191:). These are two of the main benefits that are associated with nanofiltration. Nanofiltration has a very favorable benefit of being able to process large volumes and continuously produce streams of products. Still, Nanofiltration is the least used method of membrane filtration in industry as the membrane pores sizes are limited to only a few nanometers. Anything smaller, reverse osmosis is used and anything larger is used for ultrafiltration. Ultrafiltration can also be used in cases where nanofiltration can be used, due to it being more conventional. A main disadvantage associated with nanotechnology, as with all membrane filter technology, is the cost and maintenance of the membranes used. Nanofiltration membranes are an expensive part of the process. Repairs and replacement of membranes is dependent on total dissolved solids, flow rate and components of the feed. With nanofiltration being used across various industries, only an estimation of replacement frequency can be used. This causes nanofilters to be replaced a short time before or after their prime usage is complete.
20:
263:, ensuring low concentration polarisation but also increasing energy costs. The tubes can either be self-supporting or supported by insertion into perforated metal tubes. This module design is limited for nanofiltration by the pressure they can withstand before bursting, limiting the maximum flux possible. Due to both the high energy operating costs of turbulent flow and the limiting burst pressure, tubular modules are more suited to 'dirty' applications where feeds have particulates such as filtering raw water to gain
76:(PET) and other similar materials, are referred to as "track-etch" membranes, named after the way the pores on the membranes are made. "Tracking" involves bombarding the polymer thin film with high energy particles. This results in making tracks that are chemically developed into the membrane, or "etched" into the membrane, which are the pores. Membranes created from metal such as alumina membranes, are made by electrochemically growing a thin layer of aluminum oxide from aluminum in an acidic medium.
486:, post-treatment of eitherpermeate or retentate flow streams (depending on the application) – is a necessary stage in industrial NF separation prior to commercial distribution of the product. The choice and order of unit operations employed in post-treatment is dependent on water quality regulations and the design of the NF system. Typical NF water purification post-treatment stages include aeration and disinfection & stabilisation.
402:
379:
528:(TFC), which consist of a number of extremely thin selective layers interfacially polymerized over a microporous substrate, have had commercial success in industrial membrane applications. Electrospunnanofibrous membrane layers (ENMs) enhances permeate flux. Energy-efficient alternatives to the commonly used spiral wound arrangement are hollow fibre membranes, which require less pre-treatment.
398:). The exclusion due to hydration is referred to as dielectric exclusion, a reference to the dielectric constants (energy) associated with a particles precense in solution versus within a membrane substrate. Solution pH strongly impacts surface charge, providing a method to understand and better control rejection.
389:
Because of the pore sizes, there are three modes of transport of solutes through the membrane. These include 1) diffusion (molecule travel due to concentration potential gradients, as seen through reverse osmosis membranes), 2) convection (travel with flow, like in larger pore size filtration such as
365:
to characterise the pore size and pore size distribution within the membrane. Initially all pores in the membrane are completely filled with a liquid and as such no permeation of a gas occurs, but after reducing the relative vapour pressure some gaps will start to form within the pores as dictated by
313:
For charged solutes, the ionic distribution of salts near the membrane-solution interface plays an important role in determining the retention characteristic of a membrane. If the charge of the membrane and the composition and concentration of the solution to be filtered is known, the distribution of
241:
that can hold several modules in series connected by O-rings. The module uses flat sheets wrapped around a central tube. The membranes are glued along three edges over a permeate spacer to form 'leaves'. The permeate spacer supports the membrane and conducts the permeate to the central permeate tube.
515:
The permeate water from a NF separation is demineralised and may be disposed to large changes in pH, thus providing a substantial risk of corrosion in piping and other equipment components. To increase the stability of the water, chemical addition of alkaline solutions such as lime and caustic soda
246:
environment near the surface of the membrane that discourages concentration polarisation. Once the leaves have been wound around the central tube, the module is wrapped in a casing layer and caps placed on the end of the cylinder to prevent 'telescoping' that can occur in high flow rate and pressure
409:
The transport and exclusion mechanisms are heavily influenced by membrane pore size, solvent viscosity, membrane thickness, solute diffusivity, solution temperature, solution pH, and membrane dielectric constant. The pore size distribution is also important. Modeling rejection accurately for NF is
199:
Industrial applications of membranes require hundreds to thousands of square meters of membranes and therefore an efficient way to reduce the footprint by packing them is required. Membranes first became commercially viable when low cost methods of housing in 'modules' were achieved. Membranes are
444:
NF units in drinking water purification range from extremely low salt rejection (<5% in 1001A membranes) to almost complete rejection (99% in 8040-TS80-TSA membranes.) Flow rates range from 25 to 60 m/day for each unit, so commercial filtration requires multiple NF units in parallel to process
393:
Additionally, the exclusion mechanisms in nanofiltration are more complex than in other forms of filtration. Most filtration systems operate solely by size (steric) exclusion, but at small length scales seen in nanofiltration, important effects include surface charge and hydration
200:
not self-supporting. They need to be stayed by a porous support that can withstand the pressures required to operate the NF membrane without hindering the performance of the membrane. To do this effectively, the module needs to provide a channel to remove the membrane
279:
These strategies work to reduce the magnitude of concentration polarisation and fouling. There is a range of techniques available however the most common is feed channel spacers as described in spiral wound modules. All of the strategies work by increasing
288:
in the flow near the membrane surface. Some of these strategies include vibrating the membrane, rotating the membrane, having a rotor disk above the membrane, pulsing the feed flow rate and introducing gas bubbling close to the surface of the membrane.
341:
between the atoms in the end of the tip and the surface. This is useful as a direct correlation between surface roughness and colloidal fouling has been developed. Correlations also exist between fouling and other morphology parameters, such as
187:), which greatly increases the cost of the process when continuous heating or cooling is applied. Performing gentle molecular separation is linked with nanofiltration that is often not included with other forms of separation processes (
506:
from the permeate stream. This is achieved by blowing air in a countercurrent direction to the water falling through packing material in the degasifier. The air effectively strips the unwanted gases from the water.
457:
204:
and provide appropriate flow condition that reduces the phenomena of concentration polarisation. A good design minimises pressure losses on both the feed side and permeate side and thus energy requirements.
213:
Concentration polarization describes the accumulation of the species being retained close to the surface of the membrane which reduces separation capabilities. It occurs because the particles are
1120:
Epsztein, Razi; Shaulsky, Evyatar; Dizge, Nadir; Warsinger, David M.; Elimelech, Menachem (2018-03-06). "Role of Ionic Charge
Density in Donnan Exclusion of Monovalent Anions by Nanofiltration".
325:(MWCO,) although in general an increase in molecular weight or solute size leads to an increase in retention. The charge and structure, pH of the solute, influence the retention characteristics.
310:
measurements can be categorised into performance parameters since the performance under natural conditions of a membrane is based on the ratio of solute retained/ permeated through the membrane.
40:
sized pores through which particles smaller than about 1–10 nanometers pass through the membrane. Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes of about 1–10 nanometers, smaller than those used in
702:
Westphal, Gisbert; Kristen, Gerhard; Wegener, Wilhelm; Ambatiello, Peter; Geyer, Helmut; Epron, Bernard; Bonal, Christian; Steinhauser, Georg; Götzfried, Franz (2010). "Sodium
Chloride".
52:. Membranes used are predominantly polymer thin films. It is used to soften, disinfect, and remove impurities from water, and to purify or separate chemicals such as pharmaceuticals.
740:
Rahimpour, A; et al. (2010). "Preparation and
Characterisation of Asymmetric Polyethersulfone and Thin-Film Composite Polyamide Nanofiltration Membranes for Water Softening".
337:(AFM) is one method used to characterise the surface roughness of a membrane by passing a small sharp tip (<100 Ă) across the surface of a membrane and measuring the resulting
595:
Roy, Yagnaseni; Warsinger, David M.; Lienhard, John H. (2017). "Effect of temperature on ion transport in nanofiltration membranes: Diffusion, convection and electromigration".
462:
Because NF permeate is rarely clean enough to be used as the final product for drinking water and other water purification, is it commonly used as a pre treatment step for
237:
Spiral wound modules are the most commonly used style of module and are 'standardized' design, available in a range of standard diameters (2.5", 4" and 8") to fit standard
1283:
Dražević, E.; Košutić, K.; Dananić, V.; Pavlović, D.M. (2013). "Coating Layer Effect on
Performance of Thin Film Nanofiltration Membrane in Removal of Organic Solutes".
704:
516:
is employed. Furthermore, disinfectants such as chlorine or chloroamine are added to the permeate, as well as phosphate or fluoride corrosion inhibitors in some cases.
456:
437:
Keeping in mind that NF is usually part of a composite system for purification, a single unit is chosen based on the design specifications for the NF unit. For
370:. Polymeric (non-porous) membranes cannot be subjected to this methodology as the condensable vapour should have a negligible interaction within the membrane.
849:
Mohammed, A.W.; et al. (2007). "Modelling the
Effects of Nanofiltration Membrane Properties on System Cost Assessment for Desalination Applications".
777:"Fundamentals of low-pressure nanofiltration: Membrane characterization, modeling, and understanding the multi-ionic interactions in water softening"
1077:
Grose, A.B.F; Smith, A.J.; Donn, A.; O'Donnell, J.; Welch, D. (1998). "Supplying High
Quality Drinking Water to Remote Communities in Scotland".
1241:
Subramanian, S; Seeran (2012). "New
Direction is Nanofiltration Applications- Are Nanofibres the Right Materials as Membranes in Desalination".
1313:
776:
1183:
721:
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many commercial membranes exist, coming from chemical families having diverse structures, chemical tolerances and salt rejections.
1003:
Schwinge, J.; Neal, P.R.; Wiley,D.E.; Fletcher, D.F.; Fane, A.G. (2004). "Spiral Wound
Modules and Spacers: Review and Analysis".
386:
Unlike membranes with larger and smaller pore sizes, passage of solutes through nanofiltration is significantly more complex.
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904:
541:
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Between each leaf, a mesh like feed spacer is inserted. The reason for the mesh like dimension of the spacer is to provide a
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In general, charged solutes are much more effectively rejected in NF than uncharged solutes, and multivalent solutes like
256:
1358:
525:
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72:, temperature and time during development with pore densities ranging from 1 to 106 pores per cm. Membranes made from
411:
1040:"The potentials of 3D-printed feed spacers in reducing the environmental footprint of membrane separation processes"
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One of the main advantages of nanofiltration as a method of softening water is that during the process of retaining
524:
Challenges in nanofiltration (NF) technology include minimising membrane fouling and reducing energy requirements.
73:
61:
19:
675:
Apel, P.Yu; et al. (2006). "Structure of
Polycarbonate Track-Etch: Origin of the "Paradoxical" Pore Shape".
217:
towards the membrane with the solvent and its magnitude is the balance between this convection caused by solvent
84:
Historically, nanofiltration and other membrane technology used for molecular separation was applied entirely on
259:
with bundles of tubes with the active surface of the membrane on the inside. Flow through the tubes is normally
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microfiltration), and 3) electromigration (attraction or repulsion from charges within and near the membrane).
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large quantities of feed water. The pressures required in these units are generally between 4.5 and 7.5 bar.
221:
and the particle transport away from the membrane due to the concentration gradient (predominantly caused by
1338:
334:
1201:"Formation of Thin Film Composite Nanofiltration Membrane: Effect of Polysulfone Substrate Characteristics"
656:
Baker, L.A.; Martin (2007). "Nanotechnology in
Biology and Medicine: Methods, Devices and Applications".
281:
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various salts can be found. This in turn can be combined with the known charge of the membrane and the
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ions, as used in ion exchangers. Many separation processes do not operate at room temperature (e.g.
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Nanofiltration has been extended into other industries such as milk and juice production as well as
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ions while passing smaller hydrated monovalent ions, filtration is performed without adding extra
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Primary rejection mechanisms that prevent solutes from entering the pores in nanofiltration.
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556: – Field of science involving control of matter on atomic and (supra)molecular scales
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271:' technique with foam balls are squeezed through the tubes, scouring the caked deposits.
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92:. Nanofilters "soften" water by retaining scale-forming divalent ions (e.g. Ca, Mg).
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systems. The original uses for nanofiltration were water treatment and in particular
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184:
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Wiley, D.E.; Schwinge, Fane (2004). "Novel Spacer Design Improves Observed Flux".
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Mechanisms through which solutes in nanofiltration transport through the membrane.
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225:.) Although concentration polarization is easily reversible, it can lead to
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Able to extract amino acids and lipids from blood and other cell culture.
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Membrane materials that are commonly used are polymer thin films such as
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Filtration method that uses nanometer sized pores in biological membranes
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1176:
Manual of Water Supply Practices in Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration
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in the Fyne process. The membranes can be easily cleaned through a '
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The morphology of a membrane is usually established by microscopy.
18:
1314:
Project ETAP-ERN, that uses renewable energies for desalinization
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550: – Materials whose granular size lies between 1 and 100 nm
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nanoparticles have been used to minimize for membrane fouling.
1178:. Denver: American Water Works Association. pp. 101–102.
562: – Filtration by force through a semipermeable membrane
318:
to predict the retention characteristics for that membrane.
775:
Labban, O.; Liu, C.; Chong, T.H.; Lienhard V, J.H. (2017).
69:
1199:
Misdan, N.; Lau, W.J.; Ismail, A.F.; Matsuura, T. (2013).
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very challenging. It can be done with applications of the
827:
Baker, L.A.; Martin, Choi (2006). "Current Nanoscience".
99:, fine chemicals, and flavour and fragrance industries.
452:
using a NF-RO system a typical process is shown below.
321:
Uncharged solutes cannot be characterised simply by
1270:
Nifty Nanofiltration, New Developments Show Promise
151:Enrichment of natural compounds Gentle Separations
829:Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine
658:Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine
1128:(7). American Chemical Society (ACS): 4108–4116.
474:As with other membrane based separations such as
544: – Uses for technology on very small scales
429:(valence of 2) experience very high rejection.
705:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1044:Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering
357:of porous membranes have also been found via
140:Continuous recovery of homogeneous catalysts
8:
116:Non-thermal solvent recovery and management
1323:Nano based methods to improve water quality
433:Typical figures for industrial applications
146:Natural Essential Oils and similar products
937:Nanofiltration Principles and Applications
1174:American Water Works Association (2007).
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899:. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
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48:, but a slightly bigger than those in
1325:- Hawk's Perch Technical Writing, LLC
1038:Ibrahim, Yazan; Hilal, Nidal (2023).
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68:. Pore dimensions are controlled by
7:
1272:(26 ed.). Water World Magazine.
897:Membrane Technology and Applications
568: – Water purification process
127:Removal of tar components in feed
118:Room temperature solvent exchange
113:Fine chemistry and Pharmaceuticals
14:
455:
255:Tubular modules look similar to
149:Fractionation of crude extracts
129:Purification of gas condensates
542:Applications of nanotechnology
511:Disinfection and stabilisation
374:Solute transport and rejection
257:shell and tube heat exchangers
24:Process diagram nanofiltration
1:
1099:10.1016/s0011-9164(98)00075-7
714:10.1002/14356007.a24_317.pub4
526:Thin film composite membranes
1297:10.1016/j.seppur.2013.07.031
1017:10.1016/j.memsci.2003.09.031
979:10.1016/j.memsci.2003.09.015
796:10.1016/j.memsci.2016.08.062
762:10.1016/j.apsusc.2009.09.089
689:10.1016/j.memsci.2006.05.045
167:Advantages and disadvantages
1255:10.1016/j.desal.2012.08.014
1228:10.1016/j.desal.2013.08.021
1005:Journal of Membrane Science
967:Journal of Membrane Science
871:10.1016/j.desal.2006.02.068
784:Journal of Membrane Science
677:Journal of Membrane Science
617:10.1016/j.desal.2017.07.020
439:drinking water purification
124:Oil and Petroleum chemistry
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1056:10.1016/j.jece.2022.109249
361:, making use of differing
209:Concentration polarisation
74:polyethylene terephthalate
62:polyethylene terephthalate
466:(RO) as is shown above.
353:Methods to determine the
275:Flux enhancing strategies
500:fibre-reinforced plastic
323:Molecular Weight Cut Off
1142:10.1021/acs.est.7b06400
895:Baker, Richard (2004).
742:Applied Surface Science
708:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
335:Atomic force microscopy
412:Nernst–Planck equation
406:
383:
350:for more information.
298:Performance parameters
284:and generating a high
26:
935:Schafer, A.I (2005).
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329:Morphology parameters
80:Range of applications
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939:. Oxford: Elsevier.
195:Design and operation
1359:Membrane technology
1220:2013Desal.329....9M
1134:2018EnST...52.4108E
1091:1998Desal.117..107G
863:2007Desal.206..215M
754:2010ApSS..256.1657R
609:2017Desal.420..241R
339:Van der Waals force
316:Gibbs–Donnan effect
233:Spiral wound module
34:membrane filtration
1354:Water desalination
1268:Pearce, G (2013).
496:Polyvinyl chloride
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138:Product Polishing
64:or metals such as
36:process that uses
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1318:(in Spanish)
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1246:
1243:Desalination
1242:
1236:
1211:
1208:Desalination
1207:
1194:
1175:
1125:
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1115:
1082:
1079:Desalination
1078:
1072:
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1008:
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185:distillation
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29:
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23:
1291:: 530–539.
603:: 241–257.
1333:Categories
1050:: 109249.
946:1856174050
906:0470854456
573:References
344:hydrophobe
308:permeation
202:permeation
1150:0013-936X
1107:0011-9164
1064:255328712
1025:0376-7388
987:0376-7388
790:: 18–32.
635:0011-9164
498:(PVC) or
261:turbulent
223:diffusion
215:convected
177:magnesium
66:aluminium
56:Membranes
38:nanometer
1214:: 9–18.
1158:29510032
879:98373166
814:55716778
536:See also
490:Aeration
355:porosity
157:Medicine
105:Industry
1349:Filters
1249:: 198.
1216:Bibcode
1130:Bibcode
1087:Bibcode
859:Bibcode
750:Bibcode
664:: 1–24.
643:4280417
605:Bibcode
304:solutes
269:pigging
227:fouling
173:calcium
86:aqueous
1182:
1156:
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1023:
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282:eddies
181:sodium
1204:(PDF)
1060:S2CID
875:S2CID
810:S2CID
780:(PDF)
639:S2CID
286:shear
108:Uses
32:is a
1180:ISBN
1154:PMID
1146:ISSN
1103:ISSN
1021:ISSN
983:ISSN
941:ISBN
901:ISBN
718:ISBN
631:ISSN
482:and
366:the
306:and
219:flux
175:and
44:and
1293:doi
1289:118
1251:doi
1247:308
1224:doi
1212:329
1138:doi
1095:doi
1083:117
1052:doi
1013:doi
1009:242
975:doi
971:229
867:doi
855:206
800:hdl
792:doi
788:521
758:doi
746:256
710:doi
685:doi
681:282
621:hdl
613:doi
601:420
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1166:^
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581:^
494:A
478:,
419:SO
70:pH
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989:.
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881:.
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816:.
802::
794::
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712::
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687::
662:9
645:.
623::
615::
607::
424:4
394:(
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