallization 747:colonial organisms 199:Fossil preparation 55: 6483:978-1-4214-3674-6 6430:978-1-4615-4167-7 6381:978-1-118-68545-7 6179:(5380): 1168–70. 5589:978-0-87893-097-5 5266:978-0-08-053441-1 5224:(10): 1715–1732. 5032:(11): 3103–3106. 4989:(5564): 134–136. 4695:(14): 9117–9120. 4615:: 173–194. 2003. 4570:(7283): 885–886. 4254:(12): 1200–1204. 4034:978-1-4020-6684-9 3937:(1138): 167–195. 3886:(10): 1556–1562. 3663:Drewes, Charlie. 3564:Chemostratigraphy 3533:micropaleontology 3527:Micropaleontology 3521:Micropaleontology 3438:silicoflagellates 3303: 3250:, or composed of 3242:. Spicule can be 3156:. There are also 2802: 2801:Scale bar: 100 μm 2713: 2712: 2597:name of skeleton 2535:calcium carbonate 2505: 2428:(radial symmetry) 2381: 2380: 2279:name of skeleton 2183:or graphite-like 2140:cell morphologies 2100:hydrofluoric acid 1784: 1634:(worm jaws), and 1620:silicoflagellates 1539:deep sea sediment 1518:faunal assemblage 1458: 1457: 1388:permineralization 1373:Mineral nutrients 1298:Mineral evolution 967:foraminifera test 826:Biomineralization 795:Nuvvuagittuq Belt 788:hydrothermal vent 720:protist organisms 701:biostratigraphers 676: 675: 602:Paleotempestology 587:Paleoneurobiology 542:Micropaleontology 106:protist skeletons 78:geological record 16:(Redirected from 6530: 6509: 6503: 6495: 6457: 6456: 6450: 6442: 6414: 6408: 6407: 6401: 6393: 6374:. New York, NY. 6365: 6359: 6358: 6348: 6338: 6306: 6300: 6284: 6275: 6258: 6252: 6251: 6211: 6205: 6204: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6151: 6141: 6117: 6111: 6110: 6082: 6076: 6075: 6072:10.1130/G38157.1 6046: 6040: 6039: 5995: 5989: 5988: 5960: 5954: 5953: 5924: 5918: 5917: 5907: 5865: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5834: 5828: 5822: 5811: 5802: 5801: 5791: 5759: 5753: 5752:, 20 March 2012. 5744: 5738: 5737: 5712:(6): 1232–1246. 5700: 5694: 5693:, 7 August 2019. 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5639:(3–4): 196–216. 5633:Chemical Geology 5628: 5622: 5621: 5603: 5594: 5593: 5578:(2nd ed.). 5571: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5530: 5524: 5523: 5521: 5511: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5462: 5452: 5428: 5422: 5421: 5399: 5393: 5392: 5382: 5358: 5352: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5324: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5273: 5253:"Marine Diatoms" 5248: 5242: 5241: 5213: 5207: 5206: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5129: 5127:2060/20060028086 5093: 5087: 5086: 5069:(2–4): 271–293. 5056: 5050: 5049: 5021: 5015: 5014: 5003:10.1038/262134a0 4978: 4972: 4966: 4961: 4959: 4927: 4921: 4920: 4918: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4868:10.1666/09-134.1 4843: 4837: 4836: 4834: 4810: 4804: 4803: 4786:(3–4): 208–224. 4774: 4768: 4767: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4722: 4712: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4587: 4555: 4549: 4548: 4523:(3–4): 287–314. 4512: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4495: 4494:(Free full text) 4484: 4478: 4477: 4460:(3–4): 287–314. 4449: 4443: 4442: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4397: 4387: 4355: 4349: 4339: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4320: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4271: 4269:10.1130/G47865.1 4239: 4233: 4232: 4196: 4190: 4189: 4171: 4165: 4164: 4162: 4130: 4124: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4087: 4077: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4012: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3980: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3954: 3920: 3914: 3913: 3903: 3869: 3863: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3821:. Archived from 3810: 3804: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3782: 3776: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3757:(1 March 2017). 3751: 3745: 3744: 3734: 3708: 3699: 3693: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3660: 3654: 3653: 3643: 3611: 3537:biostratigraphic 3490:Stone dagger of 3452: 3433: 3423:sedimentary rock 3387:pelagic sediment 3375:radiolarian ooze 3332:Paleoclimatology 3328:Paleoceanography 3322:Marine sediments 3298: 3283:Marine sediments 3106:and complexity. 3064:interpretation. 2800: 2757: 2739: 2721: 2698: 2683: 2660: 2644: 2572: 2567:pelagic red clay 2503: 2476: 2465:Silicoflagellate 2460: 2438: 2420: 2401:sedimentary rock 2389: 2374: 2358: 2341: 2326: 2255: 2246:coccolithophores 2242:calcareous oozes 2240:, as opposed to 2215:pelagic sediment 2201:Shelled protists 2177:organic solvents 2056: 2005: 1997:confused origins 1934:biostratigraphic 1920:Common from the 1867:Bacterial spores 1780: 1468:geologic periods 1450: 1443: 1436: 1423: 1418: 1417: 1338:Magnetoreception 1318:Ballast minerals 913:Cephalopod shell 908:Brachiopod shell 855:Remineralisation 836: 817: 753:(especially the 740:Palaeontologists 716:marine sediments 689:coccolithophores 668: 661: 654: 617:Sclerochronology 345:Mosaic evolution 282:Paleoclimatology 252:Extinction event 171: 152: 132:, together with 21: 6538: 6537: 6533: 6532: 6531: 6529: 6528: 6527: 6513: 6512: 6496: 6484: 6469: 6466: 6461: 6460: 6443: 6431: 6416: 6415: 6411: 6394: 6382: 6367: 6366: 6362: 6321:(6): e0198292. 6308: 6307: 6303: 6285: 6278: 6259: 6255: 6213: 6212: 6208: 6170: 6169: 6165: 6119: 6118: 6114: 6099:10.2216/11-89.1 6084: 6083: 6079: 6048: 6047: 6043: 5997: 5996: 5992: 5962: 5961: 5957: 5926: 5925: 5921: 5867: 5866: 5859: 5849: 5847: 5836: 5835: 5831: 5812: 5805: 5761: 5760: 5756: 5745: 5741: 5702: 5701: 5697: 5686: 5682: 5672: 5670: 5665: 5664: 5660: 5630: 5629: 5625: 5618: 5605: 5604: 5597: 5590: 5573: 5572: 5568: 5532: 5531: 5527: 5481: 5480: 5476: 5443:(6): e1001085. 5430: 5429: 5425: 5401: 5400: 5396: 5360: 5359: 5355: 5342: 5338: 5286: 5285: 5281: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5250: 5249: 5245: 5215: 5214: 5210: 5180: 5179: 5175: 5169: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5058: 5057: 5053: 5023: 5022: 5018: 4980: 4979: 4975: 4929: 4928: 4924: 4888: 4887: 4883: 4845: 4844: 4840: 4812: 4811: 4807: 4776: 4775: 4771: 4741: 4740: 4736: 4682: 4681: 4677: 4641: 4640: 4636: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4585:10.1038/463885a 4557: 4556: 4552: 4514: 4513: 4509: 4499: 4497: 4493: 4486: 4485: 4481: 4451: 4450: 4446: 4416: 4415: 4411: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4340: 4336: 4290: 4289: 4285: 4241: 4240: 4236: 4198: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4173: 4172: 4168: 4132: 4131: 4127: 4117: 4115: 4106: 4105: 4101: 4060:(1): e0147984. 4047: 4046: 4042: 4035: 4017:Paleopalynology 4014: 4013: 4006: 3978: 3973: 3972: 3968: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3871: 3870: 3866: 3856: 3854: 3843: 3842: 3838: 3828: 3826: 3825:on 2 March 2017 3812: 3811: 3807: 3797: 3795: 3784: 3783: 3779: 3769: 3767: 3753: 3752: 3748: 3717:(7643): 60–64. 3706: 3701: 3700: 3696: 3684: 3680: 3670: 3668: 3662: 3661: 3657: 3613: 3612: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3559:Biostratigraphy 3549: 3529: 3523: 3516: 3492:Ötzi the Iceman 3482: 3472: 3453: 3444: 3434: 3425: 3419: 3363:marine protists 3356: 3338: 3324: 3316: 3304: 3297: 3295: 3285: 3280: 3274: 3210: 3190: 3188:Sponge spicules 3169:dinoflagellates 3142: 3130: 3124: 3112: 3088:specimens, and 2969: 2929: 2927: 2919: 2889:hydroxylapatite 2872: 2864: 2849: 2818: 2810: 2803: 2799: 2782: 2769: 2758: 2749: 2740: 2731: 2730: 2722: 2675:coccolithophore 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2611: 2591: 2586: 2580: 2551:Calcareous ooze 2537:in the form of 2527: 2506: 2504:scale bar 20 μm 2496: 2488: 2487: 2486: 2485: 2484: 2483: 2477: 2469: 2468: 2467: 2461: 2448: 2447: 2445: 2439: 2430: 2429: 2427: 2421: 2412: 2390: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2293: 2273: 2268: 2262: 2237: 2217:located on the 2208: 2203: 2197: 2153: 2147: 2074:dinoflagellates 2051: 2033:mass extinction 2000: 1988: 1982: 1974: 1930:marine sediment 1880: 1875: 1827: 1821: 1793: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1761: 1756: 1746: 1741: 1650: 1636:sponge spicules 1542: 1530: 1511:biostratigraphy 1454: 1413: 1406: 1405: 1404: 1292: 1284: 1283: 1282: 1238: 1230: 1229: 1228: 1214:biogenic silica 1208: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1181: 1169: 1148: 1128: 1118: 1117: 1116: 1084: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1054: 1039: 1038: 1037: 1004:gastropod shell 972:testate amoebae 962:diatom frustule 887: 876: 875: 874: 844: 815: 732:dinoflagellates 681:"macro" fossils 672: 640: 632: 631: 527:Biostratigraphy 522: 514: 513: 499: 491: 490: 461: 453: 452: 368: 360: 359: 350:Nervous systems 305: 297: 296: 272:History of life 267:Geologic record 242: 241:Natural history 234: 233: 209:List of fossils 179: 150: 142:vascular plants 110:microbial cysts 53: 42: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6536: 6534: 6526: 6525: 6515: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6482: 6465: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6429: 6409: 6380: 6360: 6301: 6276: 6253: 6206: 6163: 6126:Microorganisms 6112: 6093:(6): 612–619. 6077: 6041: 6006:(5829): 1302. 5990: 5971:(8): 752–761. 5955: 5919: 5857: 5829: 5803: 5754: 5739: 5695: 5680: 5658: 5623: 5616: 5595: 5588: 5566: 5545:(6): 855–880. 5525: 5494:(1): 395–401. 5474: 5423: 5413:(2): 120–133, 5406:Algal Research 5394: 5373:(4): 684–689. 5353: 5336: 5279: 5265: 5243: 5208: 5173: 5167: 5141: 5104:(6): 838–850. 5088: 5051: 5016: 4973: 4922: 4901:(4): 721–733. 4881: 4854:(3): 402–416. 4838: 4825:(3): 541–551. 4805: 4769: 4750:(1–2): 36–54. 4734: 4675: 4634: 4599: 4550: 4507: 4479: 4444: 4425:(4): 475–537. 4409: 4370:(3): 298–302. 4350: 4347:dictionary.com 4341:definition of 4334: 4303:(5): 793–802. 4283: 4234: 4207:(3): 447–452. 4191: 4184: 4166: 4145:(2): 359–373. 4125: 4099: 4040: 4033: 4004: 3966: 3915: 3864: 3836: 3805: 3777: 3764:New York Times 3746: 3694: 3678: 3655: 3626:(5): 733–752. 3605: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3525:Main article: 3522: 3519: 3514: 3480: 3474: 3473: 3454: 3447: 3445: 3435: 3428: 3418: 3415: 3414: 3413: 3412: 3411: 3401: 3399:Siliceous ooze 3396: 3355: 3352: 3320:Main article: 3312: 3291: 3284: 3281: 3278:Paleolimnology 3273: 3270: 3208:Sponge spicule 3206:Main article: 3189: 3186: 3182:Early Cambrian 3146:resting stages 3136:Microbial cyst 3118: 3111: 3108: 3037:classification 3030:microbial mats 2975:were an early 2968: 2965: 2925: 2918: 2915: 2855: 2848: 2845: 2816: 2809: 2806: 2792:Cyanobacterial 2790: 2777: 2771: 2770: 2759: 2752: 2750: 2741: 2734: 2732: 2724: 2723: 2716: 2711: 2710: 2699: 2692: 2689: 2684: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2661: 2654: 2651: 2645: 2638: 2633: 2609: 2604: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2588: 2582: 2581: 2575: 2563:siliceous ooze 2526: 2523: 2494: 2479: 2478: 2471: 2470: 2463: 2462: 2455: 2454: 2453: 2452: 2451: 2450: 2449: 2443:Pennate diatom 2441: 2440: 2433: 2431: 2425:Centric diatom 2423: 2422: 2415: 2413: 2391: 2384: 2379: 2378: 2375: 2368: 2365: 2359: 2352: 2346: 2345: 2342: 2335: 2332: 2327: 2320: 2315: 2291: 2286: 2285: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2270: 2264: 2263: 2260:Siliceous ooze 2258: 2235: 2211:Siliceous ooze 2207: 2204: 2196: 2193: 2146: 2143: 2013:classification 1980: 1973: 1970: 1941:classification 1879: 1876: 1874: 1871: 1820: 1817: 1776:trilete spores 1767: 1760: 1757: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1739:Organic-walled 1737: 1736: 1735: 1696: 1669: 1668:(seed shrimp). 1648: 1639: 1602:distinctions. 1536: 1529: 1526: 1507:foraminiferans 1491:dinoflagellate 1456: 1455: 1453: 1452: 1445: 1438: 1430: 1427: 1426: 1425: 1424: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1402: 1397: 1396: 1395: 1390: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1358: 1353: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1311:immobilization 1308: 1306:mineralization 1300: 1294: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1280: 1275: 1274: 1273: 1263: 1262: 1261: 1256: 1246: 1240: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1232: 1231: 1227: 1226: 1221: 1219:siliceous ooze 1216: 1210: 1209: 1206:Silicification 1204: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1195: 1194: 1193: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1170: 1168: 1167: 1166: 1165: 1160: 1149: 1147: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1130: 1129: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1115: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1103: 1102: 1092: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1078: 1077: 1073: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1056: 1055: 1045: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1028:Sponge spicule 1025: 1024: 1023: 1021:estuary shells 1018: 1013: 1008: 1007: 1006: 1001: 996: 986: 976: 975: 974: 969: 964: 959: 954: 944: 943: 942: 932: 931: 930: 925: 920: 910: 905: 904: 903: 898: 889: 888: 882: 881: 878: 877: 873: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 846: 845: 842: 841: 838: 837: 829: 828: 822: 821: 814: 811: 784:microorganisms 724:tiny skeletons 674: 673: 671: 670: 663: 656: 648: 645: 644: 634: 633: 630: 629: 624: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 594: 592:Paleopathology 589: 584: 579: 577:Paleolimnology 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 552:Palaeoxylology 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 523: 520: 519: 516: 515: 512: 511: 506: 500: 497: 496: 493: 492: 489: 488: 483: 478: 473: 471:Common descent 468: 462: 459: 458: 455: 454: 451: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 369: 366: 365: 362: 361: 358: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 306: 303: 302: 299: 298: 295: 294: 289: 284: 279: 277:Origin of life 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 243: 240: 239: 236: 235: 232: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 180: 177: 176: 173: 172: 164: 163: 157: 156: 149: 146: 50:Late Ediacaran 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6535: 6524: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6507: 6501: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6479: 6476:. Baltimore. 6475: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6464:Other sources 6463: 6454: 6448: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6426: 6422: 6421: 6413: 6410: 6405: 6399: 6391: 6387: 6383: 6377: 6373: 6372: 6364: 6361: 6356: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6305: 6302: 6299: 6298:9780080534961 6295: 6291: 6290: 6283: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6272:9781108074759 6269: 6265: 6264: 6257: 6254: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6210: 6207: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6167: 6164: 6159: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6116: 6113: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6081: 6078: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6045: 6042: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5994: 5991: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5959: 5956: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5923: 5920: 5915: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5876: 5871: 5864: 5862: 5858: 5846: 5845: 5840: 5833: 5830: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5810: 5808: 5804: 5799: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5758: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5743: 5740: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5699: 5696: 5692: 5689: 5684: 5681: 5669: 5662: 5659: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5627: 5624: 5619: 5617:9780307277459 5613: 5609: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5591: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5576:Invertebrates 5570: 5567: 5561: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5539:Palaeontology 5536: 5529: 5526: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5475: 5470: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5427: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5407: 5398: 5395: 5390: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5337: 5332: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5283: 5280: 5268: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5247: 5244: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5212: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5168:9780444530004 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5145: 5142: 5137: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5092: 5089: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5063: 5055: 5052: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5020: 5017: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4974: 4970: 4965: 4958: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4926: 4923: 4917: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4895:Palaeontology 4892: 4885: 4882: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4842: 4839: 4833: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4809: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4773: 4770: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4738: 4735: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4679: 4676: 4670: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4638: 4635: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4603: 4600: 4595: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4554: 4551: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4511: 4508: 4492: 4491: 4483: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4448: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4413: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4354: 4351: 4348: 4344: 4338: 4335: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4287: 4284: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4238: 4235: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4195: 4192: 4187: 4185:0-444-00267-7 4181: 4177: 4170: 4167: 4161: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4139:Palaeontology 4136: 4129: 4126: 4113: 4109: 4103: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4041: 4036: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4009: 4005: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3985: 3977: 3970: 3967: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3931: 3926: 3919: 3916: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3880: 3875: 3868: 3865: 3853: 3852: 3847: 3840: 3837: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3809: 3806: 3794: 3793: 3788: 3781: 3778: 3766: 3765: 3760: 3756: 3750: 3747: 3742: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3695: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3666: 3659: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3620:Palaeontology 3617: 3610: 3607: 3600: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3584:Protist shell 3582: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3551: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3528: 3520: 3512: 3505: 3504:calpionellids 3501: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3451: 3446: 3443: 3439: 3432: 3427: 3424: 3416: 3410: 3407: 3406: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3391: 3390: 3388: 3384: 3383:biogenic ooze 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3323: 3315: 3310: 3302: 3294: 3289: 3282: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3202: 3199: 3194: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3137: 3128: 3123: 3122: 3116: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3092: 3091:Sinotubulites 3087: 3083: 3082: 3077: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3026:stromatolites 3023: 3018: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3003:Preston Cloud 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2985: 2981: 2978: 2974: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2947:of the order 2946: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2923: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2903:index fossils 2900: 2896: 2892: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2877: 2871: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2841: 2840:Gigantocypris 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2814: 2807: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2780: 2775: 2767: 2766:foraminiferal 2763: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2746: 2738: 2733: 2728: 2720: 2715: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2697: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2682: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2659: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2639: 2637: 2636:foraminiferan 2634: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2605: 2600:typical size 2596: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2501: 2500: 2492: 2482: 2475: 2466: 2459: 2444: 2437: 2432: 2426: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2388: 2383: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2347: 2343: 2340: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2325: 2321: 2319: 2316: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2287: 2282:typical size 2278: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2205: 2202: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2152: 2145:Archean cells 2144: 2139: 2134: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2111: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2011:). While the 2010: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1986: 1978: 1971: 1969: 1965: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1893: 1892:Burgsvik beds 1889: 1888:Late Silurian 1884: 1877: 1873:Fungal spores 1872: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1833:is a unit of 1832: 1826: 1818: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1800:sporopollenin 1797: 1792: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1769:Late Silurian 1765: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1722:(worm jaws), 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1683:(worm jaws), 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1644: 1640: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1540: 1534: 1527: 1525: 1524:is possible. 1523: 1519: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1464: 1462: 1461:Index fossils 1451: 1446: 1444: 1439: 1437: 1432: 1431: 1429: 1428: 1422: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1401: 1398: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1384: 1383:Fossilization 1381: 1379: 1378:Microbial mat 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1363: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1323:Magnetofossil 1321: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1303: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1295: 1288: 1287: 1279: 1276: 1272: 1269: 1268: 1267: 1264: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1251: 1250: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1241: 1234: 1233: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1211: 1207: 1202: 1201: 1191: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1164: 1163:aragonite sea 1161: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1127: 1126:Calcification 1122: 1121: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1080: 1079: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1047:Endoskeletons 1043: 1042: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 991: 990: 989:mollusc shell 987: 985: 982: 981: 980: 977: 973: 970: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 949: 948: 947:Protist shell 945: 941: 938: 937: 936: 933: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 918:cirrate shell 916: 915: 914: 911: 909: 906: 902: 899: 897: 894: 893: 891: 890: 885: 880: 879: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 847: 840: 839: 835: 831: 830: 827: 823: 819: 818: 813:Index fossils 812: 810: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 789: 785: 780: 778: 777: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 755:Cheilostomata 752: 748: 743: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 704: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 669: 664: 662: 657: 655: 650: 649: 647: 646: 643: 639: 636: 635: 628: 625: 623: 620: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 597:Paleopedology 595: 593: 590: 588: 585: 583: 582:Paleomycology 580: 578: 575: 573: 572:Paleogenetics 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 524: 518: 517: 510: 507: 505: 502: 501: 495: 494: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 463: 457: 456: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 370: 364: 363: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 307: 301: 300: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 257:Geochronology 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 244: 238: 237: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 184:Fossilization 182: 181: 175: 174: 170: 166: 165: 162: 158: 154: 153: 147: 145: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 74: 72: 68: 64: 60: 51: 47: 46: 40: 37:An enigmatic 34: 30: 19: 6523:Microfossils 6472: 6423:. New York. 6419: 6412: 6371:Microfossils 6370: 6363: 6318: 6314: 6304: 6288: 6262: 6256: 6226:(1): 67–81. 6223: 6219: 6209: 6176: 6172: 6166: 6132:(1): 11–32. 6129: 6125: 6115: 6090: 6086: 6080: 6055: 6051: 6044: 6003: 5999: 5993: 5968: 5964: 5958: 5933: 5929: 5922: 5882:(205): 205. 5879: 5873: 5848:. Retrieved 5842: 5832: 5771: 5767: 5757: 5750:Sci-News.com 5749: 5742: 5709: 5705: 5698: 5690: 5683: 5671:. Retrieved 5661: 5636: 5632: 5626: 5607: 5575: 5569: 5542: 5538: 5528: 5519:10141/622407 5491: 5487: 5477: 5440: 5437:PLOS Biology 5436: 5426: 5410: 5404: 5397: 5370: 5366: 5356: 5339: 5299:(1): 15577. 5296: 5292: 5282: 5270:. Retrieved 5256: 5246: 5221: 5217: 5211: 5186: 5182: 5176: 5150: 5144: 5101: 5098:Astrobiology 5097: 5091: 5066: 5060: 5054: 5029: 5025: 5019: 4986: 4982: 4976: 4939: 4935: 4925: 4898: 4894: 4884: 4851: 4847: 4841: 4822: 4818: 4808: 4783: 4779: 4772: 4747: 4743: 4737: 4692: 4688: 4678: 4651: 4647: 4637: 4612: 4608: 4602: 4567: 4563: 4553: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4498:. Retrieved 4489: 4482: 4457: 4453: 4447: 4422: 4418: 4412: 4367: 4363: 4353: 4337: 4300: 4296: 4286: 4251: 4247: 4237: 4204: 4200: 4194: 4175: 4169: 4142: 4138: 4128: 4116:. Retrieved 4102: 4057: 4053: 4043: 4016: 3991:(1): 61–78. 3988: 3982: 3969: 3934: 3928: 3918: 3883: 3877: 3867: 3855:. Retrieved 3849: 3839: 3827:. Retrieved 3823:the original 3808: 3796:. Retrieved 3790: 3780: 3768:. Retrieved 3762: 3755:Zimmer, Carl 3749: 3714: 3710: 3697: 3690: 3681: 3669:. Retrieved 3658: 3623: 3619: 3609: 3554:Biosignature 3530: 3382: 3374: 3366: 3357: 3342: 3339: 3292: 3239: 3236:microscleres 3235: 3229: 3211: 3201:glass sponge 3166: 3143: 3125:as drawn by 3119: 3089: 3085: 3079: 3066: 3034: 3021: 3019: 3014: 3010: 2998: 2970: 2937: 2934:Scolecodonts 2932: 2926:Scolecodonts 2917:Scolecodonts 2909:. Conodont 2897: 2893: 2875: 2873: 2838: 2831:bivalve-like 2827:seed shrimps 2826: 2821: 2795: 2743: 2703:carbon cycle 2530: 2528: 2515:plant stones 2514: 2509: 2497: 2250:silica cycle 2230:radiolarians 2209: 2154: 2112: 2093: 2082: 2059: 2045: 1996: 1995:, Greek for 1991: 1966: 1938: 1919: 1897: 1828: 1819:Plant spores 1794: 1759:Pollen grain 1750:Palynomorphs 1744:Palynomorphs 1720:scolecodonts 1716:chitinozoans 1693:ichthyoliths 1681:scolecodonts 1658:foraminifera 1632:scolecodonts 1616:radiolarians 1582:, as in the 1568:foraminifera 1545: 1515: 1483:chitinozoans 1475:microfossils 1472: 1465: 1459: 1393:petrifaction 1360: 1348: 1343:Microfossils 1342: 1090:Limpet teeth 1070:Ossification 1065:Bone mineral 999:chiton shell 884:Exoskeletons 865:Biointerface 791:precipitates 781: 774: 767:Foraminifera 744: 736:radiolarians 728:foraminifera 705: 697:paleoclimate 685:foraminifera 677: 607:Paleozoology 567:Paleoecology 557:Paleobiology 310:Avian flight 247:Biogeography 204:Index fossil 193: 189:Trace fossil 161:Paleontology 130:chitinozoans 75: 58: 56: 43: 29: 18:Microfossils 6058:(11): 911. 5936:: 202–215. 5668:"Conodonts" 5272:13 November 4936:Geosciences 3574:Macrofossil 3459:and algae, 3371:John Murray 3266:demosponges 3240:megascleres 3232:microscopic 3073:mineralized 2957:chitinozoan 2874:Conodonts ( 2745:Globigerina 2513:(Greek for 2481:Radiolarian 2395:is a soft, 2350:radiolarian 2222:ocean floor 2195:Mineralised 2189:micrometres 2167:in mineral 2157:rock record 2108:Proterozoic 2089:prokaryotes 2066:chlorophyta 2017:form genera 1983:c. 570–609 1847:life cycles 1825:Cryptospore 1791:Pollen zone 1590:studied in 1576:vertebrates 1528:Composition 1473:Species of 1328:Magnetosome 1271:phosphorite 1237:Other forms 1185:calcite sea 952:coccosphere 896:exoskeleton 562:Paleobotany 383:Cephalopods 378:Butterflies 194:Microfossil 118:Pyrrhophyta 114:Chrysophyta 94:sedimentary 82:Precambrian 80:, from the 71:macrofossil 59:microfossil 48:, from the 6492:1148175375 6292:Elsevier. 6087:Phycologia 5850:10 January 5367:Syst. Biol 5349:0759103852 5189:(3): 207. 4654:: 105650. 4500:1 December 4118:5 February 3601:References 3496:Copper Age 3461:ostracodes 3276:See also: 3244:calcareous 3154:dinosporin 3134:See also: 3102:of animal 3062:bilaterian 3054:Nephrozoan 3045:cnidarians 3041:polychaete 2995:calcareous 2973:cloudinids 2967:Cloudinids 2942:polychaete 2876:cone tooth 2868:See also: 2727:discoaster 2687:coccoliths 2577:Calcareous 2531:calcareous 2525:Calcareous 2511:Phytoliths 2149:See also: 2127:microalgae 2085:eukaryotes 1993:Acritarchs 1972:Acritarchs 1922:Ordovician 1899:Chitinozoa 1878:Chitinozoa 1823:See also: 1804:palynology 1789:See also: 1772:sporangium 1724:acritarchs 1704:palynology 1673:Phosphatic 1654:coccoliths 1643:Calcareous 1628:phytoliths 1600:ecological 1592:palynology 1572:phosphatic 1564:coccoliths 1560:calcareous 1556:radiolaria 1479:acritarchs 923:cuttlebone 892:Arthropod 776:Nummulites 612:Palynology 481:Cladistics 320:Multicells 126:acritarchs 67:microscopy 6500:cite book 6447:cite book 6439:840285428 6398:cite book 6390:904814387 6240:0022-0981 5734:202181855 5673:26 August 5666:MIRACLE. 4942:(4): 57. 4876:130041483 4629:127238427 4545:0034-6667 4439:221527533 4343:acritarch 4278:0091-7613 4229:129236534 3857:20 August 3650:1475-4983 3465:pteropods 3442:ebridians 3417:Lithified 3354:Biogenous 3248:siliceous 3230:Smaller, 3221:predators 3198:siliceous 3150:dinocysts 3127:Ehrenberg 3104:diversity 3076:skeletons 3015:Conotubus 2984:Ediacaran 2961:acritarch 2938:worm jaws 2899:Conodonts 2885:agnathans 2847:Conodonts 2823:Ostracods 2808:Ostracods 2664:Calcified 2650:or shell 2623:limestone 2619:aragonite 2592:involved 2555:sea floor 2547:limestone 2543:aragonite 2529:The term 2405:frustules 2397:siliceous 2364:or shell 2274:involved 2206:Siliceous 2165:insoluble 2104:Paleozoic 2070:Paleozoic 2062:metazoans 2027:' in the 2025:explosion 1936:markers. 1909:-shaped, 1843:dispersal 1677:conodonts 1666:ostracods 1624:ebridians 1608:Siliceous 1596:taxonomic 1578:, or (d) 1548:siliceous 1495:ostracods 1487:conodonts 1349:engrailed 1266:Phosphate 1259:oil shale 1153:Aragonite 957:coccolith 622:Taphonomy 532:Ichnology 476:Phylogeny 460:Evolution 448:Tetrapods 393:Dinosaurs 388:Cetaceans 140:from the 122:Sarcodina 112:from the 6517:Category 6355:29924811 6315:PLOS ONE 6248:85614908 6158:27694774 6107:86845462 6036:27418253 6028:17540895 5914:31924764 5798:22418253 5691:Phys.org 5469:21713028 5389:17661235 5331:32968165 5136:17155884 5083:11540926 5011:42212699 4729:12089337 4594:20164911 4404:16591055 4112:Archived 4094:26808271 4054:PLOS ONE 3910:30127539 3851:Phys.org 3792:BBC News 3741:28252057 3547:See also 3409:Alginite 3301:see here 3225:skeleton 3213:Spicules 3121:Dinocyst 3086:Cloudina 3081:Cloudina 3022:Cloudina 3011:Cloudina 2999:Cloudina 2991:Cambrian 2977:metazoan 2953:Cambrian 2949:Eunicida 2945:annelids 2862:Triassic 2858:Cambrian 2779:Mesozoic 2760:Shells ( 2330:frustule 2181:graphite 2031:and the 2029:Cambrian 1987: 1926:Devonian 1863:protozoa 1849:of many 1813:Devonian 1774:bearing 1734:remains. 1562:, as in 1550:, as in 1477:such as 1421:Category 1302:In soil 1254:alginite 1244:Bone bed 979:Seashell 886:(shells) 759:colonies 749:such as 642:Category 438:Sea cows 433:Reptiles 423:Molluscs 330:Flagella 148:Overview 86:Holocene 6346:6010222 6323:Bibcode 6201:9712575 6181:Bibcode 6173:Science 6149:5029505 6060:Bibcode 6052:Geology 6008:Bibcode 6000:Science 5973:Bibcode 5938:Bibcode 5905:6954273 5884:Bibcode 5789:3367778 5714:Bibcode 5641:Bibcode 5547:Bibcode 5496:Bibcode 5460:3119654 5322:7512002 5301:Bibcode 5226:Bibcode 5191:Bibcode 5183:Geology 5106:Bibcode 5034:Bibcode 4991:Bibcode 4944:Bibcode 4903:Bibcode 4856:Bibcode 4788:Bibcode 4752:Bibcode 4697:Bibcode 4656:Bibcode 4572:Bibcode 4525:Bibcode 4462:Bibcode 4372:Bibcode 4305:Bibcode 4256:Bibcode 4248:Geology 4209:Bibcode 4147:Bibcode 4085:4725745 4062:Bibcode 3961:2396358 3939:Bibcode 3901:6152910 3829:1 March 3819:Reuters 3798:2 March 3770:2 March 3719:Bibcode 3671:4 March 3628:Bibcode 3471: 3469:bryozoa 3404:Kerogen 3252:spongin 3217:sponges 3177:zygotic 3173:dormant 3129:in 1837 3007:calcite 3001:honors 2798: 2615:calcite 2590:protist 2585:mineral 2539:calcite 2409:diatoms 2272:protist 2267:mineral 2226:diatoms 2161:kerogen 2138:Archean 2096:Archean 2041:Permian 2039:of the 2035:at the 2009:kerogen 1945:protist 1913:walled 1911:organic 1754:Kerogen 1700:organic 1630:, some 1612:diatoms 1580:organic 1552:diatoms 1493:cysts, 1291:Related 1249:Kerogen 1174:Calcite 1095:Otolith 928:gladius 901:cuticle 870:Biofilm 843:General 793:in the 751:Bryozoa 443:Spiders 418:Mammals 413:Insects 178:Fossils 98:kingdom 84:to the 52: 6490: 6480: 6437: 6427: 6388: 6378: 6353: 6343: 6296: 6270: 6246: 6238: 6199: 6156: 6146: 6105: 6034: 6026: 5912: 5902: 5796: 5786: 5732: 5614: 5586: 5467: 5457: 5387: 5347: 5329: 5319: 5263: 5165: 5134: 5081: 5009: 4983:Nature 4874: 4727: 4720:123103 4717: 4627: 4592: 4564:Nature 4543: 4437: 4402: 4395:299818 4392: 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