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located in various areas, such as the pituitary stalk, the pineal gland, the area postrema, the choroid plexus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and the median eminence . In the meninges, they are found within the dural layer in association with vessels and terminals of meningeal nociceptors . MCs have a distinct feature compared to other hematopoietic cells in that they reside in the brain . MCs contain numerous granules and secrete an abundance of prestored mediators such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), neurotensin (NT), substance P (SP), tryptase, chymase, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), TNF, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and varieties of chemokines and cytokines some of which are known to disrupt the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) .
859:
intimately involved in synaptic plasticity. Despite their prevalence and spectrum of functions, appreciation of their potential general importance has been elusive since their identification in the mid-1800s, and only relatively recently have they been gaining their due respect. This development of appreciation has been nurtured by the growing awareness that drugs of abuse, including the psychostimulants, affect glial activity, and glial activity, in turn, has been found to modulate the effects of the psychostimulants
563:
488:
233:
515:, and has been found to upregulate inflammatory mediating molecules. Glial cells can effectively recognize pathogens in both the central nervous system and in peripheral tissues. When glial cells recognize foreign pathogens through the use of cytokine and chemokine signaling, they are able to relay this information to the CNS. The result is an increase in depressive symptoms. Chronic activation of glial cells however leads to
3637:
2834:
396:. This binding results in an electrical impulse that creates the sensation of pain. Growing evidence suggests that auto-immune T-cells are involved in neurogenesis. Studies have shown that during times of adaptive immune system response, hippocampal neurogenesis is increased, and conversely that auto-immune T-cells and microglia are important for neurogenesis (and so memory and learning) in healthy adults.
3667:
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37:
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652:, also cause other immune cells to secrete further pruritogens in an effort to cause more itching to physically remove parasitic invaders. In terms of intestinal and bronchial parasites, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and diarrhea can also be caused by nociceptor stimulation in infected tissues, and nerve impulses originating from the
2392:
1165:
MCs originate from a bone marrow progenitor and subsequently develop different phenotype characteristics locally in tissues. Their range of functions is wide and includes participation in allergic reactions, innate and adaptive immunity, inflammation, and autoimmunity . In the human brain, MCs can be
858:
Glia (including astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes), which constitute the majority of cells in the brain, have many of the same receptors as neurons, secrete neurotransmitters and neurotrophic and neuroinflammatory factors, control clearance of neurotransmitters from synaptic clefts, and are
647:
The neuroimmune system is involved in reflexes associated with parasitic invasions of hosts. Nociceptors are also associated with the body's reflexes to pathogens as they are in strategic locations, such as airways and intestinal tissues, to induce muscle contractions that cause scratching, vomiting,
446:
of the nervous system. This causes the combined response of both a resulting action potential due to the depolarization created by the influx of calcium and potassium ions, and the activation of inflammasomes. The produced action potential is also responsible for the sensation of pain, and the immune
678:
and other immune molecules cause a hypersensitization of sensory neurons in bronchial airways that produce enhanced symptoms. It has also been reported that increased immune cell secretions of neurotrophins in response to pollutants and irritants can restructure the peripheral network of nerves in
387:
The neuro-immune system, and study of, comprises an understanding of the immune and neurological systems and the cross-regulatory impacts of their functions. Cytokines regulate immune responses, possibly through activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Cytokines have also been
687:
It has been demonstrated that prolonged psychological stress could be linked with increased risk of infection via viral respiratory infection. Studies, in animals, indicate that psychological stress raises glucocorticoid levels and eventually, an increase in susceptibility to streptococcal skin
586:
in the spine, which then innervate effector muscles and cause a sudden jerk to move the organism away from the dangerous stimuli. The withdrawal reflex involves both the nervous and immune systems. When the action potential travels back down the spinal nerve network, another impulse travels to
1107:
Astrocytes have many functions in the central nervous system (CNS). ... they are responsible for formation of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and make up the glia limitans. Here, we review their contribution to neuroimmune interactions and in particular to those induced by the invasion of
638:
Neuroimmune connections and the vagus nerve have also been highlighted more recently as essential to maintaining homeostasis in the context of novel viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 This is especially relevant when considering the role of the vagus nerve in regulating systemic inflammation via the
1169:
They key role of MCs in inflammation and in the disruption of the BBB suggests areas of importance for novel therapy research. Increasing evidence also indicates that MCs participate in neuroinflammation directly and through microglia stimulation , contributing to the pathogenesis of such
207:
are normally present in the neuroimmune system. However, during a neuroimmune response, certain peripheral immune cells are able to cross various blood or fluid–brain barriers in order to respond to pathogens that have entered the brain. For example, there is evidence that following injury
419:. Hemolysins create pores causing a depolarizing release of potassium ions from inside the eukaryotic cell and an influx of calcium ions. Together this results in an action potential in sensory neurons and the activation of inflammasomes.
763:
Preclinical and clinical studies have shown that cellular (microglia/macrophages, leukocytes, astrocytes, and mast cells, etc.) and molecular neuroimmune responses contribute to secondary brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage.
534:. Following apoptosis, dead neurons secrete chemical signals that bind to microglial cells and cause them to devour harmful debris from the surrounding nervous tissue. Microglia and the complement system are also associated with
1170:
conditions such as headaches, autism , and chronic fatigue syndrome . In fact, a recent review indicated that peripheral inflammatory stimuli can cause microglia activation , thus possibly involving MCs outside the brain.
920:
Collectively, these pathological processes contribute to neurotoxicity (e.g., increased BBB permeability, inflammation, neuronal degeneration, cell death) and neuropsychiatric impairments (e.g., cognitive deficits, mood
734:(MMP) from activated astrocyte cells onto neighboring neurons. Astrocytes that remain in an activated state form glial scars that also prevent the re-myelination of neurons, as they are a physical impediment to
648:
and coughing. These reflexes are all designed to eject pathogens from the body. For example, scratching is induced by pruritogens that stimulate nociceptors on epidermal tissues. These pruritogens, like
1443:
Ziv Y, Ron N, Butovsky O, Landa G, Sudai E, Greenberg N, Cohen H, Kipnis J, Schwartz M (2006). "Immune cells contribute to the maintenance of neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood".
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Zhu H, Wang Z, Yu J, Yang X, He F, Liu Z, Che F, Chen X, Ren H, Hong M, Wang J (March 2019). "Role and mechanisms of cytokines in the secondary brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage".
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implicated in the coordination between the nervous and immune systems. Instances of cytokine binding to neural receptors have been documented between the cytokine releasing immune cell
1236:
Stephan, Alexander H.; Barres, Ben A.; Stevens, Beth (2012-01-01). "The
Complement System: An Unexpected Role in Synaptic Pruning During Development and Disease".
66:
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195:
The neuroimmune system and peripheral immune system are structurally distinct. Unlike the peripheral system, the neuroimmune system is composed primarily of
1495:
McMahon, Stephen; La Russa, Federica; Bennett, David (June 19, 2015). "Crosstalk between the nociceptive and immune systems in host defence and disease".
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play a prominent role as a mediator between neuron-glial cell communication since both cell types express chemokine receptors. For example, the chemokine
3166:
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that further promote Aβ deposition. It has been shown that in
Alzheimer's disease, amyloid-β directly activates microglia and other monocytes to produce
635:
cells and stimulates the secretion of mucus; this impulse can also cause ejection of the toxin by muscle contractions that cause vomiting or diarrhea.
3507:
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naturally occur in the brain where they mediate interactions between gut microbes, the immune system, and the central nervous system as part of the
3106:
760:, as both are a result of the hypersensitized state of sensory neurons due to the release of immune molecules and positive feedback mechanisms.
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Although inflammation is typically thought of as an immune response, there is an orchestration of neural processes involved with the
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process of the immune system. Following injury or infection, there is a cascade of inflammatory responses such as the secretion of
403:
and immune cells to detect and respond to noxious or harmful stimuli. For example, invading bacteria may simultaneously activate
735:
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in response to the detection of toxins and pathogens. This electrical impulse that travels down from the brain stem travels to
592:
331:
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that allow for immune cell entry into the CNS; these recruited immune cells target both pathogens and damaged nervous tissue.
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Astrocytes are another type of glial cell that among other functions, modulate the entry of immune cells into the CNS via the
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also have an enhanced cough reflex to pathogens even if the pathogen has been expelled. In both cases, the release of
1067:"Immune privilege as an intrinsic CNS property: astrocytes protect the CNS against T-cell-mediated neuroinflammation"
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as their secretions of cytokines, growth factors and other complements all aid in the removal of obsolete synapses.
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and a restructuring of neurons. The neuroimmune system may play a role in recovery outcomes after a CNS injury.
599:. These chemicals act by increasing the redness, swelling of damaged tissues, and attachment of immune cells to
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511:(DRG) neurons in the spinal cord. Fractalkine has been associated with hypersensitivity to pain when injected
177:
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that is associated with the disease. This demyelinating effect is a result of the secretion of cytokines and
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is a reflex that protects an organism from harmful stimuli. This reflex occurs when noxious stimuli activate
526:
Microglial cells are of the most prominent types of glial cells in the brain. One of their main functions is
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activated T cells. ... Within the central nervous system (CNS), astrocytes are the most abundant cells.
58:
363:. These signals prompt local immune responses and transmit to the CNS through humoral and neural pathways.
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49:-mediated neuroimmune response to methamphetamine use which results in the increased permeability of the
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176:. It serves to protect neurons against disease by maintaining selectively permeable barriers (e.g., the
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1861:"Neuroprotective and neurotoxic properties of glial cells in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease"
816:
Beardsley PM, Hauser KF (2014). "Glial
Modulators as Potential Treatments of Psychostimulant Abuse".
657:
508:
352:
340:
314:
157:
1589:"Neuroimmune crosstalk in the central nervous system and its significance for neurological diseases"
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2075:"Potential therapeutic targets for intracerebral hemorrhage-associated inflammation: An update"
1281:"Autonomic nervous system and neuroimmune interactions: New insights and clinical implications"
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1996:
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and immune cell types and which are responsible for a neuroimmune signaling process include:
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1804:"It takes nerves to fight infections: insights on neuro-immune interactions from C. elegans"
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54:
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1420:
1403:
939:
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474:). Together, this coupled neuroimmune response has an amplifying effect on inflammation.
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1755:"Approach to chronic cough: the neuropathic basis for cough hypersensitivity syndrome"
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Neurons and glial cells work in conjunction to combat intruding pathogens and injury.
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of the immune system migrate into the spinal cord. Production of immune cells of the
189:
165:
41:
This diagram depicts the neuroimmune mechanisms that mediate methamphetamine-induced
2151:
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injury via an increase in excitability and a decrease in inhibition, which leads to
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696:
670:, can trigger further sensory sensitization to the molecule. Patients with chronic
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Different types of glial cells including microglia, astroglia and oligodendrocytes.
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have also been documented as being created directly in the central nervous system.
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Basic
Neurochemistry: Principles of Molecular, Cellular and Medical Neurobiology
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467:
408:
351:, namely the interactions of enteric neurons and glial cells. These engage with
196:
153:
36:
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Loftis JM, Janowsky A (2014). "Neuroimmune Basis of
Methamphetamine Toxicity".
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703:(Aβ) deposits, but also become dysfunctional as disease progresses, producing
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Emerging
Targets & Therapeutics in the Treatment of Psychostimulant Abuse
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1640:"Understanding the Pivotal Role of the Vagus Nerve in Health from Pandemics"
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2016:"Neuroimmune System as a Driving Force for Plasticity Following CNS Injury"
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Polyzoidis S, Koletsa T, Panagiotidou S, Ashkan K, Theoharides TC (2015).
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Figure 7.1: Neuroimmune mechanisms of methamphetamine-induced CNS toxicity
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The neuroimmune system is essential for increasing plasticity following a
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2200:
Figure7.1: Neuroimmune mechanisms of methamphetamine-induced CNS toxicity
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882:. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 118. pp. 165–197.
620:
616:
455:
423:
173:
46:
1402:
Talbot, SĂ©bastien; Foster, Simmie; Woolf, Clifford (February 22, 2016).
137:
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3055:
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2916:
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Ren H, Han R, Chen X, Liu X, Wan J, Wang L, Yang X, Wang J (May 2020).
1918:"The neuroimmune system in Alzheimer's disease: the glass is half full"
1819:
1541:
Miller, Richard; Hosung, Jung; Bhangoo, Sonia; Fletcher, White (2009).
512:
753:
500:
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system produces IL-1 β as a result of the ATP P2X7 receptor binding.
213:
169:
90:
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1204:
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in damaged neurons, and mobilizing host defenses against pathogens.
2391:
1456:
603:
tissue, thereby increasing the permeability of immune cells across
1967:"Astrocytes in Multiple Sclerosis: a Product of their environment"
961:"Role of sigma receptors in methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity"
757:
679:
the airways to allow for a more primed state for sensory neurons.
671:
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connects to the gut and airways and elicits nerve impulses to the
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1965:
Nair, Aji; Frederick, Terra; Miller, Stephen (September 2008).
1118:
1116:
227:
1587:
Tian, Li; Ma, Li; Kaarela, Tiina; Li, Zhilin (July 2, 2012).
399:
The neuroimmune system uses complementary processes of both
2862:
1189:"Emerging targets in neuroinflammation-driven chronic pain"
873:
871:
869:
867:
415:), and depolarize sensory neurons through the secretion of
695:. In particular, microglia may be protective by promoting
263:
The key cellular components of the neuroimmune system are
820:. Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 69. pp. 1–69.
1802:
Kawli, Trupti; He, Fanglian; Tan, Man-Wah (2010-01-01).
1013:"The molecular basis for neuroimmune receptor signaling"
1006:
1004:
244:
152:
is a system of structures and processes involving the
545:(BBB). Astrocytes also release various cytokines and
430:(ATP) from damaged cells binds to and activates both
1187:
Ji, Ru-Rong; Xu, Zhen-Zhong; Gao, Yong-Jing (2014).
1065:
Gimsa U, Mitchison NA, Brunner-Weinzierl MC (2013).
880:
Neuroimmune
Signaling in Drug Actions and Addictions
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2722:
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1638:Rangon, Claire-Marie; Niezgoda, Adam (2022-07-29).
1545:. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. pp. 417–449.
118:
113:
103:
98:
29:
1125:"Mast cells in meningiomas and brain inflammation"
426:also cause a neuroimmune response. The release of
1326:Brady, Scott T.; Siegel, George J. (2012-01-01).
355:and local macrophages, sensing signals from the
53:arises through its binding at and activation of
2014:O’Reilly, Micaela L.; Tom, Veronica J. (2020).
1859:Farfara, D.; Lifshitz, V.; Frenkel, D. (2008).
1697:Rosas-Ballina, M.; Tracey, K. J. (June 2009).
707:, ceasing to clear Aβ deposits, and producing
347:Neuroimmunity is additionally mediated by the
2878:
2220:
503:has been implicated in communication between
367:and signals from immune cells can access the
67:damage-associated molecular pattern molecules
8:
2755:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
752:The neuroimmune system is also involved in
3167:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
2912:
2885:
2871:
2863:
2227:
2213:
2205:
1865:Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine
35:
3508:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
2178:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2098:
2049:
2031:
1990:
1941:
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1835:
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1722:
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1655:
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1604:
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1212:
1150:
1140:
1092:
1082:
1036:
984:
905:
843:
615:Neuroimmune interactions also occur when
718:Astrocytes have also been implicated in
639:Cholinergic Anti-inflammatory Pathway.
587:peripheral sensory neurons that secrete
561:
801:
691:The neuroimmune system plays a role in
611:Reflex response to pathogens and toxins
1582:
1404:"Neuroimmune Physiology and Pathology"
1397:
1395:
1393:
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1389:
1387:
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1377:
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959:Kaushal N, Matsumoto RR (March 2011).
935:
925:
722:(MS). Astrocytes are responsible for
135:
26:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1699:"Cholinergic control of inflammation"
1580:
1578:
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1534:
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1421:10.1146/annurev-immunol-041015-055340
1367:
1365:
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1359:
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1355:
1353:
1351:
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7:
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3407:Physical medicine and rehabilitation
2845:
1971:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
1279:Benarroch, Eduardo E. (2019-02-19).
1182:
1180:
1178:
623:, or toxins invade an organism. The
3656:
1771:10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2014.08.41
1250:10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113810
530:cellular debris following neuronal
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2020:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience
888:10.1016/B978-0-12-801284-0.00007-5
826:10.1016/B978-0-12-420118-7.00001-9
462:that couple with the secretion of
85:, and excessive calcium influx in
25:
2735:Development of the nervous system
470:) and neurotransmitters (such as
283:of the peripheral immune system,
182:blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier
3675:
3665:
3655:
3645:
3636:
3635:
2844:
2833:
2832:
2390:
1916:Hickman SE, El Khoury J (2013).
1877:10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00314.x
1715:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2009.02098.x
736:oligodendrocyte progenitor cells
332:Trace amine-associated receptors
231:
3676:
2136:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2019.03.003
1808:Disease Models & Mechanisms
593:calcitonin gene-related peptide
3533:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
2967:Oral and maxillofacial surgery
69:(DAMPs), the dysregulation of
57:, the increased production of
1:
2576:Social cognitive neuroscience
1657:10.3390/bioengineering9080352
1408:Annual Review of Neuroscience
1238:Annual Review of Neuroscience
1193:Nature Reviews Drug Discovery
483:Neuron-glial cell interaction
3513:Bachelor of Medical Sciences
3280:Neurosurgical anesthesiology
2551:Molecular cellular cognition
1753:Chung, Kian (October 2014).
1703:Journal of Internal Medicine
1593:Journal of Neuroinflammation
1297:10.1212/WNL.0000000000006942
643:Reflex response to parasites
2770:Neurodevelopmental disorder
2745:Neural network (biological)
2740:Neural network (artificial)
1759:Journal of Thoracic Disease
1497:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
359:, including those from the
295:G protein-coupled receptors
203:of the immune system, only
3718:
2297:Computational neuroscience
977:10.2174/157015911795016930
656:that innervate respective
438:of the immune system, and
3631:
2828:
2765:Neurodegenerative disease
2609:Evolutionary neuroscience
2388:
2242:
1983:10.1007/s00018-008-8059-5
1142:10.1186/s12974-015-0388-3
1029:10.1007/s11481-012-9398-4
732:matrix metalloproteinases
297:that are present in both
289:microbiota–gut–brain axis
160:interactions between the
130:
63:reactive nitrogen species
34:
3467:Transplantation medicine
3358:Clinical neurophysiology
3275:Obstetric anesthesiology
3195:Interventional radiology
2955:Digestive system surgery
2730:Brain–computer interface
2679:Neuromorphic engineering
2604:Educational neuroscience
2511:Nutritional neuroscience
2416:Clinical neurophysiology
2312:Integrative neuroscience
2175:Neuroimmune Pharmacology
2091:10.1177/0271678X20923551
2079:J Cereb Blood Flow Metab
2033:10.3389/fncel.2020.00187
392:and the neural receptor
377:circumventricular organs
45:in the human brain. The
3338:Intensive care medicine
3312:Mass gathering medicine
3157:Maternal–fetal medicine
2541:Behavioral neuroscience
1934:10.3233/JAD-2012-129027
1606:10.1186/1742-2094-9-155
1017:J Neuroimmune Pharmacol
726:and the destruction of
591:and neuropeptides like
59:reactive oxygen species
2930:Cardiothoracic surgery
2536:Affective neuroscience
2317:Molecular neuroscience
2272:Behavioral epigenetics
775:Central nervous system
567:
492:
428:adenosine triphosphate
349:enteric nervous system
132:Anatomical terminology
71:glutamate transporters
3581:Personalized medicine
3440:Reproductive medicine
3365:Occupational medicine
3319:Evolutionary medicine
2599:Cultural neuroscience
2594:Consumer neuroscience
2436:Neurogastroenterology
2292:Cellular neuroscience
1928:(Suppl 1): S295–302.
1765:(Suppl 7): S699–707.
683:Clinical significance
565:
490:
478:Neuroimmune responses
353:enteroendocrine cells
315:Cannabinoid receptors
3601:Traditional medicine
3561:Alternative medicine
3428:Addiction psychiatry
3242:Transfusion medicine
3237:Medical microbiology
3152:Gynecologic oncology
3004:Reproductive surgery
2571:Sensory neuroscience
2411:Behavioral neurology
2382:Systems neuroscience
2170:Gendelman, Howard E.
509:dorsal root ganglion
158:electrophysiological
3623:History of medicine
3606:Veterinary medicine
3413:Preventive medicine
3265:Adolescent medicine
3107:Infectious diseases
2714:Social neuroscience
2614:Global neurosurgery
2491:Neurorehabilitation
2461:Neuro-ophthalmology
2446:Neurointensive care
2277:Behavioral genetics
1129:J Neuroinflammation
1084:10.1155/2013/320519
965:Curr Neuropharmacol
693:Alzheimer's disease
543:blood–brain barrier
383:Cellular physiology
281:hematopoietic cells
201:hematopoietic cells
178:blood–brain barrier
51:blood–brain barrier
3571:Molecular oncology
3528:Doctor of Medicine
3518:Master of Medicine
3435:Radiation oncology
3307:Emergency medicine
3260:Addiction medicine
3227:Clinical chemistry
3222:Clinical pathology
3014:Transplant surgery
2972:Orthopedic surgery
2950:Colorectal surgery
2790:Neuroimmune system
2684:Neurophenomenology
2624:Neural engineering
2347:Neuroendocrinology
2327:Neural engineering
1820:10.1242/dmm.003871
1814:(11–12): 721–731.
1332:. Academic Press.
1011:Rogers TJ (2012).
720:multiple sclerosis
568:
493:
373:neurovascular unit
341:ÎĽ-Opioid receptors
243:. You can help by
150:neuroimmune system
83:glucose metabolism
30:Neuroimmune system
3689:
3688:
3523:Master of Surgery
3487:
3486:
3472:Tropical medicine
3418:Prison healthcare
3333:Hospital medicine
3297:Disaster medicine
3287:Aviation medicine
3102:Hospital medicine
3009:Surgical oncology
2994:Pediatric surgery
2988:
2935:Endocrine surgery
2860:
2859:
2709:Paleoneurobiology
2644:Neuroepistemology
2619:Neuroanthropology
2585:Interdisciplinary
2471:Neuropharmacology
2431:Neuroepidemiology
1922:J. Alzheimers Dis
1552:978-3-540-79090-7
1071:Mediators Inflamm
572:withdrawal reflex
566:Withdrawal reflex
558:Withdrawal reflex
521:neuroinflammation
517:neurodegeneration
261:
260:
218:complement system
186:neuroinflammation
146:
145:
141:
55:sigma-1 receptors
43:neurodegeneration
16:(Redirected from
3709:
3679:
3678:
3669:
3659:
3658:
3649:
3648:
3639:
3638:
3343:Medical genetics
3328:General practice
3205:Nuclear medicine
3080:Gastroenterology
3036:Vascular surgery
2986:
2913:
2887:
2880:
2873:
2864:
2848:
2847:
2836:
2835:
2750:Detection theory
2634:Neurocriminology
2561:Neurolinguistics
2476:Neuroprosthetics
2394:
2357:Neuroinformatics
2307:Imaging genetics
2229:
2222:
2215:
2206:
2189:
2168:Ikezu, Tsuneya;
2156:
2155:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2102:
2085:(9): 1752–1768.
2070:
2064:
2063:
2053:
2035:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1994:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1945:
1913:
1907:
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1344:
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1062:
1051:
1050:
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998:
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956:
950:
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937:
933:
931:
923:
909:
875:
862:
861:
847:
813:
728:oligodendrocytes
580:action potential
536:synaptic pruning
407:, which process
279:. Unlike other
277:oligodendrocytes
256:
253:
235:
228:
199:; among all the
138:edit on Wikidata
39:
27:
21:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3685:
3627:
3616:Chief physician
3549:
3494:
3483:
3477:Travel medicine
3462:Sports medicine
3445:Sexual medicine
3385:Palliative care
3380:Pain management
3324:Family medicine
3302:Diving medicine
3248:
3176:
3138:
3131:
3047:
3040:
2999:Plastic surgery
2945:General surgery
2925:Cardiac surgery
2906:
2904:
2896:
2891:
2861:
2856:
2824:
2810:Neurotechnology
2805:Neuroplasticity
2800:Neuromodulation
2795:Neuromanagement
2718:
2689:Neurophilosophy
2586:
2580:
2566:Neuropsychology
2527:
2520:
2481:Neuropsychiatry
2441:Neuroimmunology
2426:Neurocardiology
2402:
2395:
2386:
2377:Neurophysiology
2367:Neuromorphology
2322:Neural decoding
2263:
2256:
2238:
2233:
2196:
2186:
2167:
2164:
2162:Further reading
2159:
2124:Prog. Neurobiol
2121:
2120:
2116:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1977:(17): 2702–20.
1964:
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1509:10.1038/nrn3946
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1230:
1205:10.1038/nrd4334
1186:
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934:
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876:
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836:
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799:
794:
770:
699:and removal of
685:
666:in response to
645:
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560:
555:
485:
480:
401:sensory neurons
385:
257:
251:
248:
241:needs expansion
226:
142:
94:
73:(specifically,
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3554:Related topics
3551:
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3503:Medical school
3499:
3497:
3489:
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3459:
3457:Sleep medicine
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3277:
3270:Anesthesiology
3267:
3262:
3256:
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3200:Neuroradiology
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3137:Obstetrics and
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3021:
3019:Trauma surgery
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2982:Otolaryngology
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2921:
2919:
2910:
2908:subspecialties
2898:
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2889:
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2875:
2867:
2858:
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2829:
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2823:
2822:
2820:Self-awareness
2817:
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2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2775:Neurodiversity
2772:
2767:
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2719:
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2696:
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2686:
2681:
2676:
2674:Neuromarketing
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2649:Neuroesthetics
2646:
2641:
2639:Neuroeconomics
2636:
2631:
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2616:
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2606:
2601:
2596:
2590:
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2522:
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2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2486:Neuroradiology
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2466:Neuropathology
2463:
2458:
2456:Neuro-oncology
2453:
2448:
2443:
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2433:
2428:
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2407:
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2349:
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2342:Neurochemistry
2339:
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2319:
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2203:
2202:
2195:
2194:External links
2192:
2191:
2190:
2184:
2172:(2008-03-21).
2163:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2114:
2065:
2006:
1957:
1908:
1871:(3): 762–780.
1851:
1794:
1738:
1709:(6): 663–679.
1689:
1644:Bioengineering
1630:
1558:
1551:
1543:Sensory Nerves
1530:
1503:(7): 389–402.
1478:
1457:10.1038/nn1629
1435:
1345:
1338:
1318:
1291:(8): 377–385.
1271:
1244:(1): 369–389.
1228:
1199:(7): 533–548.
1174:
1112:
1052:
1000:
951:
936:|journal=
896:
863:
834:
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793:
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769:
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747:synaptogenesis
684:
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658:smooth muscles
644:
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612:
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559:
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484:
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384:
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345:
344:
343:– all subtypes
338:
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259:
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168:which protect
162:nervous system
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3702:Immune system
3700:
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3586:Public health
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3566:Allied health
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3375:Oral medicine
3373:
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3370:Ophthalmology
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3232:Cytopathology
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3172:Urogynecology
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3075:Endocrinology
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2704:Neurotheology
2702:
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2699:Neurorobotics
2697:
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2694:Neuropolitics
2692:
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2685:
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2659:Neuroethology
2657:
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2559:
2557:
2556:Motor control
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:Chronobiology
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2514:
2512:
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2506:Neurovirology
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2502:
2499:
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2352:Neurogenetics
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2308:
2305:
2303:
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2290:
2288:
2287:Brain-reading
2285:
2283:
2282:Brain mapping
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
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2066:
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2043:
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2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1912:
1909:
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1900:
1895:
1890:
1886:
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1445:Nat. Neurosci
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780:Immune system
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547:neurotrophins
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524:
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464:neuropeptides
461:
457:
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445:
442:receptors of
441:
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434:receptors on
433:
429:
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420:
418:
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410:
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405:inflammasomes
402:
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239:This section
237:
234:
230:
229:
223:
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211:
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202:
198:
193:
191:
190:wound healing
187:
184:), mediating
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
166:immune system
163:
159:
155:
151:
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129:
126:
123:
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97:
92:
89:and dopamine
88:
84:
80:
76:
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68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
38:
33:
28:
19:
3591:Rural health
3576:Nanomedicine
3127:Rheumatology
3058: /
2977:Hand surgery
2962:Neurosurgery
2849:
2837:
2789:
2785:Neuroimaging
2780:Neurogenesis
2664:Neurohistory
2629:Neurobiotics
2528:neuroscience
2496:Neurosurgery
2421:Epileptology
2403:neuroscience
2372:Neurophysics
2362:Neurometrics
2337:Neurobiology
2332:Neuroanatomy
2302:Connectomics
2236:Neuroscience
2174:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2082:
2078:
2068:
2023:
2019:
2009:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1925:
1921:
1911:
1868:
1864:
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1758:
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1500:
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1231:
1196:
1192:
1164:
1132:
1128:
1106:
1074:
1070:
1023:(4): 722–4.
1020:
1016:
971:(1): 54–57.
968:
964:
954:
919:
879:
857:
817:
762:
756:and chronic
751:
740:
717:
697:phagocytosis
690:
688:infections.
686:
662:
646:
637:
614:
569:
540:
525:
494:
452:inflammatory
449:
421:
409:interleukins
398:
386:
369:hypothalamus
365:Interleukins
346:
293:
267:, including
262:
252:October 2016
249:
245:adding to it
240:
194:
149:
147:
3661:Wikiproject
3450:Venereology
3395:Neonatology
3292:Dermatology
3147:Gynaecology
3139:gynaecology
3122:Pulmonology
2940:Eye surgery
2902:Specialties
2654:Neuroethics
2501:Neurotology
713:neurotoxins
705:neurotoxins
676:eosinophils
664:Eosinophils
625:vagus nerve
605:capillaries
601:endothelial
597:Substance P
595:(CGRP) and
589:amino acids
576:nociceptors
501:fractalkine
468:substance P
444:nociceptors
436:macrophages
422:Injury and
308:receptors:
265:glial cells
210:macrophages
197:glial cells
154:biochemical
114:Identifiers
109:Neuroimmune
87:glial cells
65:(RNS), and
18:Neuroimmune
3423:Psychiatry
3409:(PM&R)
3402:Phlebology
3390:Pediatrics
3217:Anatomical
3182:Diagnostic
3162:Obstetrics
3112:Nephrology
3097:Hematology
3092:Geriatrics
3085:Hepatology
3070:Cardiology
3060:Immunology
2815:Neurotoxin
2516:Psychiatry
2130:: 101610.
1650:(8): 352.
1414:: 421–47.
1135:(1): 170.
921:disorders)
797:References
785:Immunology
654:brain stem
497:Chemokines
460:chemokines
417:hemolysins
361:microbiota
285:mast cells
269:astrocytes
205:mast cells
3611:Physician
3495:education
3353:Neurology
3348:Narcology
3212:Pathology
3190:Radiology
3065:Angiology
3029:Andrology
2760:Neurochip
2526:Cognitive
2451:Neurology
2042:1662-5102
1885:1582-1838
1828:1754-8403
1666:2306-5354
1473:205430936
1305:0028-3878
1285:Neurology
938:ignored (
928:cite book
790:Neurology
709:cytokines
701:amyloid-β
668:capsaicin
650:histamine
629:brainstem
621:allergens
617:pathogens
532:apoptosis
505:microglia
472:serotonin
466:(such as
456:cytokines
357:gut lumen
306:Chemokine
273:microglia
224:Structure
174:pathogens
3696:Category
3641:Category
3117:Oncology
3048:medicine
3046:Internal
2894:Medicine
2839:Category
2723:Concepts
2669:Neurolaw
2401:Clinical
2152:85495400
2144:30923023
2109:32423330
2060:32792908
2001:18516496
1952:22751176
1903:18363841
1846:20829562
1789:25383203
1733:19493060
1684:36004877
1625:22747919
1525:22294761
1517:26087680
1465:16415867
1430:26907213
1313:30651384
1258:22715882
1223:24948120
1161:26377554
1103:24023412
1077:: 1–11.
1047:22935971
995:21886562
916:25175865
854:24484974
768:See also
738:(OPCs).
553:Reflexes
424:necrosis
371:via the
3681:Outline
3651:Commons
3596:Therapy
3493:Medical
3056:Allergy
3024:Urology
2917:Surgery
2851:Commons
2264:science
2252:History
2247:Outline
2100:7446569
2051:7390932
2026:: 187.
1992:2858316
1943:8176079
1894:4401126
1837:2965399
1780:4222934
1724:4540232
1675:9405360
1616:3410819
1599:: 155.
1266:2309037
1214:4228377
1152:4573939
1094:3760105
1038:4011130
986:3137201
907:4418472
845:4103010
633:mucosal
513:in vivo
214:T cells
170:neurons
125:D015213
99:Details
91:neurons
61:(ROS),
3671:Portal
3538:MD–PhD
2587:fields
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1989:
1950:
1940:
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754:asthma
584:nerves
413:IL-1 β
390:IL-1 β
275:, and
105:System
81:) and
3253:Other
2262:Basic
2148:S2CID
1521:S2CID
1469:S2CID
1262:S2CID
758:cough
672:cough
394:IL-1R
336:TAAR1
327:GPR55
310:CXCR4
172:from
136:[
79:EAAT2
75:EAAT1
47:NF-ÎşB
2180:ISBN
2140:PMID
2105:PMID
2056:PMID
2038:ISSN
1997:PMID
1948:PMID
1899:PMID
1881:ISSN
1842:PMID
1824:ISSN
1785:PMID
1729:PMID
1680:PMID
1662:ISSN
1621:PMID
1547:ISBN
1513:PMID
1461:PMID
1426:PMID
1334:ISBN
1309:PMID
1301:ISSN
1254:PMID
1219:PMID
1157:PMID
1099:PMID
1075:2013
1043:PMID
991:PMID
940:help
912:PMID
892:ISBN
850:PMID
830:ISBN
570:The
519:and
507:and
458:and
440:P2X3
432:P2X7
212:and
188:and
180:and
164:and
156:and
148:The
120:MeSH
77:and
2987:ENT
2905:and
2132:doi
2128:178
2095:PMC
2087:doi
2046:PMC
2028:doi
1987:PMC
1979:doi
1938:PMC
1930:doi
1889:PMC
1873:doi
1832:PMC
1816:doi
1775:PMC
1767:doi
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1711:doi
1707:265
1670:PMC
1652:doi
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1601:doi
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1453:doi
1416:doi
1293:doi
1246:doi
1209:PMC
1201:doi
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1137:doi
1089:PMC
1079:doi
1033:PMC
1025:doi
981:PMC
973:doi
902:PMC
884:doi
840:PMC
822:doi
743:CNS
582:to
375:or
323:CB2
319:CB1
299:CNS
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